Psych

Article

Nurture Is Nature: Integrating Brain Development, Systems Theory, and Attachment Theory

Dixie Meyer 1 , Sara Wood

2 , and Bethany Stanley

3

Abstract Addressing both biological processes (nature) and interpersonal processes (nurture) occurring within the infant/caregiver relationship, early human development is reviewed from three perspectives: neurobiology, systems theory, and attachment theory. Utilizing a case illustration to apply the reviewed theories, it is postulated that the integration of neurobiological development, systems theory, and attachment theory substantiates the proposition that nurture is nature.

Keywords neurobiology, systems theory, attachment theory, attunement, neurobiological development

The dichotomous concept of nature versus nurture has histori-

cally been discussed throughout the social and behavioral

sciences. At the core of this debate is the question of whether

social or biological influences are the best predictors of how

an individual’s personality and behavior patterns will form.

The answer to that question has often been dependent upon the

profession with which one most identifies. Physicians may

argue that our genetic and biological composition defines our

behaviors and psychological functioning; however, a counselor

may argue that our social support network and culture are better

predictors of our behaviors and psychological functioning.

While both are valid arguments, perhaps, the answer to this

age-old question is really that environmental stimuli are intro-

duced when the brain is forming and thus, influential in the

development of the human brain.

An individual’s biology or genetic composition was origi-

nally thought to be predetermined. However, Varela, Maturana,

and Uribe (1974) posited a simultaneous effect concluding that

species in a system mutually affect one another. This early

hypothesis laid the groundwork for advancements in neurobiol-

ogy. As developmental neurobiologists examined the brain,

research indicated that, at birth, the brain was not fully devel-

oped. This biological underdevelopment of the brain allows the

environment to influence development. As the environment

influences the development of the infant brain, the interactions

between the infant and the caregiver build the foundation for

psychological functioning (Madigan, Morgan, Schuengel,

Pederson, & Otten, 2007). Responses to stimuli later in life are

dependent upon how the infant learns to respond when interact-

ing with the caregiver. This idea does not negate the idea that

genetic factors predicting personality and temperament shape

psychological responses. But rather, it suggests that these early

social experiences also become ingrained into the biological

development of the infant (Siegel, 1999). As this process

occurs, the infant’s neurobiology reflects the relationship

between the infant and his or her caregiver. Thus, the neuro-

biology and psychological functioning of any individual could

be described as a result of the systematic interaction between

genetic composition and social influences.

Counselors are encouraged to view and conceptualize their

clients from a holistic perspective. Counselors are often trained

in both systems and attachment theory; yet, lack a strong neu-

robiological foundation for conceptualizing both systems and

attachment theory. Therefore, it may be difficult for counselors

to implement current and cutting edge neurobiological research

related to client functioning without the integration of tradi-

tional counseling theories. The purpose of this article is to

explore how environmental factors alter the psychological

functioning of an individual from the ‘‘nurture is nature’’

perspective. This article will review emotional brain develop-

ment during infancy from birth until approximately age 2. It

is during the early years when the infant learns emotional

responses and from birth, individuals are capable of forming

1 Department of Counseling and Family Therapy, Saint Louis University, St.

Louis, MO, USA 2 Department of School Psychology and Counseling, Regent University, Virginia

Beach, VA, USA 3 Regent University, Chesapeake, VA, USA

Corresponding Author:

Dixie Meyer, Department of Counseling and Family Therapy, Saint Louis

University, 221 North Grand Blvd, Saint Louis, MO 63103, USA.

Email: dr.dixie.meyer@gmail.com

The Family Journal: Counseling and Therapy for Couples and Families 21(2) 162-169 ª The Author(s) 2013 Reprints and permission: sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav DOI: 10.1177/1066480712466808 tfj.sagepub.com

emotional memories (Sprenger, 2008). This article will also

review systems theory as well as suggest that attachment theory

may be the best description of both the systemic and biological

influences on an individual. A case illustration is provided in

order to understand direct application of neurobiological, sys-

temic, and attachment influences.

Systems Theory

Recognizing the biological and interpersonal processes occur-

ring during the early years of human development, applying

systems theory may explain the concept that nurture is nature.

