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Bloom, Paula Jorde; And Others Blueprint for Action; Achieving Center-Based Change through Staff Development. ISBN-0-9621894-2-1 91
295p. Gryphon House, Inc., P.O. Box 275, Mt. Rainier, MD 20712 ($28.95). Guides - Non-Classroom Use (055) -- Books (010)
MF01/PC12 Plus Postage. Change Strategies; *Child Caregivers; *Day Care; *Day Care Centers; Early Childhood Education; Evaluation Methods; Models; Needs Assessment; *Organizational Change; Program Evaluation; *Program Improvement; *Staff Development
Intended as a practical resource for early childhood center directors engaged in i'Aproving the overall quality of their programs, this guide details a comprehensive method for analyzing the different components of a prograi to increase the program's effectiveness, assists in diagno ,ng common organizational problems, and aids in selecting appropriate strategies for implementing change and evaluating progress. The guide also demonstrates how to develop a sense of responsibility for center change that is shared collectively by the staff. Chapter 1 presents a social systems model to improve understanding of the significance of day-to-day life in the child car3 center. Chapter 2 addresses the nature of change and provides an overview of how change occurs in child care centers. The director's role in the change process is discussed in chapter 3. Chapter 4 explores assessing the needs of the child care c. ter as whole, while chapter 5 focuses oil assessing individual needs of staff members. Chapter 6 offers a step by step process for designing an individualized model of staff development, and chapter 7 links the notion of individualized staff development to the supportive organizational structures that will ensure its success. The final chapter discusses meshing organizational needs and individual needs into a unified approach for achieving change. Two appendixes contain 27 assessment tools and 8 sample forms. Contains over 160 references. (TJQ)
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4
Blueprint fop Action Achieving Center-based Change
Through Staff Development
Fau la Jorcie Dloom
Marilyn Sheerer
Joan 13ritz
(with contributions from Norma Richard)
NEW HOR1ZO\S DM:ANON/1f. COWJETANTS AND LEARNIM; RESOURCES
3
Copyright © 1991 Paula Jorde Bloom
Distributed by Gryphon House, Inc. P.O. Box 275
Mt. Rainier, MD 20712 (301) 779-6200
Cover design. Graves Fowler Associates
All rights reserved. Except for the inclusion of brief quotations in a review, no part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording. or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. All inquiries should be addressed to New Horizons. PO. Box 863, Lake Forest, Illinois 60045 (FAX 708-295-2968).
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 91-062329
Publisher's Cataloging in Publication (Prepared by Quality Books, Inc.)
Bloom, Paula Jorde Blueprint for action : achieving center-based change
through staff development / Paula Jorde Bloom, Marilyn Sheerer, Joan Britz,
p cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-9621894-2-1
1. Day cart. centers United States Administration. 2. Education, Preschool. 3. Organizational change. 4. Employees Training of I. Sheerer, Marilyn. II. Britz, Joan. III. Title.
HV854
ISBN #0-9621894-2-1
372.21 0E3191-1106
MARC
Printed in the United States of America
4
Acknowledgments
The impetus for this book came from our work on a Head Start leadership training grant. The grant provided the opportunity for us to work collaboratively in developing training
materials for Head Start personnel. It also provided the opportunity for us to formulate our ideas regarding change in early childhood settings. The experience convinced us that a comprehensive model of staff development was needed one that would address the concerns of child care center directors in a variety of settings.
.
We are appreciative of the valuable insights we received from the graduate students in the Early Childhood Leadership and Advocacy Program at National-Louis University. These direc- tors and teachers worked with us to test and refine the theoretical ideas upon which this staff develop-
ment model rests. Thanks, as well, to Barbara Willer of NAEYC
whose helpful suggestions on earlier versions of
the manuscript helped guide our understanding of how center-based staff development initiatives could enhance collective efforts to professionalize the field of early childhood.
We are particularly indebted to Karen Kelly, Director of the Gertrude Nielsen Child Care Center; Susan LoSavio, Director of the Busy Bee Children's Center; and Delores Herman, Director of the Dearhaven Child Care Center for their valuable feedback in pilot-testing the exercises and assess- ment tools included in this book.
Appreciation also goes to those who assisted in the production of the manuscript. Without the research, typing, and editorial assistance of Connie Lohman, Vanessa Payton, Linda Rohaly, and Jason Erb, this book certainly would not have been possible.
And finally, we are deeply grateful to our spouses and families for their continued encourage-
ment and support for all our professional endeavors.
Blueprint for Action III
Table of Contents
Introduction 1
Chapter I Child Care Centers as Organizations: A Social Systems Perspective 5
What is a System? 5
Components of the System 6
External environment (the outside world) 6
People (the cast of characters) 9
Structure (formal and informal arrangements) 11
Processes (how things get done) 12
Culture (what makes it unique) 13
Outcomes (the effects of the program) 15
Characteristics of Centers When Viewed as Social Systems 16
Change in one componert will have an effect on other components 16
Organizational equilibrium is a desirable goal 17
Organizations must change and adapt 17
Organizational health is related to the congruence between components 17
A Final Word 18
Chapter II The Dynamics of Organizational Change 19
What is Change9 19
The impetus for change 21
The Nature of Change 21
Change is a process, not an event 21
What works well in one setting may not in another 22
Success depends on the felt need for change 22
All change isn't necessarily good 22
Change has a ripple effect 23
Models of Change 23
Top-down change 23
Bottom-up change 24
Collaborative change 25
Factors Influencing the Adoption of Innovations 26
Attributes of the innovation 27
Steps in the Change Process 28
A Final Word 28
Blueprint for Action
Chapter III The Director's Role in the Change Process 31
The Director as Change Agent 31 Building a vision for change 32 Serving as a catalyst for change 32 Creating the climate for change 32 Providing resources, support, and recognition 34 Managing (and protecting) time 34
The Challenge of Balancing Individual and Organizational Needs 35 Leadership sty'e 36
Change Viewed From a Systems Perspective 37 People strategies 38 Structural strategies 39 Process strategies 40
Tuning into Staff's Levels of Concern 41 A Final Word 43
Chapter IV Assessing Organizational Needs 45
The Importance of Assessment 45 Diagnosing a Center's Need for Change 46
Pinpointing problems 46 Collecting accurate data 52 Different approaches for data collection 53
Tools for Assessing Organizational Needs 55 Organizational climate 56 Leadership style 56 Goal consensus and communication 56 Collegiality and collaboration 56 Decision-making processes 57 Supervision and performance appraisal processes 57 Organizational norms 57 Group meeting processes 57 Parent satisfaction 58
Moving Forward: Considering Different Strategies for Change 58 Analyzing the situation: Assessing helping and hindering forces 58 Generating possible solutions: Weighing alternatives 60 Developing an action plan 60 Implementing the action plan 64 Evaluating progress 65
A Final Word 66
vl Blueprint ior Action 7
Chapter V Assessing Individual Needs 71
Adults As Individuals 71
Personal background 71
Educational level/training/experience 72
I nterests/skills/talents 72
Personal traits and characteristics 73
Needs and expectations 80
Adult development stages 81
Career stages 83
Organizational commitment 86
Level of motivation 87
Professional orientation 88
Beliefs and values 89
Concomitant roles 90
Tools for Assessing Individual Needs 90
Teaching practices 90
Learning style 91
Temperament/psycrological type 91
Beliefs and values 91
Job satisfaction 91
Professional orientation 91
Role clarity 91
Organizational commitment 92
Perceived problems 92
Flexibility/openness to change 92
A Final Word 92
Chapter VI Implementing an Individualized Model of Staff Development 95
Facilitating Change in Individuals 95
Assumptions of individualized staff development 95
Supervisory style 98
Staff development strategies 100
Staff development content areas 104
Implementing Individualized Staff Development 105
Gathering data 106
Compiling an individual profile 107
Conducting a planning conference 107
Developing a goals blueprint 108
Writing ca staff development action plan 108
Implementing the action plan 110
Evaluating progress 110
A Final Word 110
Blueprint for Action v11
8
Chapter VII Linking Staff Development to Perfonnance Appraisal and a Career Ladder
Linking Staff Development to Performance Appraisal Principles underlying effective performance appraisal Conducting the performance appraisal conference Common errors in conducting performance appraisal Refining your present performance appraisal system
Linking Staff Development to a Professional Career Ladder Assumptions about career ladders Developing a career ladder for your center
A Final Word
121
121
122
127
134
135
135
136
136
146
149
150
150
151
152
152
153
153
153
153
155
156
161
169
263
Chapter VIII Meshing Organizational and Individual Needs
Overcoming Resistance to Change The psychological element Risk of failure
Change as loss Not everyone sees things the same way
Establishing a Collaborative Environment Working toward a common vision achieving goal consensus Involving staff in decision making Setting conditions for collaboration
What Have We Learned from the Children's Corner? A Final Word
References
Appendix A.
