Psychology Statistics data report project
Running Head: GENDER AND STRESS AS PREDICTORS OF DEPRESSION
Gender and Stress as Predictors of Depression
Zae’Cari Nelson
California Baptist University
Gender and Stress as Predictors of Depression 1
Gender and Stress as Predictors of Depression
More than 17 million adults in the United States experience the ill effects of depression,
making it perhaps the most well-known mental illness in the U.S.A. Depression influences an
expected one out of 15 adults. What's more, one out of six individuals will encounter depression
in their life (What is Depression?). There are a mind-boggling number of elements that can
prompt depressive symptoms in male and female individuals, one of which is held to be a rise in
stress hormone disturbances. Male and female genders rely on different coping strategies to
handle stressors adequately and effectively. The purpose of this study is to explore gender as a
predictor of depression controlling for stress.
Depression is a medical condition that is both common and serious. It influences how an
individual think, act, and feel. Depression also results in a loss of interest in things that were
once enjoyable. An assortment of emotional and physical problems as well as a decrease in one’s
ability to function at home and/or in a public setting can be prompted by the onset of depression
(What is Depression?). Physicians and researchers have studied depression for several years and
have led research on numerous individual symptoms along with clustered symptoms, and an
excess of factors that might be the reason for developing depressive symptoms. Some research
studies identify participants by gender and age. Depressive symptoms based on life stressors of
medical students ages twenty-six to thirty were examined in a recent study. The study showed
that depressive symptoms based on life stressors of medical students ages twenty-six to thirty
expanded by 71% over a 3-month, 6-month, 9-month, and 12-month time span (Fried, 2015).
This specific study comprised of an aggregate of 3,021 people: 52.6% female and 48.4% male.
Additionally, depressive symptoms when explained by both males and females, are almost
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Gender and Stress as Predictors of Depression 2
identical when life stress is a contributory factor of the major depressive disorder. This suggests
that gender may not be a significant predictor of stress and depression.
Literature Review
Stress. Stress is characterized as how much you feel overpowered or incapable to adapt
because of pressing factors that are unmanageable (Stress MHF, 2021). At any rate, stress is our
body's reaction to life occurrences as well as circumstances (Sha, 2006). Social conditions,
financial conditions, environment, and hereditary qualities are overall contributors of an
individual's degree of stress. Numerous contributors of stress can shift vastly from one individual
to another, male and female, and so does how reactions are processed. Given the way that good
and regrettable life changes can both be a stressor for one individual, it would not be implausible
if stress factors like separation, work layoff, death, or monetary troubles prompt sentiments of
depression. It has been determined that men and women manage stress factors differently.
Though the two sexes regularly report comparable feelings of anxiety, yet report fluctuating
physical and emotional symptoms (Shih, 2004). Many depression symptoms carry somewhat of a
comparative result as having life altering stressors. In this way, to appropriately identify the
aspect of gender in predicting depression, it is important to govern for the possible effect of
stressors.
Gender. According to The World Health Organization, gender is the qualities of men,
women, boys, and girls that are communally developed also including standards, practices and
functions related with being a man, woman, boy or girl, just as correlations with one another. In a
socially productive way, gender will differ from one environment to another and can change after
some time. Gender is estimated to affect depression since an individual’s stress hormones and an
individual’s genetics proposes predominant controlling factors that add to a mental illness like
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Gender and Stress as Predictors of Depression 3
depressive disorder. Ongoing studies have discovered that women are more probable than men to
encounter depression (Zwicker and DeLongis, 2010). A few examinations show that 33% of
women will encounter a substantial depressive episode during their life. (Hyde, 2020). There is
around a 40% chance of heritability when first-degree family members such as parents, children,
and siblings, have depression (Sowa and Lustman, 1984). Existing studies that concentrate on the
correlation between gender and depression has been led primarily centered around age groups,
the current study will expand the literature by researching if depression is predicted by gender.
