Business Discussion
Chapter Ten Issues Between Organizations and Individuals
Organizational
Behavior
John W. Newstrom
Human Behavior at
Work
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Learning Objectives
A model of legitimacy of organizational influence
How rights to privacy are interpreted
Bases for discrimination at work
Using discipline to change behaviors
Quality of work life (QWL)
Job enrichment: pros and cons
Mutual individual-organization responsibilities
Whistle-blowing as a prosocial behavior
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Legitimate Organizational Influence
Every organization develops policies and requirements for performance
Conflict occurs if the organization’s and an individual’s boundaries of legitimate influence differ
Areas of organizational influence
High legitimacy - Job conduct
Low legitimacy - Personal activities off the job
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Figure 10.1 - Model of Legitimacy of Organizational Influence on Employees
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Off-the-Job Conduct
The more job-related one’s conduct is when off the job, the more support there is for organizational influence on the employee
Current issues
Surveillance
Substance abuse
Genetic screening
Office romances
Assessments of ethical values
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Rights of Privacy
Keeping certain information about an individual confidential
Areas that employees, customers, and others believe should be off limits
Religious, political, and social beliefs
Personal acts and conversations
Non-business locations and personal-use locations
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Figure 10.2 - Business Activities that May Involve Employee Rights of Privacy
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Policy Guidelines Relating to Privacy
Relevance
Recency
Notice
Fiduciary duty
Confidentiality
Due process
Protection of the psyche
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Surveillance Devices
Equipment and procedures for monitoring employee actions
Electronic sensor badges - Microcomputers in clip-on ID cards
Electronic monitoring: Observing/recording individuals using electronic methods or devices
Impact on employees - Higher levels of physiological and emotional distress
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Surveillance Devices
Keys to employee acceptance
Advance notification and explanation
Using information to improve performance
Using employee input to set up a fair system
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Surveillance Devices
Cyberloafers or cyberslackers - Employees who use work time and work computers for personal interest.
Social screening: Information gleaned from e-mails, Facebook, Twitter, Blogs, and LinkedIn
Aids management in screening prospective employees
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Honesty Tests
Attempt to get the respondents to disclose information about their previous or prospective honesty
Referred to as integrity tests
Two forms
Overt tests - Inquire about attitudes toward theft
Personality-based tests - Indirectly identify dishonest people by relating scores on selected personality-test items to a theft criterion
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Health Issues and Privacy
Alcoholism
Costs employers in absenteeism, poor work, lost productivity, and increased health care costs
Successful programs:
Treat alcoholism as an illness
Focus on job behavior
Provide medical and psychological help
Provide a non-threatening atmosphere
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Health Issues and Privacy
Drug abuse
Consequences for organizations
Employee theft and lost productivity
Rise in employee absentee rates and additional health costs
Drug-Free Workplace Act (1988) - Requires some employers to create and distribute policies prohibiting drug abuse at work
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Health Issues and Privacy
Drug testing
Objections
False positives/negatives and its impact
Revelation of medical conditions that an employee may prefer to keep private
Being watched while providing test samples
Presumed right to consume whatever one desires
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Health Issues and Privacy
Solution to the problems with drug testing is impairment testing
Impairment testing: Brief motor-skills test performed on a computer
Genetic testing: Using medical tests to predict whether an individual may be genetically susceptible to one or more types of illnesses or harmful substances
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Health Issues and Privacy
Genetic monitoring: Identifies harmful substances in the workplace, examines their effects on the genetic makeup of employees, and provides the basis for corrective action
Positive uses
Moving susceptible employees to safer areas, providing health warnings, and enabling development of protective measures
Negative aspects
Discrimination based on results and impacts individual privacy and opportunity
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Figure 10.3 - EEOC Definition of Sexual Harassment
Source: Employment Opportunity Commission’s Guidelines on Discrimination Because of Sex, 1604.11 (Sexual Harassment)., Nov. 10, 1980.