Appendix B.
Assessment Tools
Sample Forms
rill Blueprint for Action
9
Introduction
Anyone who has chased the shadow of a center director for even a brief time knows that being an effective administrator means wearing many hats: budget analyst, building
and grounds manager, staff supervisor, record- keeper, receptionist, community liaison, curriculum developer, instructional leader, public relations coordinator, program evaluator, fundraiser, nutri- tionist, nurse, and child advocate. The list is long and varied.
And the job seems to have gotten even more complex over the last decade. Indeed, when seasoned early childhood directors get together, one of the most common topics of discussion is how their administrative role has changed. Increased regulatory requirements, multiple funding
sources, more complicated fiscal reporting proce- dures, a greater number of families with special needs, more complex networks of social services to coordinate with, and a host of societal changes have dramatically altered the scope of responsibility
and the demands placed upon early childhood center directors.
The director stands center stage. Like the architect, engineer, and construction foreman all in one, the director is the individual responsible for designing and constructing a model program. It is indeed a prodigious task, one for which few program administrators feel their training and education have adequately prepared them.
From our discussions with center directors, we are convinced that a critical element is missing in the
training and education of most early childhood program administrators a theoretical framework for
understanding child care centers as organizations. A
theoretical frarnework is important because it serves
as a blueprint guiding our actions and behavior. Without a perspective for interpreting the dynamics of
center life, directors are apt to go on tackling prob- lems in piecemeal fashion -- scrambling to put out
one fire at a time without ever really making lasting
changes that improve their programs. We have found that even in those centers that
regularly engage in a range of staff development activities, there seldom exists a coherent model or philosophy of professional development. In other words, when asked to explah why they engage in the practices they do, few directors can articulate a rationale for their approach. A philosophy of professional development is important because it gives substance to action.
Blueprint for Action is designed to help you move
beyond a "quick fix" notion of staff development and center improvement by serving as a guide for program analysis and action. It details a comprehen-
sive method for analyzing the different components of your program to increase its effectiveness. It will help you diagnose common organizational problems
and select appropriate strategies for implementing change and evaluating progress. It will also help you
change the "us" versus "them" atmosphere that permeates many child care centers. In its place will develop a collective sense that the responsibility for
center change is a shared one.
Blueprint for Action 1
1 0
Blueprint for Action will serve as a practical resource for directors engaged in improving the overall quality of their programs. The premise for this
book rests on two basic assumptions. First, every center has both areas of strength and areas of weak-
ness. The "quality" center is distinguished by its willingness to deal with its imperfections. Lightfoot (1983) used the term "consciousness of imperfec- tion" to describe this organizational characteristic of the exemplary high schools she observed. We think the term is just as apropos to the early childhood setting. The role of the director is one of a catalyst, setting the climate that allows staff to reflect on how program practices might be improved.
The second assumption is that center change can come about only through change in individuals. That is why the emphasis in this book is on linking individual needs to organizational needs. The blueprint presented here will serve as a guide for enhancing the professional development of all who work together in a center to achieve a shared vision.
In this book, we use the terms professional development and staff development interchange- ably. This use reflects common parlance in the literature. Technically, however, professional devel-
opment refers to the growth and change of an individual while staff development refers to the collective professional development of teachers on a staff. It is appropriate in the context of this discus- sion to use the terms interchangeably because the model of staff development presented in these pages is one that is truly individualized.
A word about how this book Is organized
The first three chapters of this book provide a global perspective on the issues. Chapter I presents a social systems model to help you better understand the significance of day-to-day life in your center. At first glance, this chapter may appear weighty, perhaps "too theoretical." We encourage you to read it carefully, though, because it will give you a perspective for better understanding how child care centers function. This chapter is also important because it intro- duces the terminology used throughout the book.
2 Blueprint for Action
Chapter I introduces you to a case study featuring Martha, the director of the Children's Corner. Martha's experience of how she applied the ideas presented in this book will breathe life into the theoretical concepts that serve as the foundation for this approach to center improvement.
Chapter II addresses the nature of change and provides an overview of how change occurs in child care centers. Change, as discussed in this chapter, implies altering the people, structure, and processes of a center to achieve more desired outcomes. This chapter sets the stage for Chapter III which describes more specifically the director's role in the change process. In addition to the case study of the Children's Corner, throughout these first three overview chapters are scattered "real life" vignettes connecting the concepts presented to practical situations similar to those you may have encountered. As you read these examples, think of your own center. Jot notes in the margin. This will help you make that important link between
theory and practice. In the second half of this book we connect the
theoretical concepts introduced in the first three chapters to a blueprint for action for you to imple- ment at your own center. Chapter IV looks at how you can go about assessing the needs of your center as a whole. This chapter explores issues regarding communication, supervisory processes, goal consensus, leadership style, center climate, and a host of other organizational characteristics. A step by step process for collecting data about your center is presented with numerous assess- ment tools ready for you to adapt.
Chapter V looks more specifically at how you can assess the needs of the individuals who work at your center. It presents a framework from which you can develop individual profiles for each member of your staff. This information will serve as
the springboard from which to implement the staff development model you will learn about as a result of reading Chapter VI.
Chapter VI takes you through a step by step process of designing an individualized model of staff development for your center. This model will
1 1
serve as a template for putting your philosophy of center improvement into action. The model of Vail development presented in this chapter is in sharp contrast to what we customarily call inservice education. Inservice is typically interpreted as something done "to" teachers to remedy some defect. These occasions are often nothing more than an indoor spectator sport where an inspira- tional speaker is invited, a smorgasbord of workshops offered, and, of course, gallons of coffee and dozens of donuts consumed.
Chapter VII links the notion of individualized staff
development to the supportive organizational struc- tures that will ensure its success. This chapter presents information that will help you design a comprehensive performance appraisal system and a
career ladder for professional advancement. Chapter
VIII, the final chapter of this book, talks about how you can mesh organizational needs and individual
needs into a unified approach for achieving change. Collaboration, shared decision making, and team building are the driving forces that make such a vision of center-based change possible.
To help get you started in implementing the ideas proposed in this book, we have included an extensive appendix of assessment tools and sample forms that you can adopt or adapt to meet the specific needs of your program.
We are ardent believers that the blueprint for action detailed in this book works. Where the princi-
ples we have shared have been woven into the organizational life of a center, we have seen notable changes in staff morale and in overall program quality. We are confident you will experience the same degree of success at your center. Best of luck!
Paula, Marilyn, Joan
June, 1991
12 Blueprint for Action 3
Chapter 1
Child Care Centers as Organizations: A Social Systems Perspective
There are many different ways of thinking about early childhood centers as organiza- tions. Typically when directors are asked to "draw a picture of their organization," they
respond by illustrating some version of an organi- zational chart. This kind of model reflects the formal reporting relationships among jobs and the formal work units that make up the center. While this is one way to think about child care centers, it is a very limited view. It only addresses one aspect of the structure of the center, and captures only a small part of what goes on.
With a limited view of how centers function as organizations, directors are apt to think of indi- vidual incidents that occur in the everyday life of their programs as isolated events. Such a narrow perspective can hamper their ability to respond to situations appropriately. The result is that they are more likely to deal with problems that arise in a piecemeal fashion, failing to see the interconnec- tions between isolated problems.
