Art & History Appreciation
17th century art in Europe
Chapter 14
Slide 1 17th Century Art in Europe In art history, the 16th century sees the styles we call the High Renaissance followed by Mannerism, and—at the end of the century—the emergence of the Baroque style. Naturally, these styles are all shaped by historical forces, the most significant being the Protestant Reformation’s successful challenge to the spiritual and political power of the Church in Rome. For the history of art this has particular significance since the use (and abuse) of images was the topic of debate. In fact, many images were attacked and destroyed during this period, a phenomenon called iconoclasm.
Slide 2 Map of Europe in the 17th century
Slide 3 The Baroque Period in Italy Started in Rome As a reaction to the Protestant Reformation Also in reaction to Mannerism
The Baroque period is also referred to as the Age of Expansion, especially in the arts. Patron Popes of the Baroque period included: Paul V Urban VIII
Innocent X The art of seventeenth-century Europe is traditionally referred to as Baroque. Derived from the Portuguese and Italian words barocco, meaning an irregularly shaped pearl, it is a problematic term because it is too generic in describing the complex global events and diverse artistic traditions of the era. The word was used disparagingly in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries based on the misperception that the art and architecture lacked the grace and substance of the High Renaissance art and instead was overly theatrical and superficial. The negative connotations of the word have faded and now the term can be used in a more neutral way.
Slide 4 Roman Catholic Church supported Baroque art style in response to the Protestant Reformation (movement to reform Catholic Church) – communication of religious themes with viewer's direct and emotional involvement
Aristocracy adopted Baroque style to impress visitors and to express triumphant power and control. The early 17th century marked a time of change for the Roman Catholic religion. A turning point that symbolized their strength as a congregation and the intelligence of their creative minds. In response to the Protestant Reformation of the earlier 16th century, Roman Catholics embarked on a program of restoration, a new way of living that became known as the Counter Reformation. The purpose of the Counter Reformation was aimed at remedying some of the abuses challenged by the Protestants earlier in the century. Within the church, a renewed Catholic culture was imposed on Italian society. It started with the Council of Trent, imposed by Pope Paul III, a commission of cardinals who came together to address issues of the Catholic Church and regain faith among worshipers. This resulted in guidelines established by the Church for the commissioning work of artists to communicate biblical truths and ideals.
Slide 5 Much of Italian Baroque Art was aimed at propagandistically restoring Catholicism’s predominance and centrality and was used as teaching tool. 17th century Italian Baroque Art and Architecture characteristics: dramatic/theatrical, grandiose scale, elaborate ornateness – all used to spectacular effect.
Slide 6 Baroque stemmed from Renaissance. Renaissance art generally depicted the moment before or after an event took place whereas baroque showed the actual climatic moment. Baroque artworks are exaggerated, there is a sense of movement, energy and tension. There is a strong sense of light and dark which is created by illuminating figures out of dark shadows. At the time, this was quite revolutionary and became a hallmark of Baroque art. The artists of this time were focused on natural forms, space, and unity. There are painterly brush strokes, recession of the plane, open forms, and an unclearness of the subject matter. The Church’s emphasis on art’s pastoral role prompted artists to experiment with new and more direct means of engaging the viewer. In so doing, the divine was made physically present and palpable. Whether through shocking realism, dynamic movement, or exuberant ornamentation, 17th-century art was meant to impress. It aimed to convince the viewer of the truth of its message by impacting the senses, awakening the emotions, and activating—even sharing—the viewer’s space.
Slide 7 Bernini A child prodigy who the pope demanded an audience of.
Deemed the “Michelangelo” of his generation. Master of stone-ability to transform into flesh, and dramatic action-decisive moments. First sculpture to “freeze” moments in time. Bernini was one of the great innovators of the Baroque. His prolific career as a sculptor, architect, painter, stage-designer, and writer spanned most of the seventeenth century. His major patrons were cardinals and popes who admired his expressive interpretations of religious subjects, dramatic use of forms, and novel combinations of media.
Slide 8 Bernini – Interior Niche of Cornaro Chapel
· Ecstasy of St. Teresa – 1645-52
The whole chapel became a theater for the production of this mystical drama
· Theatricality and sensory impact were useful vehicles for achieving Counter-Reformation goals https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RKcJvjP9zgY&index=8&list=PLB56EEA2DAB1F1CD6 video 7:32
Slide 9 And between death and light, Bernini may be suggesting there may be moments of ecstasy worth saving and remembering.