Systems theory evolved from an assortment of ideas (e.g., gen-

eral systems theory and cybernetics) that initially emerged in

the 1940s as a response to current scientific trends focused

on reductionism and isolation of elementary units (Gray &

Rizzo, 1969). Von Bertalanffy (1972) sought to promote unifi-

cation and a focus on the ‘‘whole’’ versus the individual, thus

placing greater emphasis on organization rather than reduction

among the sciences. He developed general systems theory as

‘‘a logico-mathematical field, the subject matter of which is the

formulation and deduction of those principles that are valid for

‘systems’ in general’’ (von Bertalanffy, 1950, p. 139). A system

was defined as interacting elements that could be animate or

inanimate (Gray & Rizzo, 1969). Within this new theory, von

Bertalanffy created a new way of relationally conceptualizing

human behavior as systemic processes and patterns (Canfield,

2007). For the first time, the individual was seen in the context

of a larger, dynamic system that could evolve, adapt to environ-

mental stimuli, and engage in self-preservation (Griffin &

Greene, 1999; von Bertalanffy, 1968).

Building upon general systems theory, Varela et al. (1974)

addressed autopoietic organization. Autopoietic organization

places a specific focus on living organisms in a system as one

entity acting in a recursive nature with all the components in

the network. This concept provided the foundation for commu-

nication theories, which recognize that changes within the

system affect the system as a whole. Researchers of communi-

cations theories at the Mental Research Institute fused systems

theories with principles of cybernetics (Griffin & Greene,

1999). Cybernetics focused on the integration of mechanistic

principles to understand human communication processes and

the exchange of information (Wiener, 1948). Out of their

research, evolved a communications model that views the

family as a system of interactions between individual family

members that function to allow the exchange of information

within the system (Griffin & Greene, 1999).

Systems Theory Basic Concepts

Humans are systems (von Bertalanffy, 1969). They have spe-

cific systemic properties: (a) wholeness and order, which refers

to the concept that the ‘‘whole is greater than the sum of its

parts’’ (Cox & Paley, 1997, p. 245); (b) hierarchical structure,

which refers to the idea that systems are actually a compilation

of subsystems; (c) adaptive self-stabilization, which refers to a

system’s preference and actions to maintain homeostasis or

equilibrium; and (d) adaptive self-organization, which

describes the capability of systems to adapt and change in

response to environmental conditions (Cox & Paley, 1997).

Operating within these principles, systems theorists have noted

several basic concepts (circular causality, homeostasis, and

positive feedback) associated with these systems.

Circular causality. In the earlier ages of science, an ‘‘if-then’’ approach of linear causality was assumed in biological, medi-

cal, and technological sciences (von Bertalanffy, 1969). From

this perspective, if you put a pot of water on a hot plate, then

it will boil, or if you administer medicine to a sick person, then

the person could expect to improve. However, system theorists

questioned this concept’s application due to the lack of control

of external variables in other sciences such as psychology. For

example, a child’s decision to disobey his parent’s instruction

could be influenced by a variety of factors (e.g., prior learning

that the parent is not consistent with punishment, the child’s

limited cognitive development, peer pressure, etc.). In other

words, it was recognized that human behavior, as occurring

in a system of human relationships, could be both cause and

effect, or antecedent and consequence (Griffin & Greene,

1999). In infant development, circular causality can be

observed in the example of infantile cooing. Although the

infant coo may initially be governed solely by biological

mechanisms, it may evoke positive reinforcement from the

infant’s caregiver. The infant cooing may bring the caregiver

near. Eventually, positive reactions of the caregiver will also

elicit the infant to coo when the infant desires the caregiver.

As social and biological development occurs, it may become

increasingly difficult to distinguish cause and effect in the

infant/caregiver relationship, and it is possible that caregiver/

infant responses influence one another.

