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PAAS 151 - Modern Chinese Culture

Course Paper: The Red Guards

Introduction

The Cultural Revolution is an event widely known around the world for its horrendous

impact upon the Chinese people from the ten year span 1966-1976. This destruction was

conducted by the youth followers of Mao Zedong, labelled Red Guards, who carried out Mao’s

mandate to “break the four olds — old ideas, old customs, old culture, and old habits” ; however, 1

what was considered to be old was ambiguous in meaning, and was open to interpretation by

these young Red Guards . The events of the Cultural Revolution commenced with students 2

breaking classroom windows and beating teachers in 1966 , this mandate made scenes of 3

violence and destruction against anything labelled ‘anti-Mao’ commonplace across China for

these ten years. Although the official number of deaths varies, an official statement issued by the

Communist Party of China in 1981 states that, “[the Cultural Revolution] was responsible for the

most severe setback and the heaviest losses suffered by the Party, the state and the people since

the founding of the People’s Republic” . This paper will firstly define who the Red Guard 4

Generation are demographically. Secondly, this paper will analyze the changing cultural

1 ​Mobo Gao, “Debating the Cultural Revolution: Do We Only Know What We Believe?”, ​Critical Asian Studies​ 34, 3 (2002), 425. 2 ​Thomas Heberer, “The “Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution”: China's modern trauma”, ​Journal of Modern Chinese History ​3, 2 (2009), 172. 3 ​Yixin Chen, “Lost in revolution and reform: The socioeconomic pains of China's red guards generation, 1966–1996”,​ Journal of Contemporary China​ 8, 21 (1999), 223. 4 ​Marxists, “Resolution on certain questions in the history of our party since the founding of the People’s Republic of China”, ​https://www.marxists.org/subject/china/documents/cpc/history/01.htm

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expectations that society experienced during the Cultural Revolution. During this time period,

many violent occurrences came to define this generation, as torture and destruction became a

daily scene upheld by the influence of Mao Zedong . Lastly, this paper will analyze what the 5

lasting cultural impacts the Red Guard generation has made upon China to this date. While

lasting damage was done to temples, art and literature, it was also done to this generation.

However, this event did produce the genre called ‘scar literature’ to express discontent over the

unsavoury portions of the Cultural Revolution being airbrushed away by party propaganda . 6

In order to address these main objectives this paper, multiple academic articles relating to

the Red Guards, the ‘Lost Generation’ and the Cultural Revolution will be analyzed; as well as a

short excerpt from an account of the actions undertaken by Red Guards called ‘scar literature’;

and lastly an academic article providing analysis on the genre of scar literature. The academic

articles will be used to give historical and cultural context, whereas the scar literature will

provide a source of cultural output created by those of the Red Guard generation.

Critical Analysis and Discussion

While the severity of the Cultural Revolution is contested, with some experts saying it

was “[a] hideous abuse of totalitarian power, perhaps second only to that of the Nazi period in

Germany” , this event is widely believed by historians to be Mao’s creation to usurp his political 7

enemies . However, in doing so, essential pieces of Chinese culture were changed. Mao’s 8

5 ​Chen, “Lost in revolution and reform”, 220. 6 ​Shenshen Cai, “Scar Literature reconsidered: Yan Geling's novels The Criminal Lu Yanshi and A Woman's Epic”, ​Social Semiotics 25​, 3 (March 2015), 322. 7 ​Julia F Andrews, “The art of the Cultural Revolution”, in Richard King (eds.), ​Art in turmoil: The Chinese Cultural Revolution 1966-76​, 27. 8 ​Andrews, ​Art in turmoil, ​30.

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directive not only destroyed Chinese art, historical buildings, and literature, but also the future of

a generation. This generation was the Red Guards themselves, who, because of carrying out

Mao’s mandate, created detriments against their own future. In doing so, they have become both

influenced and been an influencer on Chinese culture. The Red Guard generation consists of

approximately 27 million young people from urban areas, born between 1947 and 1959 . This 9

generation is widely labelled as a “Lost Generation”, due to the time they lost while being

‘re-educated’ in the countryside after the Red Guards were denounced by Mao . While not all of 10

the youths from this time period were sent to the countryside for reformation or participated in

the Red Guard movement of violence, the majority of members from this generation experienced

the many facets of the Cultural Revolution.

One of these facets was the change in cultural expectations, which started to occur under

the gaze of Mao Zedong. This change of values started to occur with the pre-Cultural Revolution

education that the majority of the Red Guard generation received, which made them susceptible

to follow Mao’s mandate which was in line with what they had learned in the classroom. This

education was vastly different from what the Red Guard generation’s predecessors had received.

Instead of focusing on sciences or math, this education instead focused mainly on subjects in the

humanities, arts, and social sciences ; as well as ideals such as “heroism, patriotism, altruism, 11

communist internationalism, some Confucianism” . An example of the ideals within this 12

9 ​Chen, “Lost in revolution and reform”, 221. 10 ​Lin, Qianhan, “Lost in Transformation? The Employment Trajectories of China's Cultural Revolution Cohort”, The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 646, (March 2013), 173. 11 ​Chen, “Lost in revolution and reform”, 238. 12 ​ibid., 222.