Slide 10 Bernini David 1623 Marble This statue was commissioned by Cardinal Scipione Borghese, a major patron of the arts and nephew of Pope Paul V and was placed at the entrance of the Galleria Borghese. Compared to the Davids depicted by Donatello and Michelangelo, Bernini catches the figure of David in the dramatic moment in which he is about to fling the stone at Goliath. Bernini’s David has taken off his cuirass with his feet firmly in place and bites his lip to convey his intense concentration. However, his lower body is covered with a drape to maintain a sense of decorum. Rather than showing a figure frozen in action, his stance implies a sequence of poses and energetic continuous movement. Traditionally, it has been also argued that David’s features might be based on Bernini’s own.
Slide 11 GIANLORENZO BERNINI, David Modeled features after own face. Expression of intense concentration. Different from earlier versions- incorporates action and time. Most dramatic of an implied sequence of poses.
Time and space are united in an artistic theater. Dynamic energy cannot be confined in a niche-must be freestanding.Baroque=theatricality and element of time.
After the Renaissance, an understanding of Progress and a new embrace of change began. Thus, art began to demonstrate transience, rather than permanence and timeless ideals. Baroque art wants us to be able to relate to the image in our bodies, not just in our minds. Bernini's David uses the space around it—reaching out into the space of the viewer (our space!). Bernini's David is not content—the way Michelangelo's David is—to remain separate from us. When looking at Bernini's David, we immediately start to feel what David is feeling. This sympathy is very important to Baroque art.
Slide 12 Close-up In the High Renaissance we saw the composition in the form of a pyramid—a very stable shape. But in the Baroque era we see compositions in the shape of diagonal lines, as in Bernini's David. The diagonal line immediately suggests movement and energy and drama—very different from the immobility of the pyramid shape.
Slide 13 Caravaggio Outspoken disdain for Classical masters- the “anti-Christ” of painting. Recast biblical scenes or themes in new light. Used naturalism -did not idealize the narratives. Characters were common folk not idealized and angelic. Accentuates the “sinner” or the lower classes in his works-harsh dingy settings. Figures that were relatable. Strong use of light with deep pockets of shadow – tenebrism. Action very close to surface of painting-like a “shop window”.
Strong personality violent criminal-, thrived in Roman underground scene.
Enormous influence on subsequent generation of painters (Caravaggista)
With most artists we know about their lives and personalities from biographies that friends or contemporaries wrote about them. In the case of Caravaggio, however, we know about his life primarily from police records. From these accounts, we learned that he had a bad temper and could be violent, and that he was frequently arrested and imprisoned for assault. He appears on the police records for mild offenses like carrying weapons without permission, as well as more serious ones where he is involved in violent fights. Ultimately, he killed a man over a bet and spent the last few years of his life on the run from the police.
Slide 14 Caravaggio The theatrical Baroque sculpture had its counterpart in painting. Caravaggio (Michelangelo de Merisi). Portrayed dramatic movement, tenebrism, emotionally charged subjects, and figures caught in time. Tenebrism - exaggerated chiaroscuro. Translated as “dark matter” it is often characterized by a small and concentrated light source in the painting or what appears to be an external spotlight” directed as a very specific point in the composition. Caravaggio’s employment of tenebrism and chiaroscuro, the strong contrast of light and dark, lends his paintings a dramatic effect that has been likened to a spot lit stage. By combining this theatrical dynamism with careful observation from life, Caravaggio achieved a gritty naturalism in both genre and religious scenes. His subdued palette, half-length figures, and magnification of the picture-plane to create intimate, relatable compositions contributed to Caravaggio’s widespread appeal during the first three decades of the 17th century in Europe. The unusual darkness and life-like realism of Caravaggio’s paintings accounted in part for his popularity. On the other hand, the types of subject matter and revision of traditional iconographies popularized by Caravaggio had a significant impact on the development of international Caravaggism.