Homeostasis. From a systemic perspective, living organisms prefer to operate in a state of equilibrium or homeostasis (Yar-

house & Sells, 2008). Homeostasis occurs when all opposing

variables within the system exist in a state of balance (Miller,

1969). For a human system, homeostasis refers to ‘‘the relative

constancy of the system’s steady state’’ (Griffin & Greene,

1999, p. 54) and is often considered the state of normalcy

regardless of whether it is healthy or unhealthy. To maintain

homeostasis, the system creates and enforces rules for estab-

lished behavioral patterns (Griffin & Greene, 1999). For

instance, in family relationships, tension can be used as an

intervention to not upset the homeostasis of the family system.

If a child’s behavior produces tension in a parent, then the child

may learn that the behavior should not be displayed or the child

will feel the tense environment. Throughout life, family mem-

bers learn what behaviors are appropriate or inappropriate to

maintain the preferred state, free of tension.

Feedback. The term feedback refers to the communication process within the system that function to maintain homeosta-

sis (Miller, 1969). As parts of a system interact, they create

Meyer et al. 163

what are called feedback loops, or in communication terms, a

self-reflexive double interact (Fisher, 1975). In human relation-

ships, there is often a feedback loop that occurs within a family

system where one system’s input is the other system’s output

and vice versa (Kim, 1975). These feedback loops can be pos-

itive or negative and either maintain or change the system’s

homeostatic state. Negative feedback is any communication

that maintains homeostasis, such as a thermostat engaging the

air conditioning to maintain a set temperature (Kim, 1975;

Miller, 1969). Positive feedback is any communication that dis-

rupts the current homeostatic state, such as setting the thermo-

stat at a different temperature and the associated heating unit

activating to adapt to the new homeostatic state (Kim, 1975).

For an infant and caregiver, feedback loops help the infant

determine which behaviors and emotions are appropriate.

When the infant receives a stern voice or furrowed brow for

crying, a negative feedback loop is established between infant

and caregiver to maintain a peaceful, happy homeostasis.

Brain Development

At birth, the human brain is not fully developed. Certain areas

are fully developed or hardwired, including areas that regulate

bodily functions associated with survival, such as breathing and

regulating heartbeats. Other areas of the brain, such as the cor-

tex are soft wired or capable of change. It might be useful to

imagine these areas of the brain as clay. While clay might hold

a certain form, it could easily be manipulated. The clay could

be the genetic influence on the brain and the manipulation the

environmental influence on the brain. Thus, the brain is not

only biologically determined, it can be molded and adapted

from environmental influences (Huttenlocher, 1994). The envi-

ronment is vital to development. For example, during instances

of severe neglect or exposure to a socially isolated environ-

ment, areas of the brain (e.g., prefrontal cortex and limbic

system) may be atrophied (Joseph, 1999).

At birth, there is a basic organization of the brain or regions

predetermined for specific functions. For example, all individ-

uals have a language center and an emotion center. However,

the environment affects how the language center and emotion

center will develop. When an infant is born, biologically, he

or she is capable of speaking any language, but because of the

environment, will speak the language heard. This concept also

translates to our emotions. Infants have the capacity to experi-

ence any emotion and the potential for developing the ability to

regulate emotions. However, how easily one may learn to reg-

ulate his or her emotions is dependent upon what was learned

from the primary caregiver. The brain is malleable. It is not

limited by genetics, but rather supplies a model for how the

brain will be organized.

At birth, the infant brain is approximately two thirds of the

physical size of the adult brain, yet only about 25% of the volume of the adult brain (Weyandt, 2006). By the end of

the second year, the brain becomes 75% of the volume of the adult brain (Berger, 2005). The increase in volume is due to

such things as neuron maturation, increased connections

between the neurons, and increased myelination (the substance

that insulates the axon of the neuron; Weyandt, 2006). Devel-

opment of the brain in early life, after birth, typically consists

of forming new neural circuitry in such areas as the right hemi-

sphere and limbic system. The brain develops the regions of the

brain devoted to survival prior to birth, then develops the emo-

tion center, and the final area of development in the brain is the

cortex or cognitive center of the brain (Cain, 2006). In fact, the

cortex continues to develop until individuals are in their 20s

(Siegel, 2007). Throughout the development process, our

emotions and cognitions are heavily influenced by what we

learn from our environment and the environmental influences

set our neural circuitry.