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generation, as a product of this education, can be seen in the General Secretary of the Chinese

Communist Party, Xi Jinping. While the Cultural Revolution is over, the ideals carried within

this generation are still present, as these ideals were so deeply integrated into their minds by the

education taught to this generation when they were youths . The messages of patriotism, 13

altruism, communist internationalism are all echoed in his policies today. From the China dream,

which promotes patriotism and altruism; to the One Belt One Road, which supports

internationalism, these policies showing the ideals held by creator. Overall this education

changed the Red Guard generation’s way of thinking, making the Red Guard generation

idealistic as well as susceptible to carry out the actions of the Cultural Revolution, as they truly

believed that their actions would bring light to a “great revolution” in China. 14

This belief that they were ‘bringing light’ to great change fueled the vast violence,

destruction and cruelty that plagued the ten years of the Cultural Revolution. Another cultural

norm during this time that was adjusted was the status structure regarding age. During this time

the youth held the power, not the educated aged elite. These youths of the Red Guard could

strike fear into others simply by reciting quotes from Mao, the mere threat of violence silencing

people of all ages . This fear of violence was not unfounded, as during this time many people 15

were persecuted for any possible reason, to be arrested, tortured or killed . While the Red Guard 16

movement was founded by Mao “to destroy the established order in China” , and many Red 17

13 ​ibid., idem. 14 ​Chen, “Lost in revolution and reform”, 222. 15 ​Heberer, “The ‘Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution’”, 172. 16 ​ibid., idem. 17 ​Juliana P Heaslet, “The Red Guards: Instruments of Destruction in the Cultural Revolution”, ​Asian Survey​ 12, 12 (December 1972), 1046.

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Guards did initially participate to follow Mao’s mandate, some red guard members did undertake

violent action to take matters into their own hands to further their own personal agendas and

grudges . An example of this pursual of a personal agenda can be seen in an excerpt of scar 18

literature which depicts the experience of a former red guard:

As soon as I was pressed into the room with the others, my nostrils were filled with the

stench of feces, urine, and unwashed bodies… Then I saw the accused woman. She was

perhaps in her forties, kneeling in the middle of the room, partly naked. . . Her hair was in

a mess, and part of it seemed to be matted with blood. Her eyes were bulging out in

desperation as she shrieked: ‘Red Guard Masters! I do not have a portrait of Chiang

Kai-shek! I swear I do not!’... The flesh on her back was covered with cuts and

bloodstains. I was so frightened that I quickly averted my eyes. Then I saw her tormentor,

a seventeen-year-old boy named Chian, whom up to now I had rather liked. He was

lounging in a chair with a leather belt in his hand, playing with its brass buckle.‘Tell the

truth, or I’ll hit you again,’ he said languidly...My feeble protest was echoed by several

voices in the room… Outside the door, I saw the woman informer with the ingratiating

eyes. . . As I glanced at her face, it dawned on me that there was no portrait of Chiang

Kai-shek. She had denounced the poor woman out of vindictiveness. The Red Guards

were being used to settle old scores. 19

18 ​Gao, “Debating the Cultural Revolution”, 423. 19 ​Jung Chang, ​Wild Swans: Three Daughters of China​ (2004), quoted in Thomas Heberer, “The ‘Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution’”, 172-173.

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Although this piece of scar literature is just one example of the many occurances like this

during the Cultural Revolution, it illustrates the mixed emotions held for wanting to be empathic

but ultimately clinging to self preservation because of the fear of the possible repercussions. It

depicts the “everyday life of terror” for many during this period of the Cultural Revolution , 20

where the power was held in the hands of youth Red Guard and the consequences for stepping

out of line were grim. This shift of power signaled that the Red Guards were practically

invincible with the support and protection of the government , even if only to pursue their own 21

personal vendettas in Mao’s name. The shift in morals and what was found to be culturally

acceptable during this time makes for a deeply troubled sense of self for those involved. A work

analyzing these events states, “The Cultural Revolution not only left millions dead, it also

crushed humanitarian values and defiled the sanctity of the human spirit… How can a people

which morally has fallen so deep ever rebound back?” . All of these actions can be traced back 22

to the foundational element of education the majority of the red guards received which was in

line with Mao’s mandate to remove the four olds. This belief that the actions being undertaken

were right and just and the change in social norms and ideals all lead to the commencement of 23

the horrendous events of the Cultural Revolution.

Another differing cultural norm, in comparison to other countries and cultures, was that

during and after the Cultural Revolution, the political outlets do not address the events for all that

20 ​Heberer, “The ‘Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution’”, 173. 21 ​Heberer, “The ‘Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution’”, 172. 22 ​Bo Yang, ​The Ugly Chinaman and the Crisis of Chinese Culture​ (1992), quoted in Thomas Heberer, “The ‘Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution’”, 180. 23 ​Chen, “Lost in revolution and reform”, 222.