Slide 15 Entombment: Sums up CARAVAGGIO’S Distinctive Style. 1603 – large-scale painting for Chapel of Pietro Vittrice in Rome. Caravaggio places the figures on a stone slab that seems to extend into the viewer’s space, suggesting that Christ will be laid directly in front of the viewer. The theological implications are that Christ is being laid on the altar of a church, thus making real the doctrine of transubstantiation (the transformation of the Eucharistic bread and wine into the body and blood of Christ); Christ would thus be present during Mass, the Roman Catholic church service. After the crucifixion, some on Christ's followers (Nicodemus, Joseph of Arimathea, Mary Magdalene) along with his Mother, remove Christ's body from the cross and place it in the tomb. One of the first things you might notice about Caravaggio's style, and we see it here in his painting of The Entombment, is the darkness. There's actually a word for it: tenebroso, which means dark style. Caravaggio painted this scene as though it was happening in the black of night with almost a spot-light effect on the figures. There are several things that are important about this: There is no background—only darkness. No architecture, no landscape, and so as a result, we focus on the figures who are all located in the foreground of the painting. The spotlight effect of the lighting is very dramatic, and so we have very stark contrasts of light and dark. In other words, where modeling is usually a slow movement from light to dark, here we have very dark shadows right next to areas of bright illumination. The effect is very dramatic. Baroque artists were also interested in movement. Here we see the moment when Christ is being lowered into his tomb. It's a process happening before our eyes—so we have a caught moment in time. We see that the figures form a diagonal line—another very common feature of Baroque art. I n the High Renaissance, we saw compositions in the shape of a pyramid—a very stable shape. Here in Baroque art we see diagonals, or sometimes interlocking diagonals in the shape of an X. Caravaggio organized the composition so that it looks like the body of Christ is being lowered right into our space, as though we were standing in the tomb. One of the most important goals of Baroque art is to involve the viewer.
Slide 16 Everything is located very much in the foreground of the painting, very close to us in fact. Look at Christ's body—it’s so close we feel like we can touch it. And look at the ledge of the tomb, it is foreshortened and so it juts out into our space. And look at the elbow of the figure in orange carrying Christ's legs—it is foreshortened, too, and so it pops into our space. One of the main characteristics of Baroque art is the breakdown of the barrier between our space and the space of the painting, so we feel like we're really part of it. Baroque artists use foreshortening frequently.
Slide 17 Caravaggio
· The Calling of St. Matthew
· Contarelli Chapel church of San Luigi dei Francesi, Rome
· 1599-1600. Oil on canvas
· 10’ 7.5” x 11’ 2”.
· https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SZF5K8epWko&index=11&list=PLB56EEA2DAB1F1CD6 video 6:21
Slide 18 Judith and Holofernes (c. 1598) Oil on canvas Rivulets of blood run down the white sheets, as Judith, a pious young widow from the Jewish city of Bethulia, beheads Holofernes, general of the Assyrian army that had besieged her city. Moved by the plight of her people and filled with trust in God, Judith took matters into her own hands. She coiffed her hair, donned her finest garments and entered the enemy camp under the pretense of bringing Holofernes information that would ensure his victory. Struck by her beauty, he invited her to dine, planning later to seduce her. As the biblical text recounts, “Holofernes was so enchanted with her that he drank far more wine than he had drunk on any other day in his life” (Judith 12:20). Judith saw her opportunity; with a prayer on her lips and a sword in her hand, she saved her people from destruction. The story of Judith and Holofernes is recounted in the Book of Judith, a 2nd century text deemed apocryphal by the Jewish and Protestant traditions but included in Catholic editions of the Bible. Like the story of David and Goliath, it was a popular subject of art in the Renaissance and Baroque periods.
Slide 19 GENTILESCHI (Female) – “Caravaggista” Caravaggio’s style (combo. of naturalism and drama) became popular and appealed to patrons and artists. Gentileschi was trained by her father (who was influenced by Caravaggio). After his untimely death in 1610, many Italian and non-Italian artists alike came to be considered his “followers,” even though they had never met the artist or worked alongside him. Unlike the typical Renaissance master-follower relationship, these artists could claim no direct descent from his studio, and in some cases they had not even seen his paintings first-hand. Since followers of Caravaggio had no formal indoctrination by the master himself, they were free to take whatever aspects of the painter’s style and method they were most interested in. Painters like Orazio Gentileschi and his daughter, Artemisia Gentileschi, who knew Caravaggio personally, did have the benefit of direct contact with the source of their inspiration, but their work retains a character all its own. The Gentileschi—both father and daughter—produced more lyrical paintings than did Caravaggio. Incorporating the cold blues, yellows, and violets that were notably absent from Caravaggio’s palette, their paintings, often reflected local influences. Nevertheless—and crucial to the discussion of Caravaggism in Europe—their work reveals an absorption not only of Caravaggio’s tenebrism, but of his approach to religious iconography.