Right Hemisphere

The brain is divided into the right hemisphere and the left

hemisphere. In the first 18 months of life, the development

of the right hemisphere exceeds the left hemisphere and

individuals are mostly processing information out of the right

hemisphere (Trevarthen, 2009). Though this list is not exhaus-

tive, the right hemisphere is associated with: interpersonal

relationships, nonverbal communication, attachment, mean-

ing, procedural memory, bodily awareness, motor memory,

emotional memory, sensations, emotional awareness and

experiences, visuospatial awareness, pattern recognition,

impulses, autobiographical information, social awareness,

and emotional empathy (Siegel, 1999). Schore (1997) sug-

gested that negative emotions are processed in the right hemi-

sphere and positive emotions are processed in the left

hemisphere; yet, Siegel (1999) indicated that more intense

emotions, such as joy or rage, are experienced in the right

hemisphere. Doi (1973) reported that the right hemisphere

is responsible for intuitive reactions and Siegel (1999)

reported that the left hemisphere is primarily associated with

logic and language. Siegel further noted that the left

hemisphere dominates in external awareness, perception, and

action whereas the right hemisphere dominates in internal

awareness, perception, and action.

It is imperative to provide a clear distinction between the

two hemispheres to understand how infants and toddlers pro-

cess information as well as understand how these areas of the

brain develop and influence emotional health. As noted

through this review of right hemisphere functions, it can be

expected that how one develops and, later in life, processes

internal thoughts and feelings, as well as interprets social and

emotional cues from oneself and others, are all strongly influ-

enced by the environmental stimuli experienced in the first few

years of life. Again, right hemisphere development takes place

when the cortex, which controls cognition, and the left hemi-

sphere, which controls logic, are not fully formed. Thus, emo-

tional development and emotional experiences are not as easily

interpreted through logic and cognitive processes. This could

explain why individuals often have difficulty matching cogni-

tive and emotional processing. In other words, why some indi-

viduals are not sure why they feel a certain way.

164 The Family Journal: Counseling and Therapy for Couples and Families 21(2)

Limbic System

The etiology of emotional development follows a progression.

According to Berger (2005), distress and contentment are

expressed at birth. Izard (1982) reported that infants progres-

sively learn to distinguish between pleasant and unpleasant

feelings before experiencing more distinct emotions, such as

sadness. As infants engage more socially with others, emotions

become more refrained and may, in addition to having an intra-

personal focus, have an interpersonal focus (Trevarthen, 2009).

For example, Trevarthen (2009) noted that as early as 6

months, infants may display such emotions as pride or shame.

The ability to learn and process emotions would not be possible

without the development of the limbic system, including the

prefrontal cortex. The limbic system (including such areas as

the hippocampus, amygdala, and the cingulate gyrus) is consid-

ered the emotion center of the brain. It is located in the center of

the brain and above areas associated with survival and bodily

regulations. The limbic system is associated with memory,

learning, motivation such as sexual motivation or hunger,

attachment to others, and emotions. This region governs the

extent to which we experience positive or negative emotions,

our emotional memory, and our emotional motivations.

The emotion center is soft wired and heavily influenced by

the environment. Weyandt (2006) noted that subcortical areas

experience rapid growth in the first 6 months. This is primarily

due to myelination of the neurons. Increased myelination is

associated with increased processing speed of the neurons.

Even though the hippocampus (an area associated with mem-

ory and stress) begins the maturation of the myelination process

in the first month of life (Meier, Brauer, Heimrich, Nitsch, &

Savaskan, 2004), there are increases in myelination reported

in this region throughout the life span (Benes, Trutle, Khan,

& Farol, 1994). In the first year of life, the amygdala (an area

where we process emotions such as fear and anger) will reach

myelination maturation, whereas the cingulate gyrus (where we

regulate somatic processes and responses) will continue to

develop into the first few years of life (Joseph, 1999). Simi-

larly, the septal areas (where we experience pleasure) also do

not reach mature stages until after the first few years of life

(Joseph, 1999). The growth in myelination and increased

processing speed of the neurons better equips these areas to

facilitate their intended tasks. Because of this rapid growth,

infants and toddlers can learn such emotions as happiness and

sadness from their relationships with their primary caregivers.