To state the hypothesis, depression controlling for the impact of stressors gender will largely be
predicted by depression.
Method
Participants
101 adult Online and Professional Studies undergrads at California Baptist University
(CBU) were the participants. California Baptist University is a private university of the Christian
faith located in the Southern region of California; Riverside, CA and has an enlistment of around
11,317 students. The participants ages extended from 18 to 54 years; 12 males and 88 females. In
addition to providing spiritual and social expansion opportunities, the Online and Professional
Studies division at CBU offers over 40 fully accredited online degree programs to their students.
Measures
Sex/Gender. Respondents were queried to specify their gender. Feedback choices
included male (12%) and female (87%).
Stress. A four item self-report measure of stress levels in adult college students was used
to measure stress levels of the participants. This subscale is called the DASS-21 Stress Subscale,
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Gender and Stress as Predictors of Depression 4
it’s responses consist of stress states such as "I feel that I utilize a ton of anxious energy") on a
7-point Likert-type scale going from 1 (doesn't concern me by any stretch of the imagination) to
7 (more often than not). Participants recorded their responses using the applicable corresponding
stress states. In past studies, proof of moderate to strong internal reliability was found, with a
range of .59 to .81 for Chronbach's alphas (Osman et al. 2012). The validity of measure is
supported by positively correlating scores from the measure of mixed depression and
anxiety/stress and DASS-21 Stress subscale scores.
Factor analysis. To inspect the factor structure of the four-item scale, an exploratory
factor analysis (EFA) was executed.
According to Kaiser’s K-1 rule, there is a one-factor solution due to only one factor
having an eigenvalue greater than 1. The principal factor clarified 57.57% of the variety in
scores. To establish if the scale acted for a unidimensional construct, a scree test was
administered. The point of inflection is plainly indicated by the scree plot at the second
component. This suggests a one-factor solution. Afterward, to establish if all items loaded
heavily on the first factor, the component matrix had to be inspected. As the result, each of the
four items were determined to have loadings with absolute values more than .40 on the first
factor.
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Gender and Stress as Predictors of Depression 5
Reliability analysis. To establish the stress scales’ internal reliability, a reliability analysis
was administered. As the result of the reliability analysis, there was a Chronbach's alpha score
of .75. This was acceptable for psychometric purposes.
Distribution of composite scores. At last, the four-item scale was used to generate a
composite score, which produced a homogenized (M=0.00, SD=1.00) stress level score for all
respondents in the sample, going from - 1.52 to 2.71. The distribution was slightly leptokurtic
with a moderate positive skew as the result. Scores were on the low to mid-range with very few
showing significant degrees of stress for respondents.
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Gender and Stress as Predictors of Depression 6
Depression. The DASS-21 Depression Subscale was used to measure the levels of
depression for respondents. This subscale is a four item self-report measure of depression levels
in adult college pupils. Respondents provided responses to items showing a depressed state (e.g.,
"I feel that I have nothing to anticipate") on a 7-point Likert-type scale going from 1 (doesn't
concern me by any means) to 7 (more often than not). In earlier studies, indications of moderate
to strong internal reliability was found, with Chronbach's alphas going from .63-.70 (Osman et
al. 2012). It was found that scores on a measure of depression and anxiety/stress combined
correspond positively with scores from the DASS-21 depression subscale. Therefore, the validity
of the measure is supported.
Factor analysis. To inspect the four-item scale factor structure, an Exploratory Factor
Analysis (EFA) was ran.
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Gender and Stress as Predictors of Depression 7
An eigenvalue greater than 1, was reported for only one factor and 71.74% of the
variation in scores was explained by the first factor. Thus, in accordance with Kaiser's K-1 rule,
the data offer that there is a one-factor solution. Similarly, to establish the unidimensional
construct within the scale, a scree test was ran. Since the point of inflection is shown plainly at
the second component on the scree plot, a one-factor solution is implied. Moreover, to establish
if all the items loaded heavily onto the first factor, the component matrix was inspected. As result
of the inspection, it was determined that loadings with absolute values over .40 on the first factor
was apparent for all four of the items.