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they entailed, instead only the positive outcomes are touted and praised by “camouflaging and

beautifying” the events that took place. These positives overlook the pain, suffering, and 24

horrors that occurred to many during this time. As well, the social norm of rectifying events after

a mass period of devastation was unlike other countries. In this event, no one was held

accountable for these actions by the state, nor no one to blame or stand trial besides the 25

scapegoated ‘gang of four’, whereas Mao is still held in high regard today.​ The subject of the

Cultural Revolution itself has also become a ‘persona non grata’ so to speak, as it is only

addressed by state leaders using “​euphemistic labels such as the ‘ten lost years’ and addressing it

in the most abstract terms.” . This has turned into the creation of a “ ​ cultural memory loss” 26 27

regarding the many unsavoury events that occured. This memory loss is set to be remedied by

scar literature; however, compared to the power of the state media, the power of scar literature

pales in comparison to reach an audience as wide as the population of China.

Finally, the cultural phenomena of spectatorship is showcased during this time period.

Widely shown in ‘scar literature’ pieces, these recounts depict the role of onlookers looking by

as extremely violent and heinous acts are committed, like in the account of Jung Chang above as

well as in various other works. Another example of scar literature can be seen in a work by the

author Yan Geling, where scenes of citizens watching others experience pain and suffering with

no move to help, instead watching with rabid fascination at someone other than themselves being

harmed. She states in one of her novels, ​“...the prisoners immediately rush to watch the event…

24 ​Cai, “Scar Literature reconsidered”, ​327. 25 ​Andrews, ​Art in turmoil, ​27. 26 ​ibid., idem. 27 ​Cai, “Scar Literature reconsidered”, ​327.

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Someone is enduring agony and punishment… Someone else instead is tortured and his skin is

split and his flesh breaks forth, so how lucky they are, being only the onlooker…” . ​This 28

depiction showcases the mindset within those who experienced these events during the Cultural

Revolution, which shows the “coldness, and numbness of the Chinese mass” while watching as 29

their fellow compatriots experience suffering over a long span of time ​. This long exposure to an

“everyday life of terror and arbitrariness” became deeply ​integrated into the mindset of the 30

affected Red Guard generation​. These events serve as a vivid reminder that will be mentally

carried into the future to always be a “rule-obeying spectator” rather than an activist. While this 31

‘bystander syndrome’ is not unique to China, because of these events, China has gained a

perspective in the minds of many that getting involved means making yourself a target.

However, because of this, some sources state that even those who did not physically commit

these acts still “were to some extent the ​assailants” by allowing the events to unfold. 32

Conclusion

Overall, the Red Guard generation is seen to be both influenced by Chinese culture, as

well as an influencer of Chinese culture. The education this generation received under Mao

served as the foundation for these events, and Mao’s mandate was the explosive catalyst which

unleashed the violent events that spanned the Cultural Revolution. The cultural production of

scar literature by former red guards shows the repressed pain and anguish still needing to be

expressed about the events that occurred. This genre also showcases the phenomenon of

28 ​ibid., ​330. 29 ​Cai, “Scar Literature reconsidered”, 330. 30 ​Heberer, “The ‘Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution’”, 173. 31 ​Cai, “Scar Literature reconsidered”, 330. 32 ​ibid., idem.

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spectatorship, which we discussed briefly in class as prominent feature of Chinese society today.

The events of the Cultural Revolution give the people of that experienced the events a vivid and

traumatic standpoint in which to view the world as well as shape how Chinese culture was

shaped, and still is shaped today because of their past experiences. This is important, because

even though China possesses a vast and expansive cultural fabric that spans across thousands of

years, and the phenomena of the Red Guards and the ‘Lost Generation’ is a minuscule portion of

this background, it is nonetheless a pivotal factor in understanding the nation identity of China

and how Chinese culture exists today.

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Reference List

Andrews, Julia F, “The art of the Cultural Revolution”, in Richard King (eds.), ​Art in turmoil: The Chinese Cultural Revolution 1966-76​, Vancouver: UBC Press, 2010.

Cai, Shenshen, “Scar Literature reconsidered: Yan Geling's novels The Criminal Lu Yanshi and A Woman's Epic”, ​Social Semiotics 25 ​, 3 (March 2015), 322-341.

Chen, Yixin, “Lost in revolution and reform: The socioeconomic pains of China's red guards generation, 1966–1996”, ​Journal of Contemporary China​ 8, 21 (1999), 219-239.

Gao, Mobo, “Debating the Cultural Revolution: Do We Only Know What We Believe?”, Critical

Asian Studies ​ 34, 3 (2002), 419-434.

Heaslet, Juliana P, “The Red Guards: Instruments of Destruction in the Cultural Revolution”, Asian Survey​ 12, 12 (December 1972), 1032-1047.

Heberer, Thomas, “The “Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution”: China's modern trauma”, Journal of Modern Chinese History ​3, 2 (2009), 165-181.

Lin, Qianhan, “Lost in Transformation? The Employment Trajectories of China's Cultural Revolution Cohort”, ​The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science ​ 646, (March 2013), 172-193.

Marxists, “Resolution on certain questions in the history of our party since the founding of the People’s Republic of China”, https://www.marxists.org/subject/china/documents/cpc/history/01.htm​, accessed November 22nd 2017.

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