Slide 20 Artemisia Gentileschi Judith Beheading Holofernes This particular painting, executed by Artemisia Gentileschi, is one of the bloodiest and most vivid depictions of the scene, surpassing the version by Caravaggio, arch-realist of Baroque Rome, in its immediacy and shocking realism. A comparison between the two reveals not only her debt to the older artist, but also a series of pointed modifications that heighten the intensity of the physical struggle, the quantity of blood spilled, and the physical and psychological strength of Judith and her maidservant, Abra. In Artemisia’s painting the bloody sheets are in the immediate foreground, close to the viewer’s space. Holofernes’s muscular body projects dynamically into the depicted space as bold areas of light and dark draw attention to his powerful limbs.
Slide 21 Close-up And, most importantly, whereas Caravaggio pairs his delicate Judith with a haggard attendant who merely looks on, her eyes wide with disbelief, Artemisia depicts two strong, young women working in unison, their sleeves rolled up, their gazes focused, their grips firm. Caravaggio’s Judith gracefully recoils from her gruesome task; Artemisia’s Judith does not flinch. Instead, she braces herself on the bed, as she presses Holofernes’s head down with one hand and pulls a large sword through his neck with the other. The creases at her wrists clearly show the physical strength required. Holofernes struggles in vain, the thrust of his arms countered by the more forceful movement of Abra, Judith’s accomplice in this grisly act. Artemisia’s unique portrayal of Judith and Abra has prompted scholars to argue that Artemisia identified with the protagonist of the story in a way her male counterparts did not. This association stems not only from their shared gender, but also from Artemisia’s own traumatic experience. Artemisia was raped at the age of 17 by the artist Agostino Tassi, a close friend of her father. When Tassi failed to marry her, as the social dictates of the time demanded, her father sought recourse in court. During the trial, Artemisia describes her struggle against Tassi and her attempt to attack him with a knife. She also recalls the sense of betrayal she felt when she realized her female chaperone had colluded with Tassi and arranged to leave the two alone.
Slide 22 Diego Velazquez Leading artist in the court of King Phillip IV.
Because of Velasquez' great skill in merging color, light, space, rhythm of line, and mass in such a way that all have equal value, he was known as "the painter's painter.” Master realist, and few painters have surpassed him in the ability to seize essential features and fix them on canvas with a few broad, sure strokes.
Diego Velázquez is generally considered the greatest painter of the Spanish Golden Age. He painted religious pictures and genre pictures emphasizing great naturalism in his early career. When he was made the official painter to King Philip IV, he painted mostly portraits. Velázquez was appointed as the official chamberlain of the palace (a position of high rank) and decorated the royal complexes with paintings and sculptures that he would purchase on behalf of the king.
Slide 23 Diego Velázquez Water Carrier of Seville The subject matter could refer to dignity of the lower classes, the seven acts of mercy (such as giving drink to the thirsty), or an allegory of the three ages of humankind. In the center of the compacted composition stands the monumental profile figure of the Water seller, aged from the hot sun and donned in a humble brown cloak. He offers a boy a glass of water, freshened by a fig, which he has just poured from the large clay vessel in the immediate foreground. Although they are physically connected to one another as they both hold the glass, the boy and old man do not make eye contact but instead stare past one another. Perhaps their difference in age prevents a connection between the two, or perhaps it is their difference in social status. The face of a young man emerges from the shadows of the background between the old Water seller and the boy. He stares out at the viewer while drinking from his mug. Within this painting we see three ages of man represented.
Slide 24 Close-up While Velázquez has dismissed any background details in favor of the figures in the foreground, we can assume by the objects that this scene is taking place inside or near a tavern. The light coming from the left not only illuminates the face of the young boy, but also draws attention to the beads of water trickling down the slightly misshapen curve of the water vessel. This painting is a tour de force of naturalism; the textures of the clothes, jugs, glass, and even the water seller’s face are meticulously rendered using a combination of thick and tiny dabs of paint. Although water sellers were a common feature in any urban landscape of early modern Europe, they were especially prevalent in Seville, known for its long and brutal summers.