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Gender and Stress as Predictors of Depression 8
Reliability analysis. To establish the internal reliability of the depression level scale, a
reliability analysis was ran. As result of the reliability analysis, the Chronbach's alpha score was .
86, which was satisfactory for psychometric purposes.
Distribution of composite scores. Using the four-item scale, a composite score was
generated. Resulting in a homogenous (M=0.00, SD=1.00) depression level score for all
respondents in the sample going from - .81 to 3.48. Subsequently, the distribution result was
leptokurtic with a positive skew. Participants scored mostly on the low end of the depression
level scale with only a few signifying high levels of depression.
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Gender and Stress as Predictors of Depression 9
Procedure
Questionnaires were anonymously administered to the adult student participants that were
enrolled in the Online and Professional Studies division of CBU for the psychology major.
Because the online questionnaire was completed outside of class hours, students were given
additional credit.
Results
Descriptive Statistics
Before visually inspecting the correlation between independent and dependent variables,
the figures had to be established first. Next, an examination was completed to establish the
correlation between sex and depression. Since sex is a categorical predictor, a boxplot was used
to execute the examination.
Median depression level for both genders was established through a visual examination
of the boxplot. The visual examination holds that the median depression level for females is like
that of males. For the male scores there is more variability as some males scored comparatively
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Gender and Stress as Predictors of Depression 10
high whereas the females scored slightly low with some potential outliers. A slight positive
correlation amongst stress levels and depression was apparent in a visual assessment of the
scatterplot. Generally, as stress levels increased so did depression levels. Though, some
respondents scored low in both. To inspect the correlation amongst each variable, both
independent and dependent, a correlation test was run.
The results of the correlation test concluded that stress and depression had a significant
moderate positive correlation, r (96) = .49, p<.01. However, gender and depression presented a
very small positive relationship r (96) = .06, p=.59. An issue with collinearity was not presented
in this model as the two independent variables do not significantly correlate with one another.
Checking Assumptions
Homogeneity of variance. The analysis was comprised of both independent variables
held in the model to test the assumptions. Predicted values and unstandardized residuals were
kept as new factors in the dataset. The predicted values were placed on the x-axis while the
residuals were placed on the y-axis of the scatterplot. This was done to test for homogeneity of
variance.
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Gender and Stress as Predictors of Depression 11
The distribution of residuals was revealed through a visual examination of the scatterplot.
As the result of the visual examination, it was determined that the residuals are not evenly
distributed. Clusters and slight fanning appear on the scatterplot also. Since equal predictive
power for persons at the high end of the line and the low end of the depression level scale is not
present in the model, the assumption of homogeneity of variance is not supported.
Normally distributed residuals. A histogram of the distribution was constructed to find
out how residuals were distributed. The goal was to determine if residuals were normally
distributed. To do so, a normal curve was superimposed on top. As the result, the assumption of
normally distributed residuals was not supported because they are not normally distributed.
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Gender and Stress as Predictors of Depression 12
Multiple Regression Analysis
Lastly, to establish if the hypothesis was supported, an interpretation for each of the
output tables in the multiple regression analysis was conducted.
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Gender and Stress as Predictors of Depression 13
The model resulted in significantly improved predictions than predictions based solely on
the mean because the F-statistic was statistically significant, F(2, 93) = 16.28, p < .001.
According to the table, gender is not a statistically significant predictor of the
respondent’s depression levels. However, stress level is. Controlling for stress, my hypotheses is
not supported.
The regression equation is:
The expected depression level score for a student that has an average level of stress is .03.
Controlling for stress, there is a .10 standard deviation decrease in gender which does not
correlate to a .03 standard deviation in depression levels.