We would like to propose another view of child care centers that takes a broader perspective of organizational life. This approach views centers as dynamic and open social systems. A social systems
perspective draws on the literature of organizational theorists such as Beer (1980), Bronfenbrenner (1979), Getzels and Guba (1957), Hoy and Miskel (1987), Katz and Kahn (1978), Moos (1976), Nadler and Tushman (1983) and Owens (1981).
In this chapter we connect the observations of these well-known management theorists with our
own experiences in the field of early childhood to construct a model of how child care centers func- tion as organizations. This perspective is important because as directors consider the serious busi- ness of improving their programs, it is critical that they look at the "whole" as well as the "parts," viewing their center as a true ecosystem. This chapter provides the framework for that analysis.
What is a System?
The concept of social systems is a general one that applies to groups regardless of size or purpose. Thus we can also think of our family, club, or a corporation as a social system. In simplest terms, a system is a set of interrelated parts. A system is characterized by the interde- pendence of its parts, differentiation from its environment, a complex network of social relation- ships, and its own unique culture. When the organization interacts with its external environ- ment, it is an open system.
Now let's take this abstract concept and see if we can come up with some concrete examples of how systems theory can be applied to early child- hood programs. Central to a systems theory approach is the notion that the system is comprised
of subsystems or components. On a very rudimen- tary level, for example, we could say a child care center is comprised of different classrooms, or even different groups within the classroom. This is just one way of thinking about programs as an inte-
Blueprint for Action 5
grated whole made up of interacting parts. It's anal- ogous to an automobile. A car is made up of many different parts all interacting to perform a specific function. This conceptualization, however, is still too basic; it doesn't capture the complexity of the inter- acting components of child care centers. The remainder of this chapter will describe a more detailed model of child care centers when viewed from a social systems perspective. This model includes several components.
Components of the System
Each component or subsystem of the model described in the following pages is definable and separate but also interrelated and interdependent. These components consist of the external environ- ment, people, structure, processes, culture, and outcomes. Table 1.1 will serve as a useful refer- ence. It summarizes the key elements of each component. Figure 1.1 graphically presents the relationship between these components. As you read the description of each component, think of your own program and make marginal notes concerning the elements of your setting that seem to fit the description provided.
External Environment (the outside world)
Centers do not exist in a vacuum. Every organi-
zation exists within the context of a larger
environment which includes individuals, groups, other organizations, and even social forces, all of which have a potentially powerful impact on how the
organization performs (Nadler & Tushman, 1983).
Early childhood centers, for example, exist in an environment from which they receive inputs such as
money, personnel, and clients (parents and children)
and to which they produce outcomes. This environ- ment also includes governmental and regulatory bodies, competitors, and special interest groups. It is critical to organizational functioning. The external environment makes demands on the center. For example, it may require a certain kind of service or a
certain level of quality. The environment may also place constraints on organizational action. It may limit the types or kinds of activities in which the
6 Blueprint for Action
1 4
center can engage. For example, many state licensing requirements put constraints on the child care center to conform to certain standards. In the mid 1980s, child care centers around the country were severely .impacted by the insurance industry when it raised insurance rates for programs. Many programs had to shut down; others found they needed to raise tuition rates or adjust their expenses
in order to cover the cost of increased insurance premiums. Finally, the environment provides oppor- tunities which the organization can explore. For example, a program sponsored by a large social service agency may be able to tap other resources of the agency such as volunteers or expertise in program management.
Centers as social systems can be viewed as open systems because they interact with their external environment. The environment in which centers exist has certain values, desired goals, infor-
mation, human resources, and financial resources. In many respects the external environment creates the context for the organization. It is the source of the
inputs and in return receives the outputs.
The values of the broader society as well as the immediate commurity in which the program exists also influence the center. These are two other facets
of the external environment that must be consid- ered. Problems often occur when directors perceive their centers as closed systems disregarding their dependency on the broader environment. But centers are indisputably affected by the values of the community, by politics, and by history. Some examples of the external environment are:
sponsoring agency for example, Head Start grantee agency, church or synagogue, public school, YWCA, United Way, military command
local community the immediate neighbor- hood surrounding the center; mental health and family support services in the community
professional community professional asso- ciations, universities, and teachers' unions that impact the program; other child care centers
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Figure 1.1
Child Care Centers As Organizations: A Social Systems Perspective
EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT
Et*
CULTURE
STRUCTURE
FROCESSES
THE. CHILD CARE CENTER
, OE
.110 OUTCOMES
411
8 Blueprint for Action
17
legislative bodies and regulatory agencies that impact the program for example, the state's Department of Children and Family Services or Department of Education
society -- social, economic, and political climate
business community support, expertise,
resources
technological environment the availability of different technological resources to which the center has access such as computer support, duplicating, or fax services
Case Study: The Children's Corner Martha is the director of a Head Start program in a
large metropolitan area. Her program. the Children's
Corner, is one of five Head Start programs operated
by a large nonprofit social service agency. The
agency also operates a nursing home and recre- ation center for senior citizens. Martha's program is housed in a small church.
Martha is keenly aware of the constraints as well
as the benefits of the external environment in which
her program operates. On the down side. she feels
she is inundated with paper work both in meeting
Head Start's Performance Standards and the admin-
istrative demands of the social service agency that
sponsors her, She also has to accommodate the demands of the church which houses her program. That means putting away all her equipment arid supplies on Friday afternoon so the church can use her classrooms for Sunday School.
On the positive side, Martha recognizes that she
receives many benefits from her external environ-
ment. Her agency, for example, is able to get a discount on food, eouipment, and supplies because
it purchases products in bulk quantities for all its centers. Martha also doesn't have to worry about
trying to recruit new teachers. Finding qualified candidates for teaching positions is taken care of by
the central administrative office of her agency. Since
the agency also operates a nursing home and recre-
ation center for the elderly. Martha was able to tap
into this resource for a pool of volunteers to start an intergenerational day care program at her center.
Because the context of each child care center is unique, so too will be the constraints posed by
the external environment. Programs that are funded by the military, for example, have a very different set of issues to deal with than those we saw confronting Martha in her Head Start program. Likewise, the effects of the external environment will be quite different for programs in the for-profit proprietary or corporate sector.
Mark and Jennifer are co-owners of a large, for-profit proprietary day care center. Their goal is to provide high quality care at afford- able rates. They believe that with cost-effective measures, they can still make a profit while providing a needed service for the community. Mark and Jennifer are fairly autonomous in their decision making, not hampered by having to get things approved by a board of directors. They also feel lucky that they are not burdened by an unending stream of paper- work for a sponsoring agency. This part of their arrangement they like. They find, however that there are other aspects of the external environ- ment that impact them adversely. These have to do with stereotypical perceptions held by the local community and the professional community about private, for-profit day care. Mark and Jennifer feel sometimes they are swimming upstream against the tide of public opinion and negative press regarding poor quality day care offered by some in the for- profit sector They believe that parents enrolling children in their program are far more critical of the tuition even though their rates are competitive with nonprofit programs in the area. They even sense that the licensing agent is more critical of their program just because it is a private, for-profit day care. Reversing these impressions has consumed consider- able time and energy. Mark and Jennifer are dedicated to doing a good job, but they often feel unappreciated.
People (the cast of characters)
19 Organizational theorists refer to the people component of the system as the psychosocial subsystem. The psychoso-
S
Blueprint for Action 9
cial subsystem is made up of individuals (psycho) and groups of individuals (social) within the center. People are the raw material of any social system. This component includes the values, attitudes, motivation, morale, and personal behavior of each individual who works for the center. Also included are relationships with others and interpersonal issues such as trust, openness, and group dynamics which ultimately help or hinder the center in its effort to achieve a common goal (Kast & Rosenzweig, 1970).
The people subsystem is based on the idea that a set of individuals is more than an aggregate of persons. As people interact in a social setting, networks of social relations have important effects on behavior (Hoy & Miskel, 1987). Social systems are composed of personalities. Although people occupy roles and positions in the center, they are not simply actors devoid of unique needs. No two teachers or directors in the same situation behave exactly the same way. They have different person- alities, needs, and expectations that are reflected in
their behavior. Thus individuals shape their roles with their own styles of behavior.