Prefrontal cortex. The prefrontal cortex is the bridge between the cortex or cognitive area of the brain and the limbic system.

The prefrontal cortex, located behind the eyes and forehead, is

where the limbic system extends into the cortex. It is specifi-

cally responsible for body regulation, empathy, attunement

with another individual, emotion regulation, morality, intui-

tion, self-awareness, emotional and behavioral reactions

flexibility, and fear modulation (Siegel, 2007). Thus, the pre-

frontal cortex enhances the cognitive understanding of how

we experience, appraise, and regulate our emotions.

The prefrontal cortex continues to develop into the third

decade of life; however, there are significant changes that take

place in the first years of life. The changes likely explain why

individuals begin basic regulation of their own emotions early

on and are not completely reliant on the caregiver for emotion

regulation. Fuster (2008) noted that neurotransmitters associ-

ated with focus, attention, and memory continue to increase

in levels until around age 3 before decreasing to adult levels.

The presence of neurotransmitters associated with learning

suggests that brain activity is focused on development. This

implies that in these early years of life, learning is dependent

upon interactions with the environment, including relational

interactions. The presence of neurotransmitters translates to

communication between the neurons. Thus, when the infant

interacts with the environment, it stimulates the interactions

between the neurons. Webb, Monk, and Nelson (2001) reported

rapid dendrite (part of the neuron that receives messages from

other neurons) growth between the neurons in the prefrontal

cortex in the first year of life. Synapses, or the connections

between the neurons, also experience a rapid growth. In fact,

there is an overabundance in synaptic growth that will peak

around age 6 before pruning the neuronal connections (Hutten-

locher, 1994). Pruning is decreasing the number of neurons or

neuronal connections. It is dependent upon the environment

and what neuronal connections are frequently utilized. Connec-

tions that are not continually used will be pruned.

Integration of neurobiology and emotional development. In order to develop the limbic area, including the prefrontal cortex,

infants need consistent physical, emotional, and social contact

with the primary caregiver. In fact, infants are biologically

determined to display motor behaviors that will engage others

(Bowlby, 1969; Schore, 1997; Trevarthen, 2009). For example,

in the first few months of life, infants do not smile as a result of

pleasant feelings, but it is instead more like a reflex and motor

behavior. The right hemisphere facilitates bonding between the

infant and caregiver by directing motor behaviors that have a

high probability of eliciting caregiver attention (Schore,

2000, 2009). These behaviors serve to keep the caregiver in

close proximity to the infant. This facilitates bonding and, in

return, develops the limbic system. In fact, contact between the

infant and primary caregiver is so important that lack of social

contact between the infant and caregiver may result in death of

the infant (Joseph, 1999).

Interpersonal processes (nurture) are essential for physical

processes (nature) to occur. We are born with few emotions;

therefore, emotions must be learned (Izard, 1982). Infants

witness emotions before they experience them. The caregiver

shares his or her emotions with the infant and the infant physi-

cally feels that emotion, but is unable to identify the emotion.

The infant sees the caregiver’s facial expressions and physical

behaviors displayed when experiencing the emotion and begins

to associate those behaviors with that particular feeling (Siegel,

1999). Ideally, the primary caregiver displays a comprehensive

array of emotions for the infant to learn. As the limbic system

continues to develop, the infant learns these emotions on his or

Meyer et al. 165

her own and is able to display the emotions at appropriate

times.

The infant also experiences emotions the caregiver identi-

fies. The caregiver initially helps the infant regulate his or her

own emotions through activities like cuddling or soothing talk.

Then, dependent upon the situation, the toddler learns how to

soothe himself or herself. For example, the toddler may learn

that a gentle rocking motion is soothing. Through the develop-

ment of the prefrontal cortex, the individual learns to regulate

his or her own emotions. Therefore, emotional development is

an interpersonal process facilitated by the development of the

limbic system and integrated into our neuronal circuitry.