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Gender and Stress as Predictors of Depression 14
Discussion
In view of the outcome, my hypothesis was rejected. With the reason being because when
controlling for stressors, depression is not significantly predicted by sex. However, when using
sex as an independent variable, it makes for an unbalanced participant pool since the number of
participants total to 101, but with only 12 males and 89 females. A more equally balanced
number of participants would have essentially prompted an improved and more precise outcome.
In spite of the fact that review discoveries are positively precise, there are a few limitations. To
begin, this study included a wide array of participants from ages 18 years of age to 54 years of
age. I view such large age fluctuations as a substantial limitation. As an individual’s level of
maturity has much contingency on the way they process a stressor. Regardless of sex, adults that
have more life experiences then to process stressors more maturely than adults that have less
experiences in life.
The results of this investigation liken results from a study that was conducted in February
2015 by Eiko I Fried, an Associate Professor in Clinical Psychology at Leiden University. In the
study led by Fried, male and female participants described their depressive symptoms similarly
to how they were described in this study. Which suggests that when correlating stress and
depression, sex may not be a significant factor.
This study, specifically, can undoubtedly be summed up to the college populace by just
interpreting the results from an sample populace and applying it to the populace at large: Making
the investigation more equivalent as it relates to sex and increasing the sample size to be greater
than 101 participants. Hypotheses formed by many speculators that theorize that males have less
life stressors than females and therefore suffer from symptoms of depression less than females
are only stating a hypothesis not back by evidence that any statistical significance is present.
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Gender and Stress as Predictors of Depression 15
In light of the results of this study, future scientists ought to follow an alternate
methodology to acquire more accurate and exact discoveries. Future scientists would benefit
from choosing an equivalent measure of male and female participants just as dividing the
participants by age. This set out as a better procedure for future studies and establishes a
clearer path for impending research to trail.
My experimental results conclusion rejected my hypothesis on sex assuming a huge part
in stress and depression. Truth be told, this study completely annulled my underlying speculation
though I firmly held males would have less stressors and thusly lower levels of depression than
females. My general impression, which is not in accordance with my referenced study or the
present study, is that the exploration study was very amazing, and I would be keen on proceeding
with it with a more unambiguous scope of participants to decide whether there is any chance of
truth to my original investigation and research.
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References
Stress. Mental Health Foundation. https://www.mentalhealth.org.uk/a-to- z/s/stress#:~:text=Stress%20can%20be%20defined%20as,of%20pressures%20that %20are%20unmanageable.
Shih, J. H.-F. (2004). Sociotropy/autonomy and depression: Gender differences and the mediating role of stressful life events ProQuest Information & Learning]. APA PsycInfo. http://libproxy.calbaptist.edu/login? url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx? direct=true&db=psyh&AN=2004-99010- 099&site=ehost-live&scope=site
Zwicker, A., & DeLongis, A. (2010). Gender, stress, and coping. In J. C. Chrisler & D. R. McCreary (Eds.), Handbook of gender research in psychology, Vol 2: Gender research in social and applied psychology. (pp. 495-515). Springer Science + Business Media. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-1467-5_21
Sowa, C. J., & Lustman, P. J. (1984). Gender differences in rating stressful events, depression, and depressive cognition. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 40(6), 1334- 1337. https://doi.org/10.1002/1097-4679(198411)40:63.0.CO;2-8
What is Depression? American Psychiatric Association. https://www.psychiatry.org/patientsfamilies/depression/what-is-depression
Sha, T. (2006). Optimism, Pessimism and Depression; The Relations and Differences by Stress Level and Gender. Acta Psychologica Sinica, 38(6), 886-901.
Fried, E. I., Nesse, R. M., Guille, C., & Sen, S. (2015). The differential influence of life stress on individual symptoms of depression. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 131(6), 465- 471. https://doi.org/10.1111/acps.12395
Hyde, J. S., & Mezulis, A. H. (2020). Gender differences in depression: Biological, affective, cognitive, and sociocultural factors. Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 28(1), 4- 13. https://doi.org/10.1097/HRP.0000000000000230
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