Beer (1980) reminds us that it is important to cistinguish between the "can do" or abilities of an individual and the "will do" or motivational aspects of performance. Motivation ultimately is the ener- gizing force needed to coalesce people into action to meet organizational goals. Indeed, when individ- uals accept jobs at child care centers, they enter into what Schein (1985) calls a "psychological contract"; they expect certain rewards in return for meeting organizational expectations. For each indi- vidual this reciprocal relationship will be slightly different because of the unique motivational char- acteristics of each person.
Just how do people differ? The following describes some of the things that go into making every individual so unique. A more complete description of each of these characteristics will be offered in Chapter V.
personal background sex, age, ethnic/ cultural heritage, socio-economic group, family history
10 Bluepnnt for Action
educational level/training
work experience
interests our varying preferences
skills and talents
personal traits and characteristics energy level, level of abstract thinking, temperament, learning style, flexibility, general dispositions (e.g. curiosity, nurturance), degree of self- confidence/self-efficacy
needs internal forces that determine the goal and the direction of behavior such as the need for achievement, security, or acceptance
expectations ideas about what we want and how we should be treated
adult development stage
career stage
organizational commitment
level of motivation
professional orientation
values those core beliefs that guide our behavior
concomitant roles one's obligations outside of work
When individuals come together in groups, the group takes on a kind of collective personality that is the composite of the background character- istics, needs, values, interests, skills/talents, expectations, and dispositions of the individuals making up the group. Typically people seek inter- action with those tley like and avoid interaction with those to whom they are not attracted. Some groups are actively sought out, and admired; others are not. And groups have their own person- ality evidenced by their degree of cohesiveness (Barker, Wahlers, Watson, & Kibler, 1987).
Groups can also be viewed as dominant coalitions. These may be formal coalitions (e.g. by role administrators, teachers, support staff, parents) or informal coalitions (cliques). Some
coalitions have more status, power, and influence than others. The different patterns of interaction among individuals and groups, and the status structure defined by them, shape the social struc- ture of the group (Hoy & Miskel, 1987).
Case Study: The Children's Corner
Prior to accepting the directorship at the Children's Corner, Martha was the director of a
parent cooperative nursery school. In that previous
position, she was confronted daily with the realities
of a very influential "dominant coalition," the parents
who comprised her board of directors. After three
years as director. Martha finally decided to leave her position because she felt that on too many occasions, she had to compromise her professional
judgment in order to appease a very diverse group
of parents. When she accepted the position at the Children's Corner, Martha had no idea how strongly
the people dynamic in her new lob would also influ-
ence her sense of professional fulfillment. At the first
staff meeting she scheduled, she was struck by the
level of resistance and defensiveness of three members of the staff. These three teachers were clearly a dominant coalition. They considered them-
selves the "old guard," having taught in this Head Start program since the early 1970s. Martha was determined not to be intimidated by them. but she
also recognized that they were a force to be reck- oned with. Whenever one of the other teachers would suggest a new idea or approach. Mary. Bea.
or Georgia would snap back with, "We tried that years ago. It didn't work then. there's no reason to
think it should now." Martha felt stymied. She knew
she had to contend with this threesome or she would be frustrated in her efforts to make her staff
work as a unified team.
Structure (formal and informal arrangements)
1--cc-.1) The structure of an organization is similar
to the frame of a house. Like the
supporting beams of a building, the struc-
ture is the skeleton or supporting framework that holds the center together. We can think of the struc-
ture of a child care center as including several elements: the actual physical arrangement of space;
the size (number of students and staff); shape (legal structure, lines of authority and division of responsi-
bility); and the formalized policies and procedures
guiding behavior (usually detailed in a center's bylaws, or parent and employee handbooks).
The key feature of the formal structure is that
the roles, goals, and division of labor are consciously designed to guide the activities of members (Hoy & Miskel, 1987). Implicit in this formal structure is the power and status relation- ships of individuals working at the center.
Not every center has formalized all the following elements of structure, nor can we assume
that what is written is actually how practices are carried out. We will get to this later when we talk about organizational processes. The following are common structures of child care programs:
legal structure/size
legal governing structure for-profit/nonprofit;
public/private
size student enrollment; total administra- tive, teaching, and support staff
policies and procedures
program composition type of proaram (e.g. half-day/full-day); hours; types of services provided (e.g. infant care, preschool, school- aged child care)
policies regarding children enrollment, teacher-child ratios; group size; group compo-
sition
policies regarding parents' roles and respon-
sibilities
policies regarding staff recruitment and training requisite qualifications; hiring guidelines (e.g. affirmative action)
division of labor job titles; roles; responsi- bilities
supervisory structure lines of authority, status
performance appraisal policies
pay/promotion system salary scale: career
ladder
20
Blueprint for Action 11
accounting, budgeting, and financial manage- ment system
physical structure
physical environment for children and adults
materials and equipment
size square footage of indoor and ou. oor space
philosophical structure
philosophy/mission the center's written goals and objectives
written curriculum
While there are numerous examples of the importance and impact of structural components of child care centers, the following vignette captures the relationship between aspects of a center's structure and the program's outcomes.
Connie had taught kindergarten in the public school system for 20 years. With a small inheritance from her uncle, she decided to leave the security of her job and open a preschool of her own. In starting her new school, Connie thought a lot about the struc- tural elements of her program. Things like establishing the legal governing structure, deciding on program composition, and formal- izing her financial management system all seemed fairly straightforward. When it came to making decisions about the supervisory and performance appraisal structure, however, or how she would go about delineating roles and responsibilities, Connie was less sure of how to
proceed. She had previously worked for a district that she perceived was a bureaucratic straightjacket. It had so many rules and regu- lations that she had felt constricted in her every movement. Connie was intent on not creating the same kind of bureaucratic envi- ronment in her school. She also felt strongly that job descriptions, reporting relationships, supervisory and training policies, program philosophy, and educational objectives should
12 Blueprint for Action
be developed once she had her staff in place. When Cornie hired her first teachers and aides, she was disappointed to find that they floundered with the informal structure of her program. While they were excellent teachers in the classroom, they wanted and needed more definitive guidelines about center policies and practices. They complained that the lack of formal job descriptions and clearly delineated roles and responsibilities created confusion in knowing who was expected to do what, how, and when. Further, they complained that the lack of a formalized pay and promotion system bred competition between staff and intensified feelings of job insecurity. During the first year of operating her new school, Connie experi- enced a 50% turnover in staff. It really hurt her to see such able teachers leave her program. The experience convinced her she needed to take action to clarify the personnel policies and procedures of her school.
Processes (how things get done)
This component of the system includes all the behaviors and interactions that occur at the individual or group level. While the
structure provides the framework, processes occur when individuals interact within a given structure. The processes of a center are the cement that holds it together. The processes tell us how things actually
get done. In other words, often a center will have a stated policy, but the way that policy is carried out is very different than what appears in writing.