Attachment Theory

At the beginning of life, the infant first experiences the family

system in the relationship with the primary caregiver. Attach-

ment theory (Bowlby, 1969, 1973, & 1980) postulated that all

individuals have an innate, biological drive to bond with

another individual. Infants in isolation are vulnerable and help-

less. From an evolutionary perspective, this internal, biological

drive to attach to the caregiver allows the infant to elicit

responses from the caregiver that are essential for the infant’s

survival (Bowlby, 1988). There is an interconnected relation-

ship between the infant and primary caregiver in whom the

infant is predisposed to form a bond of affection and to experi-

ence distress when separated from that caregiver. From this

biological drive, the infant displays behaviors to establish this

bond and the caregiver, through biological influences like the

hormone oxytocin, is driven to bond with the infant (Acker-

man, 1994). Biology and the interactions in the interpersonal

relationship are fundamental in understanding attachment the-

ory. Thus, attachment theory may be the best framework for

integrating neurobiological development and systems theory

utilizing a nurture is nature perspective.

Attunement

Attunement is considered a necessary component of a secure

attachment to another individual (Meyer, 2011). It is a process

where the caregiver mirrors the emotional expression of the

child in the expression’s shape, strength, and duration (Haft

& Slade, 1989; Stern, Hofer, Haft, & Doer, 1985). Attunement

is a vital mode of communicating empathy from the caregiver

and informing the child of the caregiver’s emotional availabil-

ity (Haft & Slade, 1989). In the attunement process, the infant’s

emotional development is shaped by the caregiver’s responses

to certain emotions, and the infant comes to understand that

some affective experience is not to be shared (Haft & Slade,

1989). The caregiver’s reactions to emotions become the way

the child creates personal connections and understands which

expressions are allowed and sharable.

Bowlby (1988) saw the ability to form attachment bonds

and attuning with others as imperative to one’s mental health

and social adjustment. Expectations about how available and

responsive attachment figures are and one’s perception of one’s

own goodness and worthiness of love are founded in these early

developmental attachment experiences (Lopez, 1995). It is

these first attachments that teach the child about the social

world and influence the way he or she sees himself or herself

and others. The early experiences set the relational tone for the

individual’s life. Hooper (2007) stated that relationships later

in life may be contingent upon the infant caregiver relationship.

Hooper further noted that establishing a secure base or a

consistent bond of trust and well-being may contribute to pos-

itive relationships in adulthood and that separation from the

caregiver or an attachment bond without trust and love between

the infant and caregiver may produce lasting, devastating out-

comes for the child. Disruptions to the attachment process may

alter psychosocial functioning (Madigan et al., 2007).

Attachment Styles

Bowlby (1969, 1973, & 1980) began the exploration into the

quality of the relationship between infants and their caregivers.

The nature of one’s attachment in infancy seems to remain

stable over one’s lifetime (Ainsworth & Bell, 1970) and is con-

sidered a vital construct in an individual’s social development.

Reaffirming the biological basis of the infant/caregiver connec-

tion and its role in survival, Ainsworth and Bell (1970) defined

attachment as ‘‘an affectional tie that one person or animal

forms between himself and another specific one—a tie that

binds them together in space and endures over time’’ (p. 50).

From this view, the bond of attachment is not time limited and

links the two.

Ainsworth and Bell (1970) contributed the empirical sup-

port for Bowlby’s conceptualization of attachment through the

strange situation experiment, where infants and caregivers

were observed in various situations. Caregivers and infants

aged 12–18 months were in a room when a stranger joins them.

The reminder of the experiment involves both the stranger and

caregiver leaving at various times, sometimes leaving the

infant alone or with only the infant and stranger together. At

the end of the experiment, the infant and caregiver are alone

in the room. Ainsworth and Bell observed the infant’s behavior

toward the caregiver throughout the experiment.

Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters, and Wall (1978) named and

characterized the first three attachment patterns as anxious

avoidant, secure, and anxious resistant. In the anxious avoidant

group, the infants engaged in exploration while their mothers

were absent and actively avoided their mothers when they

returned. They showed no preference between the stranger and

caregiver. Additionally, they avoided the caregiver when put

down after holding. The secure group consisted of infants

who behaved as if the caregiver was a secure base for explor-

ing. The caregiver’s departure upset them. After being sepa-

rated from the caregiver, they readily sought reunion and

were calmed by the return. In general, they demonstrated little

resistance or avoidance. Anxious resistant infants struggled

with both the separation to explore and the reuniting after

absence. Essentially, they would pursue as well as resist contact

with their caregivers. Main and Solomon (1986) offered a

166 The Family Journal: Counseling and Therapy for Couples and Families 21(2)

fourth style, the disorganized–disoriented group. These infants

appeared confused and apprehensive when they were reunited

with their caregivers, as though they were conflicted. For this

style, the affect was changeable and depressed. It is thought

that each person will develop one of these attachment styles.

The behaviors repeating in the infant/caregiver relationship

are ingrained into the neurobiology of the individual. Due to

the timing of the learning, these behaviors are integrated into

the right hemisphere and prefrontal cortex associated with

interpersonal relationships and social functioning as well as the

limbic system associated with emotions. How individuals

process and regulate their emotions will be integrated into the

functioning of the prefrontal cortex. Individuals not represent-

ing the secure style may experience distress, confusion, or

avoidance with those to whom they are closest. When these

individuals are upset, they may have difficulty turning to others

for consoling and thus, causing more psychological disruptions

during a troublesome time. These individuals may not be able

to trust or feel comfortable relaying on others. They may have

difficulty attuning with others or mirroring the emotional state

of others. In return, others may also feel the insecurity in the

relationship causing the attachment styles to be pervasive. The

interactions in the relationships reflect a circular pattern of

behaviors.

Case Illustration

Let us look at an example of an individual growing up in a

home where the father works and the mother stays home with

the baby (the individual). This is a violent home where the

father engages in violent behaviors toward the mother. This

is the homeostasis. The mother, the subject of the violence, is

depressed. The mother displays depressive behaviors:

depressed mood, excessive crying, disengagement from others,

lack of energy, and apathy toward others and pleasant situa-

tions. When anticipating the father’s return home from work,

the mother becomes hyperaroused and displays anxious beha-

viors: increased heart rate and breathing, increased irritability,

increased motor behaviors, and restlessness. The behaviors

displayed by both parents mutually affect one another. The

father returns home from work and feeling the tension in the

home also becomes tense. The father acts on his stress with

physical violence toward the mother. This reinforces the moth-

er’s depressed mood and anxious behaviors, thus, supplying the

feedback that maintains the homeostasis.

These interactions within the system lead to an established

pattern of attachment. Initially, the infant would cry to attract

the attention of the mother; however, the mother was not con-

sistently responsive to the infant’s distress. The mother does

not have the energy to give the attention to the infant that is

needed for a secure attachment to develop. The infant learns

that consistent caregiving will not occur and decreases

attention-seeking behaviors. Based on the interactions with the

mother, the infant develops an anxious avoidant attachment

style. Furthermore, witnessing the mother’s mood, the infant

learns that displays of depressive symptoms are the norm. The

infant also observes the stress response displayed by the mother

when anticipating the father’s return home and learns to fear

the father. The infant feels the hyperaroused stress response

from both parents leading to the physical violence as well.

As an infant and toddler, the right hemisphere dominates the

thought process; thus, left hemisphere logic is not present. The

right hemisphere and the limbic system, including the prefron-

tal cortex, are responsible for emotions, emotion regulation,

and emotional and procedural memories. The interactions

between the individual and the caregivers influence the devel-

opment of the brain including the psychological health of this

individual. The infant is witnessing depressed mood and a lack

of positive emotions. Thus, the individual will not as easily dis-

play positive emotions because those emotions were not promi-

nent when emotional learning initially occurred. In addition,

the infant is witnessing and experiencing a hyperaroused stress

response on a regular basis. Similar to when we exercise on a

regular basis and our muscles strengthen, the connections

between the neurons associated with anxiety and hyperarousal

will strengthen. This makes it easier for the individual to go

into an anxious state, regardless of whether or not an anxious

response is appropriate. Furthermore, because these patterns

were established in the brain during development, it will be

harder to break these patterns later in life and integrate new pat-

terns. These patterns were not formed when the infant could

logically understand the situation, and therefore, he or she will

not be able to interpret the context into the memory. Instead,

these patterns become part of the typical emotional response

and integrated into the developing neural circuitry. As illu-

strated in this case study, the nurture component extrapolated

from systems theory and the nature component of brain devel-

opment are interwoven in attachment theory. The resulting

symbiosis of these three theories substantiates the concept that

nurture is nature.