Slide 25 After visit to Rome from 1648 to 1651, he returned to Spain and painted his greatest masterpiece – Las Meninas (The Maids of Honor)/ it hung in Philip’s personal office. Velázquez had an extraordinary career in the court of Philip IV. After Velázquez returned from Rome to the Spanish court in Madrid in 1651, he painted what has been considered his greatest work: Las Meninas. The room represented in the painting is the artist’s studio in the palace of the Alcazar, which was converted into a studio after the death of the crown prince Balthasar Carlos. This painting is of such visual and narrative complexity that it precludes a definitive interpretation. One of the central questions one can raise is: what is taking place here?
Slide 26 Close-up http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IiTtGENiVOA&list=PLB56EEA2DAB1F1CD6&index=39 video 5:59
Slide 27 Here you see the artist looking at the viewer; in the background there appears to be a portrait of the king and queen, but it could be a mirror rather than a painting, and if so, the king and queen would then be standing near the viewer. Or, if the artist were looking at the entire scene with a mirror, then there is a sense of almost endless reflection back and forth. One explanation of the work could be that Velázquez is painting a portrait of the king and queen whose reflections appear in the mirror in the far wall. This suggests the presence of the king and the queen in the viewer’s space beyond the frame of the picture. Some scholars have suggested that the mirror image that Velázquez painted reflects not the physical image of the king and queen but a reflection of what he is painting on the canvas. The painting, furthermore, has been interpreted as Velázquez’s attempt to elevate the status of himself as an artist and of painting as well —given his position as the painter to the king and chamberlain to the palace. The inclusion of the king in his studio refers to a tradition of the king’s visit to the artist’s studio, such as the emperor Alexander the Great’s visit to the workshop of his court painter Apelles. Velázquez’s inclusion of himself in the company of the royal family is unprecedented.
Slide 28 Primary patrons were rich Spanish monastic orders. Devotional image for the funerary chapel of the Order of Mercy in Seville (Mercedarians) who worked towards the rescue of captive and ransomed Christians at hands of Muslims. St. Serapion suffered martyrdom while preaching Gospel to Muslims. Tied to a tree, tortured and decapitated. Bright light brings attention to tragic death. Two tree branches barely visible. Note identifies him as St. Serapion. Like Ribera, subject is depicted as common man. Francisco de Zurbarán was one of the great painters of religious imagery in seventeenth-century Spain. He produced many simple, yet powerful images of saints and their lives commissioned by monastic orders in Seville. This painting functioned as a devotional image for the funerary chapel of the Mercedarian Order. The red badge worn by the saint identifies him as a member of this order. St. Serapion was a British medieval saint who participated in the Third Crusade of 1196 and was martyred as he was preaching to Muslims. Accounts conflict about Serapion’s origins—some say that he was born in England, others in Ireland or Scotland. What is known is that he was a soldier in the army of King Richard the Lion-Hearted and later that of Leopold VI, Duke of Austria. He then went to Spain to participate in the Reconquista (the Christian "reconquest" of parts of the Iberian penninsula—today Spain and Portugal—that had been under Islamic rule) before becoming a friar in the Mercedarian Order. This order was founded in Spain to ransom Christians who had been captured by Muslims. There are several conflicting accounts of Serapion’s martyrdom—one story has him martyred by pirates off the British coast, another says he was left for dead, recovered and then was killed in Algiers. According to the Mercedarians, Serapion made several successful hostage rescues. During the last captive exchange the ransom money took too long to reach Algiers and Serapion was killed. The saint was nailed on an X-shaped cross like the Apostle St. Andrew, and dismembered or disemboweled.
This horrific martyrdom is the subject of this painting. None of the grisly details are evident in this painting—Zurbarán chose to convey this event as a still and contemplative scene. The three-quarter-length figure of Serapion takes up most of the composition; his lifeless body robed in his beige habit emerges from a dark background. The tenebrism provides a dramatic illumination of the saint’s body. One can imagine that in a dimly lit room the intensely realistic figure would appear to be emerging from the darkness into the viewer’s space. The only reminder that this is indeed a painting is the small piece of paper where Zurbarán identified Serapion and signed and dated the work. Zurbarán’s realism and austere, spiritual aesthetic made for a style that was well-suited for the quiet and contemplative monastic environment. It was displayed in a room where deceased monks were laid out before their burial. Monks reflecting on death would be confronted by this image of martyrdom and all its spiritual connotations.