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Health Issues and Privacy
Sexual harassment
Preventive practices
Developing policies to address the issue and educate employees about it
Identifying actions that constitute harassment and communicating possible liabilities and negative effects
Employers are liable for:
Reinstatement of the victims if they were unfairly discharged and paying back wages, punitive damages, and awards for psychological suffering and pain
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Health Issues and Privacy
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)
Deadly virus affecting the human immune system
Contagious, incurable and often fatal
Legal status of infected employees is unclear
Related work issues
Protection of medical privacy and educating co-workers
Effect on teamwork and group participation
Preventing harassment or social isolation
Employee AIDs testing
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Discipline
Action taken to enforce standards
Preventive discipline: Encourage individuals to follow rules to avoid infractions
Corrective discipline: Follows infraction of a rule
Objectives of disciplinary action
To reform the offender
To deter others from similar actions
To maintain consistent, effective group standards
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Discipline
Progressive discipline: Stronger penalties for repeated offenses
Purpose is to provide an opportunity for self-correction
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Figure 10.4 - A Progressive Discipline System
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Quality of Work Life (QWL)
Favorableness or unfavorableness of a total job environment for people
Help organizations recognize their responsibility to develop jobs and working conditions for people and the organization's economic health
Elements
Open communications and equitable reward systems
Concern for employee job security and careers
Caring supervisor and participation in decision making
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Quality of Work Life (QWL)
Helps:
Develop employee skills
Reduce occupational stress
Build more cooperative labor-management relations
Rationale for redesigning jobs and organizations for a better QWL
Classical job design gave inadequate attention to human needs
Needs and aspirations of workers have changed
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Job Enlargement and Job Enrichment
Consists of job breadth and depth
Job breadth: Number of different tasks an individual is directly responsible for
Job depth: Level of control, responsibility, and discretion workers have over their job
Job scope
Giving employees with narrow job breadth a wider variety of duties to reduce their monotony
Job enlargement
Periodic assignment of an employee to completely different sets of job activities
Job rotation
Adding additional motivators to a job to make it more rewarding
Job enrichment
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Figure 10.5 - Difference between Job Enrichment and Job Enlargement
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Figure 10.6 - Benefits of Job Enrichment Emerge in Three Areas
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Applying Job Enrichment
Employees decide on what enriches their jobs
If maintenance factors decline during an enrichment program, employees will be less responsive to the program
Not all employees will choose enriched jobs, given the option
Contingency relationship exists in terms of different job needs
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Figure 10.7 - How Core Job Characteristics Affect Work Outcomes through Three Psychological States
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Enrichment Increases Motivation
Enriched jobs increase motivation provided that employees:
Have adequate job knowledge and skills
Desire to learn, grow, and develop
Are satisfied with their work environment
Most enrichment attempts have been conducted in manufacturing operations
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Social Cues Affect Perceptions
Social cues: Subtle bits of positive or negative information workers receive from their social surroundings
Social information processing: Using social cues to arrive at one’s own perceptions peers:
Suggest which job characteristics really count
Offer relative weighting of each core dimension
Provide clues about their own judgments of the dimensions
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Figure 10.8 - Social Cues Affect Employee Reactions to Tasks
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Contingency Factors Affecting Enrichment
Very high costs in relation to rewards
Some workers will not want an enriched job
Affects pay relationships
Expensive equipment that are inadaptable
Production system becomes unbalanced
Reduced supervisory or staff roles
Union opposition
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Organizational Citizenship
Organizational citizens: Employees who go beyond their job descriptions and engage in positive social acts that benefit others
Categories
Helping others and cooperating with them
Civic virtue
Sportsmanship and courtesy
Conscientiousness
Organizational loyalty
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Dues-Paying
Costs that an individual pays for group acceptance and continuing membership
Minimum qualifications and willingness to work without complaint
Showing respect to others and not acting superior to others
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Dues-Paying
Performing at an above-average level
Spending the appropriate amount of time on the job
Idiosyncrasy credits: Over time, a person earns credits that can be cashed in when necessary
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Whistle-blowing
Disclosing alleged misconduct to an internal or external source
Misconduct - Violation of a rule or law, fraud, safety violation, or corruption
Forces that diminish dishonesty
Honesty and respect for truth-telling
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Whistle-blowing
Availability of ethical role models
Positive interpersonal behaviors
Ethical expectations for themselves
Fairness toward others
Articulation of ethical standards to others
Traits of whistle-blowers
Have observed wrongdoing and believe it is a serious problem
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Whistle-blowing
Feel that it directly affects them and are conscientious
Professionals with long service and previously recognized as good performers
Perceived to be responsive to complaints
By going public, whistle blowers become the subject of employer retaliation
Discharge: Act of firing an employee
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Figure 10.9 - Alternative Employee Responses to Wrongful Acts
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Mutual Trust
Joint faith in the responsibility and actions of the parties involved
Requires mutual understanding, emotional bonds, and trustworthy behaviors
Occurs over times and is fragile in nature
Whistle-blowing occurs when mutual trust has deteriorated or been broken
Results in a breakdown of the psychological contract
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