The following are some of the more common processes that characterize child care centers:
ca)
leadership style the type of leadership that characterizes the director's behavior in carrying out the center's mission
decision-making processes who is respon- sible for making what types of decisions, when, and where?
problem-solving processes how problems are solved (or not solved)
communication processes ways in which
21
oral and written information is communicated both formally and informally; the vertical and horizontal communication network of the center
planning and goal setting processes the ways in which a program's philosophy and objectives are translated into action
group meeting processes how often meet- ings take place, who is expected to attend, and the patterns of behavior that characterize meetings
interpersonal relations the type and quality of daily interactions between individuals; the degree of cohesiveness and esprit de corps that characterize human relations at the center
conflict management how differences in style, beliefs, and opinion are resolved
supervisory/training processes how day-to-
day supervision is handled for the novice as well as the experienced teacher; the type and frequency of inservice staff development
center evaluation processes how the program as a whole is evaluated
performance appraisal processes how administrative, teaching, and support staff are
evaluated, both formally and informally
socialization practices how new staff are socialized into the center; how the center molds the behavior of personnel to make indi- vidual beliefs and values correspond with those of the center
child assessment practices how children's progress is evaluated
teaching practices the behaviors that char-
acterize teacher-child interactions in the
classroom
Case Stay: The ChIldra's Coma One of the things that impressed Martha when
she was hired for the position as director of The Children's Corner was the written philosophy of the program. Martha was impressed with the well-artic- ulated statement that appeared in the parents' handbook. It stressed the importance of develop- mentally appropriate experiences and a child-centered curriculum as well as a learning environment that encouraged exploration and experimentation. But Martha was hired during the summer months; she did not have an opportunity to see the program in action. She was horrified during the first week of school when she saw the teachers distributing dittoed worksheets to 3- and 4-year-old children. She witnessed children waiting in line to go to the bathroom, waiting at the table to get their snack, and waiting to be called on in large group activities that stretched their patience and attention span. When she questioned the teachers about what she saw, to her surprise they stated that they felt they were providing children with developmen- tally appropriate experiences. Martha realized that the incongruence in what she had read as the center's educational philosophy and what she actu-
ally saw as everyday teaching practices would provide a real challenge for her in the months ahead. She wasn't sure how she would accomplish it, but she knew she had to begin to reduce the discrepancy between the stated philosophy of the program (structure) and the everyday teaching practices (processes) that were in place. Martha knew she had her work cut out for her.
Culture (what makes it unique)
The culture of an organization describes the basic assumptions, shared beliefs, and orientations that emerge to unite
members of a group (Schein, 1985). Firestone and Corbett (1988) define the culture of a school as the socially shared and transmitted knowledge of what is, and what ought to be, symbolized in act and artifact. The culture, they state, "provides points of order and stability in the blooming, buzzing confu-
sion of everyday life. It helps to clarify what is important and what is not" (p. 335). In the early childhood setting, the culture of a center includes the following elements:
f
22
Blueprint for Action 13
shared values the collective beliefs or prin- ciples about what is important in life (e.g. openness, trust, honesty, cooperation, team- work)
norms expectations for what is appropriate and acceptable in everyday behavior
history of the center
traditions of the center
climate collective perceptions of staff about different organizational practices
ethics a shared system or code of morals guiding professional obligations and practice at the center
Some of these elements of the culture need further clarification. For example, the distinction between norms and values is sometimes a fuzzy one. Generally, values define the ends of human behavior, and social norms describe the legitimate and more explicit means for pursuing those ends (Hoy & Miskel, 1987). When we make a value judg- ment, we make a subjective estimate of quality. That estimate is based on our principles and beliels of what we feel is important in life. Norms, on the other hand, are really the standards or codes of expected behavior. As people work together, implicit agreement develops about the ways in which they are expected to behave in a variety of situations. These patterns become stable over time and define what is appropriate and acceptable behavior (Jorde-Bloom, 1986a). We use the term norms to describe these rules about behavior. Most child care centers have norms about everyday demeanor, the use of space and materials, the appropriate use of time and expecta- tions for workload, professional conduct with children and parents, collegiality, communication, decision making, and change and experimentation.
Jeff had never thought much before about the norms of a center until he happened to walk into the 3-year-old classroom at his center one morning to help orient a new assistant teacher who had just been hired. Jeff observed
14 Blueprint for Action
a series of incidents that forced him to reflect on how subtle the norms of appropriate conduct are in each work setting. The new assistant teacher, Valerie, had worn an old pair of jeans and a sweatshirt to work that morning. She had just come out of the kitchen with a coffee cup in hand and was wandering around the classroom introducing herself to the chil- dren. "Hi Jason," she said from across the room in a loud voice to a child who had just entered the classroom and was getting his name tag from his cubbie. At that moment Jeff was called back to the office to attend to an administrative issue. It wasn't until the end of the week that he had a chance to revisit Valerie's classroom. When he walked into the classroom, he couldn't believe he was observing the same assistant teacher Valerie was wearing a nice pair of pants and sweater She was quietly making her way around the classroom assisting children with their projects. She did not have her coffee cup in hand. When
a child entered the classroom, she quietly made her way over to the cubbies, knelt on her knees, and softly greeted the child with a friendly hello and pat on the head. Jeff was impressed. He talked to the head teacher to find out if she had taken Valerie aside and instructed her about the do's and don'ts of appropriate behavior and conduct at the center "I didn't need to," she said. "Valerie just figured it out herself by watching the teachers and checking their reactions to her behavior I guess we send a pretty clear message about what behavior is expected at this place."
The history of a center is also part of its culture. Centers are strongly influenced by events in the past. For example, a center that has had alle-
gations of child abuse levied against it may feel the effects of the adverse publicity that the incident generated for many years to come.
Related to history are all the traditions that char-
acterize a center. For example, some centers have an annual summer picnic for staff; other centers host a holiday party for staff and their families in
23
December. These traditions play an important role in
helping to define the uniqueness of each center.
Culture is often used as a synonym for climate. The two concepts, organizational culture and orga- nizational climate, though related, are conceptually distinct. Culture is the more inclusive concept, taking in values, norms, ethics, traditions, and the history of a center in addition to its climate. In the context of child care, we can think of organizational
climate as a kind of global perception of the perceived quality of a center. These perceptions are
subjective interpretations which vary between people. This is because people percei\ e reality difUently depending on their role in the center, their value orientation, and the context of the situation. Organizational climate is thus the collective percep- tions (shared beliefs) about the people, processes, and structure. It is akin to the personality of a center.
These perceptions about organizational prac- tices can be viewed from several dimensions: degree of collegiality; opportunities for professional growth; degree of supervisor support; clarity of communication, policies, and procedures; the center's reward system; the center's decision- making structure; degree of goal consensus; task orientation; the center's physical setting; and the degree of innovativeness or creativity. While percep-
tions in each of these areas certainly are related, research has shown that they are distinct enough to
warrant separate dimensions (Jorde-Bloom, 1988a). One of the hallmarks of a true profession is that
it has a code of ethics guiding the decision making of practitioners. While early childhood education has not yet achieved full professional status in society, individuals working in the field have a working set of assumptions that dictate their behavior when confronted with moral dilemmas. The ethics that undergird their behavior may or may
not conform to the stated ethics of the early child- hood profession (Feeney & Kipnis, 1989; Katz & Ward, 1978). An example of this discrepancy would
be the director who knowingly enrolls more children in her program than is allowed by the licensing code for her state. The collective sense of ethics of teachers and administrators working for a particular
program can be said to be part of its culture. To be
sure, the center's code of ethics is a powerful force
shaping individual and collective behavior.
Outcomes (the effects of the program)
We can think of outcomes as resulting from the
intersection of people, structure, and processes. Figure 1.1 on page 8 visually portrays this relation- ship. Outcomes can be conceptualized on several different levels: the organizational level; the group functioning or staff level; the client level (both parents and children); and the community or broader societal level.
organization professional reputation of the center; fiscal viability; internal efficiency and effectiveness; the center's professional orien- tation
staff absenteeism; turnover; level of
competence; job satisfaction; degree of commitment to the center; sense of personal and professional fulfillment
children social and cognitive competence; overall health
parents overall satisfaction with the program; degree of perceived support from the center
community/society service provided
The outcomes of a center essentially serve as a barometer for organizational effectiveness. But as Hoy and Miskel (1987) remind us, organiza- tional effectiveness is a multidimensional concept. No single criterion can capture the complex nature of organizational functioning. Some outcomes of a center are readily apparent and easy to measure; others, however, are more subtle and difficult to assess.
A problem arises in some situations when directors and boards have a lack of adequate data and base decisions about outcomes (center effec-
tiveness) on inference. The following three examples illustrate this point and underscore the importance of using multiple sources of evidence to assess an organization's effectiveness.
24
Blueprint for Action 15
When enrollment at a center is full and a long waiting list exists, one might naturally infer that the program has a positive reputation in the community. But that inference may be presumptuous. Full enrollment could also be due to the lack of other viable options for parents in the community.