Slide 29 Peter Paul Rubens This work was originally installed on the high altar of the Church of St. Walburga in Antwerp (since destroyed) and is now located in the Cathedral of Our Lady in Antwerp. Due to its large size, Rubens actually painted it on-site behind a curtain. Four saints associated with the church can be found on the exterior of the wings (visible when the altarpiece is closed): Saints Amandus and Walburga on the left and Saints Catherine of Alexandria and Eligius on the right. In the central panel, we see the dramatic moment when the cross of Christ’s crucifixion is being raised to its upright position. Rubens created a strong diagonal emphasis by placing the base of the cross at the far lower right of the composition and the top of the cross in the upper left—making Christ’s body the focal point. This strong diagonal reinforces the notion that this is an event unfolding before the viewer, as the men struggle to lift the weight of their burden. Adding to this dynamic tension is the visual sensation that the two men in the lower right are about to burst into the viewer’s space as they work to pull the cross upward. The viewer is caught in a moment of anxiety, waiting for the action to be complete. In the left panel are St. John the Evangelist and the Virgin Mary, who, standing in the shadow of the rocky outcrop above them, look to their left at what unfolds before their eyes. Shown in quiet resignation and grief over the fate of Christ, the group of women below is a stark contrast of overwrought emotion. Here too Rubens uses a diagonal along the line of the women from the lower right to the mid-left, setting John and Mary apart, allowing the viewer to focus on their reaction. The right panel continues the narrative event as Roman soldiers prepare the two thieves for their fate as they will be crucified alongside Christ. One thief—already being nailed to the cross on the ground—is foreshortened back into space, while the other—just behind him with his hands bound—is being forcefully led away by his hair. The diagonal Rubens created here runs the opposite direction as that in the left panel, moving from the lower left to the upper right along the line created by the leg and neck of the gray horse. These opposing diagonals further create tension across the composition, heightening the viewer’s sense of drama and chaotic action.
Slide 30 Peter Paul Rubens Henry IV Receiving the Portrait of Marie de’ Medici
A young woman in a bejeweled dress with a stiff lace collar gazes confidently out of a simply-framed, bust-length portrait placed at the very center of a large canvas. Her name is Marie de' Medici, daughter of the Grand duke of Tuscany. The ancient gods of marriage and love—Hymen and Cupid, to the left and right, respectively—hover in midair as they present this portrait to Henry IV, the king of France. Hymen holds in his left hand a flaming torch, symbolizing the ardor of love, while Cupid extols the virtues of the Medici princess. Cupid’s arrow has hit its mark; the king is smitten. He gazes up in gratitude, his left hand extended as he expresses his delight in his bride-to-be.
Slide 31 Close up From the heavens above, Jupiter and Juno, the king and queen of the Olympian gods, look down with approval, their own hands touching in a tender gesture of marital union. Jupiter’s fierce eagle, seen in the top left corner, looks away from the couple and clenches its lightning bolts in its talons. In contrast, Juno’s tamed peacock looks at the divine couple, while his mate cranes her neck to look at the portrait. A pink silk ribbon binds them together. The peahen perches on Juno’s chariot, directly above a golden relief of Cupid who balances a yoke-shaped garland (a symbol of marriage) on his shoulders as he playfully dances on the wings of a proud eagle. The message is clear: even the king of the gods can be subdued by love. Following Jupiter’s lead, Henry must also turn his attention to marriage. However, this match is about politics as well as love. Behind Henry stands the personification of France, wearing a blue silk garment embroidered with gold fleur-de-lys (the coat of arms of the French monarchy) and an elaborate plumed helmet encircled by a gold crown. She gently touches Henry’s shoulder and whispers in his ear, assuring him that a match with the Medici princess is indeed good for the kingdom. France urges Henry to turn away from the field of battle, the aftermath of which is visible in the burning town in the background, and attend to hearth and home, for domestic matters are no less important to the survival of the monarchy than military exploits. Henry obliges; his helmet and shield—now the playthings of two tender cherubs—lie at his feet.