Implications for Counselors

Adopting a nurture is nature perspective has several implica-

tions for counselors. First, this perspective creates a new under-

standing of a holistic approach to counseling in which natural

and nurturing influences such as emotions learned from one’s

caregivers are viewed in relation to current psychological func-

tioning. Thus, counselors should assess the neurobiological

influences on the client, as a component of their holistic view

of clients. Counselors may appraise clients’ emotional develop-

ment by measuring such constructs as affect regulation. Affect

regulation skills are a demonstration of prefrontal cortex and

limbic functioning. Counselors may want to include experien-

tial activities that will elicit emotions and allow clients to

process their emotions. Responses by clients may indicate if

improvement in affect regulation skills is needed. In addition,

counselors may influence the client’s current psychological

functioning by applying the attachment concepts into the coun-

seling relationship. Specifically, what may improve psycholo-

gical functioning is the formation of a secure attachment

between counselor and client (Meyer, 2011) that may allow the

Meyer et al. 167

client to form new affect patterns in a safe environment. The

counselor will want to attune to the client and be mindful to

demonstrate emotional mirroring and empathy. The counselor,

as the surrogate caregiver, can model more healthy affect

patterns that the client can learn.

This perspective also recognizes that some client issues may

reflect patterns developed during infancy. Specifically, when

patterns are learned in infancy these patterns were acquired

prior to full hippocampal development and when the right

hemisphere was dominating cognitive functioning. Therefore,

these memories will not be accessible via explicit memory or

with cognitive knowledge of development. This suggests that

exploring the etiology of the emotional functioning may prove

to be futile because the client did not have the cognitive

abilities during the learning period to understand the basis for

the behavior. Instead, counselors should investigate what emo-

tional patterns are beneficial for the client and what patterns are

no longer useful. Likewise, the neural wiring from this period

may be more difficult to change compared to neural wiring

developed later. Therefore, while not impossible, adapting

neural wiring set in early development may be laborious or

require more time to complete. Thus, counseling may require

more time for goal obtainment and the counselor and client

should be prepared for additional sessions.

Finally, this perspective suggests that what clients learned

from their primary caregivers, such as displays of emotions,

affect regulation, and emotional processing were solidified

early in life and affirm the responsibility of the primary care-

giver. Accordingly, counselors could use this perspective as

an educational tool for new parents as to the importance of nat-

ural and nurturing influences to both current and future psycho-

logical functioning. If childcare is an area of concern for clients

who are also parents, parenting classes or sessions specifically

focused on bonding with children may be necessary. Counse-

lors may, also, use this model to educate adult clients on how

their past is currently affecting their present. Clients may be

relieved to know that their relationship patterns are reflective

of early relationships. This also may alter treatment considera-

tions. Clients with a history of traumas or clients who did not

bond with their primary caregiver, may need to learn how to

connect with others and appropriate relational behaviors.

Conclusion

This article integrated the traditionally opposing constructs of

nature versus nurture into a holistic perspective of client devel-

opment in which nurture is nature. Applying systems and

attachment theory throughout early brain development, clini-

cians can observe the process and consequences of nurture is

nature (e.g., affect regulation). Clinicians are encouraged to uti-

lize this perspective to more effectively conceptualize client

concerns, to form secure attachments with clients, to create

treatment plans that address specific client concerns dependent

upon both natural and nurturing factors (e.g., relational goals),

and to educate clients on healthy ways they can employ the nur-

ture is nature perspective to influence future generations.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to

the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, author-

ship, and/or publication of this article.

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