A board of a center, in looking at its high turnover rate of staff, might be tempted to conclude that the quality of work life at the center was unacceptable or that the director was not doing a good job. This may or may not be the case, however. A high rate of turnover could be due to faulty hiring prac- tices of the board. For example, the board could be hiring individuals who are overquali- fied for the position and who quickly become dissatisfied with the pay and lack of challenge in their jobs.
Parents are generally quite vocal when they are dissatisfied with an aspect of a program. It is natural for directors to focus on only the negative feedback they hear and conclude they are not meeting parents' needs. This conclusion may be erroneous, though, because many parents who are pleased with a program often do not take the time to compliment the teaching or administrative staff. The director may be getting an unrepre- sentative sample of parents' true perceptions about program quality.
If we look back again at Figure 1.1 on page 8, we see the arrows extend outward from the outcomes component back to the external environ- ment. This completes the loop of influences. Sometimes the effects of outcomes on the external environment are strong and direct as in the case of a higher demand for services when a program has achieved a strong reputation.
Other times the effect can have far-reaching consequences. We have seen, for example, how a few well-puulicized cases of child abuse in child care centers have resulted in legislation in several states mandating fingerprinting of all child care
16 Blueprint for Action
workers and new child abuse reporting procedures.
On a more positive note, we have also seen how the
highly publicized program outcomes of the Perry Preschool Project in Ypsilanti, Michigan (Berrueta- Clement, Schweinhart, Barnett, Epstein, & Weikart,
1984) have been used by child care advocates to increase funding for disadvantaged children.
Characteristics of Centers When Viewed as Social Systems
Now that we have looked at all the compo- nents of the child care center as a social system, let us turn our attention to some of the common characteristics of centers when viewed as systems.
Change in One Compunent WiH Have an Effect on
Other Components
Central to a social systems perspective is the notion that change in one component of a center will
have a rippling effect throughout the social system of
the center. For example, the hiring of a new director or master teacher will clearly alter different processes at the center. Likewise, a change in the structure of a center (for example, a change in the size or the division of labor) will have a strong influ- ence in shaping the attitudes, behavior, and expectations of individuals who work at the center. Changes in the external environment, as well, will impact a center in different ways. State and federally
funded programs, for example, are keenly aware of how the external environment affects organizational
practices, particularly when there are changes in funding levels or regulatory requirements.
Kagan (1990) argues that one of the shortcom- ings of our current care and education system for young children has been that it is "too fragmented," fostering competition and inequities. Kagan stresses the need within the external environment for greater collaboration and inter-agency working agreements that foster cross-agency staff training, common planning for new programs, and informa- tion and resource sharing. She states, "Providers are coming to understand that such creative plan- ning can yield innovative use of limited dollars and
25
result in programs that better meet children's needs and parents' schedules" (p. 20). In other words, changes in the external environment can facilitate smoother program functioning in the internal components of the center,
Organizational Equilibrium is a Desirable Goal
Most organizational theorists believe main- taining a sense of equilibrium is essential for the continued adequacy and viability of an organiza- tion's ability to carry out its functions. An example will help illustrate this point. People work in early childhood education in order to satisfy certain needs. And, presumably, the center where they work has needs of its own which are fulfilled by the participants who function in its various roles. Getzels and Guba (1957) describe this as the inter- play between the nomothetic (the organization's needs) and the idiographic (the personal needs of the individuals who fill various roles). From this perspective, organizational equilibrium means maintaining that delicate balance between meeting tne needs of the organization and those of the indi- vidual. As long as this state of equilibrium exists, the relationship presumably will be satisfactory, enduring, and relatively productive (Owens, 1981).
Organizations Must Change and Adapt
A social systems perspective gives us a dynamic view of the child care center. Social systems theory is not a static model of how organi- zations function. To the contrary, child care centers as organizations are dynamic in nature always in
flux, constantly adapting and changing. It goes without saying that to remain vital, thriving, and maintain a sense of equilibrium, centers must be flexible and adaptive. The ability to reexamine the current structure and processes of the program in light of changing trends is the key to this adaptation.
Sometimes these changes are abrupt and organizations must respond quickly. A tragic inci- dent in 1989 in a wealthy suburb of Chicago illustrates the point. A young woman went on a shooting rampage in an elementary school. Within days, virtually every educational institution in the surrounding communities had instituted new secu-
rity procedures. This single incident in the external environment had a strong and immediate impact on child care centers in the area. Directors of these programs knew they had to adapt and implement swift changes in order to calm the fears of parents and teachers about their children's safety.
Organizational Health is Related to the Congruence
Between Components
Matthew Miles (1969) defines a healthy orga- nization as one that "not only survives in its environment, but continues to cope adequately over the long haul, and continuously develops and extends its surviving and coping skills" (p. 390). Organizational health can be viewed as the rela- tive degree of congruence or "fit" between different components of the system.
Organizational health, Beer (1980) states, is the capacity of an organization to engage in ongoing self-examination aimed at identifying incongruities between components. For example, one aspect of the center's structure is the division of labor and the tasks associated with each job. The individuals assigned to do these tasks have certain characteristics (e.g., skill, knowledge, moti- vation, interest). When the individual's knowledge and skill match the knowledge and skill demanded by the task, performance (an outcome) will be more effective. Likewise, when the physical envi- ronment (structure) and philosophy (structure) of a program support the teaching practices (processes), better outcomes in the way of staff satisfaction and fulfillment will be ensured.
From these two examples, it is possible to see how a web of connections between the people, structure, and process components directly affect outcomes. Nadler and Tushman (1983) statb that just as each pair of elements within and between components has a high or low degree of congru- ence, so too does the aggregate model display a low or high level of system congruence. They believe that the greater the total degree of congru- ence or fit between the various components, the more effective will be the organization. The director's role in this assessment is central. In Chapter IV, we will discuss ways that directors can
26
Blueprint for Action 17
assess their programs to determine the degree of fit between various components.
A Final Word
A systems approach for describing early childhood centers can lead to a better under- standing of the impact of change and a more accurate estimate of anticipated outcomes. Moreover, the incorporation of a systems view of organizations into planning center change can help directors see a broader view of expected outcomes. The systems view of organizations in itself is not a planning strategy nor does it predict outcomes or results. It is merely a way of looking at centers as an integrated whole that is made up of interrelated, interacting parts. By asking what impact a particular change may have on all components of the system (external environment, people, structure, processes, culture, and outcomes), it is possible to be more aware of, and thus be better prepared to manage, tha negative aspects of change as well as to take Ldvantade of the strengths inherent in the center.
A social systems model also helps us under- stand the potential sources of conflict and problems that are part of organizational life. Many problems of
18 Bluepnnt tor Action
centers, for example, arise from the fundamental conflict between the needs and motives of an indi- vidual and the requirements of the organization. Individuals attempt to personalize their roles, that is to reshape bureaucratic roles, so that personal needs can be actualized. Conversely, the center attempts to mold and fit individuals into the prescribed roles in order to best achieve center goals. Thus it is natural that there will be an inherent
tension between these two elements in the system (Hoy & Miskel, 1987). We can see, then, how this relates to center outcomes. 'High morale, for example, typically results when organizational goals
and expectations are compatible with the collective needs of individuals.
One important implication of this model is that organizational improvement (change) involves first describing the system, then identifying (diag- nosing) problems, and finally analyzing the degree of fit to determine the causes of problems. This model implies that different configurations of key components can be used to gain better outcomes. Therefore, it is not a question of finding the "one best way" of managing, but rather determining effective combinations of components that will lead to desired outcomes for a specific center.
2 7
Chapter 2
The Dynamics of Organizational Change
In today's world, the question of whether change will occur is no longer relevant. Instead, the issue
is how can directors cope with the inevitable barrage of changes that confront them daily in an
attempt to keep their centers viable and current? As Hersey and Blanchard (1982) state, "Although change is a fact of life, if managers are to be effec- tive, they can no longer be content to let change occur as it will. They must be able to develop strate-
gies to plan, direct, and control change" (p. 266). This chapter will look at the nature of change in
child care centers. This overview will set the stage for
Chapter III which will look more specifically at the director's role in the change process. Two important points are central to this discussion. First, change is
an integral part of thriving child care centers. It is not
something to be avoided. To the contrary, change should be welcomed and to the extent possible, even
anticipated. Second, directors who understand the nature of change will not be seduced by "quick fix" solutions to the complex problems that beset their programs. As Kilman (1984) stresses, it is time we stop perpetuating the myth of simplicity. Organizations
generate complex problems that cannot be solved by
simple solutions. The only viable alternative is to develop a truly integrated approach to organizational
improvement.