Slide 32 Prometheus Bound In Greek mythology the Titan Prometheus stole fire from the gods on Mount Olympus to give to humanity. Furious, Zeus, king of the Olympians, ordered Prometheus forever chained to a rock, where each day an eagle would devour the Titan’s perpetually regenerating liver. This painting, which Rubens considered one of his most important works, represents the virtuoso artist at his absolute height. The enormous bird’s beak rips open the Titan’s torso, exposing blood-soaked entrails. To gain purchase on the captive’s flesh, one of the eagle’s talons gouges Prometheus’s right eye. His left eye is locked on the predator, signaling he is fully aware of his torture, while his writhing legs, clenched fist, and tousled hair convey the Titan’s abject agony. The picture has an asymmetrical composition, in which Prometheus tumbles downward with his left arm almost reaching beyond the canvas. Peter Paul Rubens kept this enormous painting in his personal collection for several years and in a letter of 1618 described it as one of his most important creations. Known to have collaborated with other artists, Rubens noted in the same letter that Frans Snyders, who was distinguished for his depictions of flowers and animals, had painted the eagle. This enormous bird, whose wings span the width of the canvas, tears the hero's powerfully muscled body with its sharp talons, rips open his side, and devours his liver. This complex painting could be regarded as the artist's commentary on either the struggles of creativity or the ideal of heroic spiritual suffering.
Slide 33 Rembrandt van Rijn: Self-Portrait (1658) Rembrandt is considered one of the foremost artists of the Dutch Baroque period, and even if he had never picked up a paintbrush, he would have been famous both in his day and ours as a printmaker of particular brilliance and as a prolific teacher. In a career that lasted nearly forty years, Rembrandt completed approximately 400 paintings, more than 1,000 drawings, and nearly 300 engravings. Of the many self-portraits Rembrandt painted over a lifetime, this is perhaps the greatest, not only for its poignant revelations of the self, but for his sure handling of paint. The initial effect on viewers is daunting, as though they are confronting an ill-tempered monarch. The strange costume he wears is timeless. In place of a crown, he wears a large velvet artist’s beret. He holds a painter’s stick as though it were a scepter. Yet this feeling of uneasy confrontation diminishes as we study the face. The wariness and impatience seem like a veil shadowing the man’s real expression, which is blurred and scarred—by time, by sorrows, and illness. Yet Rembrandt was only 52 in 1658 when he signed and dated this portrait. He was also a small man, but he portrayed his figure in monumental dimensions. It is almost as though he decided to pack his entire life into his image of himself, both what had gone before, and what lay ahead. The gigantic hands that loom before us are crucial to the portrait’s effect, reminding us of Rembrandt’s dependence on them.
Slide 34 Judith Leyster Self-Portrait 1635 Judith Leyster’s Self-Portrait exudes self-confidence in her abilities. Leyster has depicted herself at her easel, briefly interrupting work on a painting of a violin player to interact with the viewer. By juxtaposing her hand holding a brush with the hand and bow of the violin player, Leyster cleverly compares the art of creating ephemeral music with the art of creating timeless paintings. She holds the tools of her trade—a palette, a cloth, and no fewer than eighteen brushes. In reality, she would not have worn the elegant dress and lace-trimmed collar while at work in her studio. Leyster entered into the Saint Luke’s Guild of Haarlem as an independent master in 1633. As a master in her own right, a rarity for a female artist at the time, she established her own workshop and had paying students. Five years earlier, her proficiency and talent had already drawn public praise. Following her marriage to fellow Haarlem artist Jan Miense Molenaer in 1636, Leyster stopped producing art in her own name but probably continued to paint in collaboration with, and in the workshop of, her husband.
Slide 35 Nicolas Poussin (1594-1665) One of the most influential French painters Recalled from Rome by Louis XIII Influences Raphael and Carracci Classicism official court style (1660-1685) Ancient Greece and Roman as reference Authority, power, order, and tradition Poussin represents favored classicism
Slide 36 Nicolas Poussin (1594-1665) Studies Raphael, anatomy, perspective, and ancient sculpture in Rome Work becomes model for similar subject matter Relays assassination of Roman general The young Roman general Germanicus has just been poisoned by his jealous adoptive father, the emperor Tiberius. On his deathbed, Germanicus asks his friends to avenge his murder and his wife to endure her sorrow bravely. The subject of this, Poussin's first major history painting, comes from the Annales of the Roman historian Tacitus. The event occurred in 19 CE. A key work in Western painting, this tragic picture presents a moral lesson in stoic heroism, seen especially in the restraint and dignity of the mourning soldiers. This painting became the model for countless deathbed scenes for two centuries to come, particularly for Neoclassical art around 1800. Many powerful human themes figure here: death, suffering, injustice, grief, loyalty, and revenge.Poussin drew on Roman antiquity for the form as well as the subject of this painting. The composition, with its shallow spatial arrangement, is based on a Roman sarcophagus relief. Poussin spent most of his life in Rome, where he created a classical style that strongly influenced both French and Italian art. This is a history painting, that is, it portrays the artist's conception of a notable event in the past, taken from literature or mythology. In the 17th century, history painting was considered to be one of the most esteemed categories of subject matter, a position it held in European art until the mid-19th century. It was thus the ambition of every painter to produce distinguished history paintings, without which one could not hope to achieve eminence and future commissions. In a history painting, the subject plays a principal role: the composition, the color scheme and execution all contribute to the illustration of the story.
Slide 37 France Foreign and civil wars King Henry IV assassinated in 1610; Marie de’ Medici (queen) rules as regent until 1617 1635: Cardinal Richelieu founds the French Royal Academy 1648: Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture Louis XIII dies; 5-year-old Louis the XIV (le Roi Soleil) ruled in 1661 after death of Cardinal Mazarin Louis XIV, ABSOLUTE MONARCH: longest reign in Europe The early seventeenth century was marked by unrest and near constant warfare; however, by the mid seventeenth century, France had emerged as Europe’s largest and most powerful country. France, under Louis XIV, was an absolute monarchy where full power resided with the king. As an absolute monarch, Louis was not subject to any constitutional limitations, leading him to declare “l’etat, c’est moi” (“I am the state”). Louis ruled by divine right, receiving his authority directly from God. The concept of divine right allowed Louis to quash emerging rebellions while establishing legitimacy. Louis became known as le Roi Soleil, the Sun King, furthering his claim of divine lineage by recalling the ancient Greek god Apollo and declaring himself, in his usual modest manner, to be the center of the universe. Recognizing the importance of propaganda, Louis and his advisors embarked on many large-scale projects, most memorably the expansion of Versailles from a rather unassuming (by royal standards, at least) hunting lodge to an enormous, gilded (and mirrored) palace. Versailles reinforced the image of the Sun King and infused the Baroque style with classical elements, visually linking Louis’ rule to the might of Imperial Rome. As the leading patron of the era, Louis XIV employed a workshop of artists and architects; Hyacinthe Rigaud became the principal painter to the king.
Slide 38 French Baroque Leader during French Baroque Louis XIV, known as the “Sun King” because EVERYTHING revolved around him Divine monarchy Absolutism Military campaigns against Spain, Dutch Republic, Germany, and England Nothing in Louis XIV is understated; every detail was intended to remind the viewer of the supremacy of the monarch and his divine authority. Louis, dressed to the nines, is bedecked in his coronation robe. Even the materials of the robe reinforce the image of the monarch; the black-and-white ermine fur and the blue-and-gold fleur-de-lis, a stylized lily, are symbolic of the French monarchy. Rigaud paints Louis with a royal sword fastened to his hip, the precious materials contributing to the extravagant atmosphere while also symbolizing his military might. In his right hand, Louis holds the royal scepter while the crown rests on the table below, just in case there were any lingering doubts that this Louis was a pretty important fellow.
Slide 39 French Baroque France replaces Rome as the center of the art world
Henry IV, Louis XIII, and Louis XIV. French Baroque is characterized by elegance and restraint of emotion, pomp and circumstance, pageantry, emphasis on the glories of the monarchy. Louis XIV interested in classical influence epitomized in the work of Poussin. The French Baroque style reflects the king’s preference for Classicism. Sought distinct “French” style. Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture formed in Paris, 1648. Charles Le Brun first director. Promotes virtues of Poussin and Raphael.
Slide 40 French Baroque Louis renovates what was a small hunting cabin into a Golden Cage. Begun 1669 by Le Vau, finished 1710. Every aspect of Versailles controlled, even gardens. Center Louis’ bedroom.