Before proceeding, take a moment to complete Exercise #2.1. Reflect back on some change or inno-
vation you have been involved in and recall why or why not that change or innovation was or was not successful in achieving its desired outcomes.
What is Change?
In many respects change is really an abstrac- tion; it takes on personal meaning only when we can link it to specific examples that have some relevance. By definition, change is any significant alteration in the status quo that affects an indi- vidual or organization. Educational change, for example, is usually intended to improve school outcomes. Change usually entails some alteration in the roles and responsibilities of the people involved. For instance, in order to improve parent relations at a center, a director may decide to institute new policies in the way staff report chil- dren's progress or keep anecdotal records.
Although closely related to change, innovation has a slightly different meaning. Innovation refers to any proposed change or set of changes that are intentionally implemented that represent some- thing new or novel to the people being changed. Innovations vary in type, in complexity, and in the values associated with them. It is important to stress, though, that it does not matter if the partic- ular innovation under consideration is "new" by some objective standard; it is the perceived newness of the innovation by the potential adopter that counts. For example, even though microcom- puters have been around for some time now, implementing a computer billing system at a center that has always invoiced parents by hand-
"Change
only babies like it."
Roberta Newman
Blueprint for Action 19
23
Exercise 2.1
Attitudes and Experiences Regarding Educational Change
Many educational innovations have been implemented during the pasi decade resulting in changes in early childhood programs. Some of these innovations such as bilingual education, mainstreaming of special needs children, or providing for infant care have entailed major alterations in the way programs are run. Others, like incorporating mixed-aged groupings of children, adopting different curriculum pack- ages, implementing new screening procedures, or introducing new audio-visual equipment may have required only minor adjustments.
Think back during the past three years and name one innovation or educational change that you implemented in your classroom or your center. This innovation could have been a procedural change in the way your classroom or program was run, or a structural innovation that changed the operation of your program.
Describe the innovation/change:
What was the impetus for this change? Was it self-initiated or mandated?
At the time you implemented this change, what was your degree of confidence that it would work?
I was % sure it would succeed
If you are still using this innovation, how successful would you rate your efforts at implementing this change?
not successful somewhat successful successful very successful
Has your innovation been modified since you first initiated it? Describe how.
If you have abandoned the innovation/change, describe the reasons why. If this was an innovation/change that you initiated, what would you do differently if you were to make the implementation decision again? If this
was a change that was mandated for you, what could have been done differently to ensure greater success?
20 Blueprint for Action 2a
written notes would be considered an innovation for this center. Likewise, implementing a new curriculum like High/Scope (Hohmann, Banet, & Weikart, 1979) or Math Their Way (Baratta-Lorton, 1976), or instituting new admission procedures to allow for the inclusion of special needs children would also be considered innovations.
The Impetus for Change
The impetus for change can come from many sources. Often change is mandated from our external environment. For example PL. 94-142 and P. L. 99-457 are mandated rules and regulations that specify what shall or shall not be done with respect to children with special needs. The power of mandated changes is derived from the sanc- tions imposed if the center does not comply. For instance, funding may be taken away or a license may be revoked.
At other times, the impetus for change comes as the result of a crisis at the center. An uncontrol- lable case of head lice, for example, may prompt a director to institute procedures for sanitizing the children's toys and equipment daily. Parental complaints, as well, can also be the stimulus for change. Parents may be unhappy about the way behavioral problems are handled in the classroom or the lack of communication between home and school. Programs sensitive to parental needs and expectations will feel an obligation to make programmatic changes to accommodate parental wishes. Programs sensitive to children's needs will also institute changes when necessary. For example, an influx of newly immigrated Vietnamese families enrolling in a program may prompt the director to institute a variety of programmatic changes to meet their special needs.
Program outcomes, as well, are also a powerful
impetus for change. A director faced with high turnover and staff dissatisfaction will probably feel the
necessity to review her center's pay and promotion system and make some changes to improve staff stability. Other outcomes such as declining enroll- ment may prompt a director to expand enrollment options for the community. For instance, the decision
might be made to expand services from half-day to
30
full-day care or from serving just preschool-aged chil-
dren to also serving infants and toddlers.
The Nature of Change
How can we take such an abstract concept as change and translate it into some fundamental principles that will serve to guide our center improvement efforts? The results of research in this area provide us with a convenient starting point. From the multitude of change efforts that have been studied in educational settings, researchers have extracted some basic principles that can help us be more successful in our change endeavors. The work of Fullan (1991), Hall and Loucks (1978), Havelock and Havelock (1973), and Berman and McLaughlin (1976) is particularly helpful in this regard.
Change Is a Process, Not an Event
Perhaps the most grave mistake directors can make is to view change as a single event. To the contrary, change takes time and effort to enact. Change should really be thought of as evolutionary. It is an incremental process that is achieved in stages. Most organizational problems do not fit into
the category of being solved in a short period of time. Indeed, most major educational changes take several years, not months, to implement. Many inno- vative educational programs fail not because they are poorly conceived, but because they are rushed.
Jorde-Bloom (1982) found that one of the characteristics of directors who experienced job burnout was their inability to accept change as an integral element of organizational life. They had a linear view of their jobs and treated change as a singular event. They viewed change as having a precise beginning and a definitive end. Thus, they tended to have unrealistic expectations for program stability following their change efforts. These directors viewed themselves as failures because they could not control change.
Directors who are successful in their adminis- trative role view change as an integral component of a thriving center. They see it as a continuous and never-ending cycle of identifying problems,
Blueprint for Action 21
exploring change options, implementing new strategies, evaluating those changes to redefine the problem and then developing new strategies to improve their centers. Later in this chapter we will present a diagram of the change procnss. This diagram captures the cyclical, ongoing nature of change. Regardless of how successful a center is in one year, there is always a new year around the corner, one that will hold a new set of problems to be addressed.
What Works Well in One Setting May Not in Another
We have implemented
"Not everything that is
faced can be changed;
but nothing can be
changed until it/s faced."
James Baldwin
all heard stories of directors who procedures that were highly
successful in another center, only to find that they flopped in their own center. This should not come as a surprise. Teaching staffs vary
considerably in years of experi- ence, level of education, teaching style, instructional skills, and will- ingness to change. There are so many variations among centers, both in people's willingness to
adopt new procedures and in their capability to implement new approaches. The conditions that support the adoption of a new innovation in one setting may not be present in another. This does not mean that the innovation is not worthwhile; it only means that it is not appropriate for all settings.
On a broader scale, we can relate this prin- ciple to the early childhood program models approach promoted in the 1970s. The program models that were part of the Planned Variations study were designed to serve as exemplar proto- types. The inherent assumption, as Kagan (1990) explains, was that "what worked well in one locale would work equally well in another." Kagan goes on
to say that "not only were there problems encoun- tered because different settings had their own unique cultures, but numerous challenges emerged as programs attempted to move from small to large scale" (p. 18). The problem, of course, is that new models are often not incorpo- rated into the life of the organization; they never become "institutionalized." The most successful
22 Blueprint for Action
educational experiments in the adoption of educa- tional innovations have been those where models have not been adopted wholesale, but rather "adapted" to meet the unique needs of the school (Berman & McLaughlin, 1976; Fullan, 1991).
Success Depends on the Felt Need for Change
Change is more likely to occur and be successful when it relates to a felt need or resolves
a problem that is important to those implementing the change. Teachers, for example, are more likely to try out a new approach to classroom manage- ment when they feel their current methods are not working well. The research on successful educa- tional change consistently underscores the principle that individuals are more likely to change when they focus on problems significant to them and have input into how to best resolve those problems.
While this principle makes good common sense, it also presents a dilemma for directors. Often a director will have a clear idea of how a center should be organized to achieve desired changes in attitudes and behavior. But these ideas may not be shared by others. In fact, considerable evidence exists that directors' view of organiza- tional practices is significantly different than their staff's view (Jorde-Bloom, 1988b).
Beer (1980) states that change will occur only when sufficient dissatisfaction exists with the status quo by those who must change. Sufficient dissatisfaction creates momentum for change. But even then, Beer adds, individuals may be reluctant to change unless they are convinced the proposed
new approach will really solve their problem. Unilateral pressure to change can create resis- tance and hostility directed at the source of pressure. Sometimes all it takes is direct discus- sion between a director and teacher to provide an awareness of problems that will stimulate change. But other times the recognition of the need for change is more difficult to communicate.
AD Change Isn't Necessarily Good
This principle can be summed up by the old adage, "If it ain't broke, don't fix it!" Some adminis- trators think that there is no progress unless things
are in turmoil. But change for the sake of change can be detrimental. When people are made to change for no apparent reason, they will develop resistance tc the concept of change. Wu (1988) believes effective leadership is not characterized by either constant or radical change. If no valid reason for change exists, than chaos may result.
Change Has a Ripple Effect
Some of the most successful organizational changes have happened in small increments. A director may not be able to convince her whole staff to adopt a new curriculum or instructional technique, but she may be able to convince one teacher to try it out. Success experienced by that one teacher will often have an impact on others. Thus change in one person or one classroom may provide the impetus for change in another person or in another classroom.
Models of Change
Now that we know something about the nature of change, it is appropriate to look at the advan- tages and disadvantages to different approaches to change. The framework for this discussion is provided by Beer (1980) who defines three models of change that characterize organizations: top- down, bottom-up, and collaborative change.
Top-Down Change
Many decisions regarding center change are mandated by decree; they are essentially top-down
directives of new procedures to be implemented. Sometimes these are decisions about new personnel, new organizational structures, or new ways of doing things. Top-down changes are typi- cally introduced rapidly. Sometimes they are mandated by legislation and public policy makers or by central office administrators. Many of the change decisions that directors make are also implemented using a top-down model. A top-down model of change is essentially a directive model.
Top-down changes are usually unilateral. Only a few people make the decisions. For this reason, the changes can be introduced very rapidly. If the
solution is appropriate to the probler that trigwred the need for the change in the first place, the changes will probably obtain immediate results. A directive top-down model of change can work if people anticipate some positive outcomes of the change, will support it, and develop a commitment to it. It is the speed of the top-down approach that makes it attractive to directors under pressure to obtain immediate results.
One of the shortcomings of this approach, however, is that solutions are not always appropriate
because people who know about the problems are not consulted. Top-down changes often do not reflect the needs of individuals affected unless the administration of a program is well attuned to their needs. Typically, staff are not as committed to the idea because they do not have sufficient information
and have not been brought along. The likelihood that
the top-down approach will produce a lot of psycho- logical strain is strong. Staff will think of the change
as a directive. Even when teachers agree that the changes may be necessary, top-down models risk having teachers feel manipulated and powerless. The result may be animosity, hostility, and overt behavior to undermine the proposed change.
Juanita is the director of a large for-profit day care program. She is also something of a tech-
nological whiz and has always used a personal computer to do her work. Juanita was appalled that Nancy, the office accountant, still did all the billing of parents by hand. She perceived this to be both too time consuming and tedious, so she purchased a computer for the office and wrote a program to keep track of the accounts receivable. Juanita assumed Nancy would enthusiastically embrace this new technology as being a labor-saving device. When Nancy arrived at work one morning, the computer was sitting on her desk. Next to it were elaborate instructions on how to use. it. Nancy was angry. While she understood that the computer would make her job more efficient, she was hurt that she was not consulted about whether or not she even wanted to use the computer to do her job. She
Blueprint for Action 23
32
felt it was being jammed down her throat and that the least Juanita could have done was ask her if she wanted to learn how to use the computer. Fortunately Juanita was a seasoned director, sensitive to differing points of view She apologized to Nancy for not consulting her and acknowledged that it was insensitive of her to think that Nancy would love techno- logical gadgetry as much as she did. With this acknowledgement, Nancy began to open up. She confessed it wasn't so much the computer itself that she was opposed to, bt,t the change in the relationships that she feared would happen with the parents. Nancy believed that her handwritten notes to parents each month with their tuition invoice provided a personal touch that conveyed that the center really cared about them as individuals and wasn't only concerned about their financial support. She feared that a computerized system might make the whole financial billing process too institutional and cold.
This incident was a clear case of making a hasty decision based on only partial information. Juanita perceived that the world viewed technolog- ical devices the same as she did. She did not take into consideration the anxiety level of Nancy, a first-
time computer user. Fortunately, however, she was a sensitive administrator who took the time to understand the point of view of her subordinate.
Kevin was recently hired as the director of a state-funded prekindergarten program. He had always felt that accurate record keeping was the hallmark of a professional. One of his first directives in taking over the program was to send a memo to the teachers telling them about the importance of keeping anecdotal notes on each child. He indicated that all teachers would now be required to make one anecdotal note on each child each day. He stressed how this new procedure would improve the quality of parent con ferencing at the center. The teachers at this center were a very experienced group of individuals. They did not feel there was a need for all this record
24 Blueprint for Action
3 3
keeping. They felt they had been conducting parent conferences just fine without reams of anecdotal notes. They followed the directive for about three weeks ..nd then gradually stopped taking notes altogether.
Kevin's directive was destined for failure from the start. First, he did not anticipate that a group of seasoned teachers might interpret such a directive as a challenge to their professional autonomy. Second, his decree was communicated in a written memo. From the teacher's perspective, this made the directive very impersonal and easier to dismiss. Third, the teachers were simply not convinced of the need for more anecdotal notes. Finally, Kevin did not make any structural changes in the program such as allotting additional plan- ning time for the teachers to write up their notes. This kind of structural change may have helped sustain the new procedures he proposed.
Despite the drawbacks of the top-down model,
it appears it is the prevailing model for making organizational changes in child care programs. A top-down model can be effective in cases where circumstances dictate that quick action be taken. For example, the incidence of neighborhood vandalism may prompt a director to institute new security precautions for the center. Staff in this kind
of situation are more apt to comply with the direc- tive. They understand the urgent nature of the directive and the rationale for the decision.
A top-down model of change can also be effective when the focus of the change only tangentially concerns staff. For example, teachers may not be very interested in change decisions regarding routine managerial aspects of running the program. The decision to change janitorial services or landscape maintenance services may have little consequence for teachers. A top-down model of change may be quite appropriate for these kinds of decisions.
Bottom-Up Change
In bottom-up change, the responsibility for defining and developing a solution is left to the teaching or support staff of the center. This respon-
sibility may be delegated or assumed. This kind of change model is often apparent in programs where directors assume a hands-off approach to manage- ment. Their non-directive leadership style assumes that people can implement changes that are neces- sary for them to do their jobs more efficiently. The problem with this approach, though, is that it often results in a clash over the goals or the direction of change. Also, because the director or board are not involved and sometimes not even aware of the change, they are not in a position to implement the administrative structures that can sustain the change assuming it is a positive one. The following example illustrates this point.
Gayle is a preschool teacher. At her local AEYC conference she heard some teachers from another center talk about the High/Scope curriculum. During her spring break, Gayle decided to enroll in a four-day High/Scope training program to find out for herself if the curriculum would be appropriate for her class- room. She was really excited about what she learned and came back from vacation enthu- siastic to implement the new methods. But given the frenetic activity of the program and all the other demands tugging at her sleeve, Gayle just couldn't seem to find the time to get herself organized to launch her new curricular approach. After a month, Gayle decided the High/Scope curriculum just wasn't suited for her classroom and she abandoned all hopes of making her classroom a High/Scope show- case for the center.
Gayle's innovation Aid not fail because it was not well suited for her el_ -om. It failed because she lacked the appropriate incentives and admin- istrative support to sustain her enthusiasm in it. Had Gayle been more actively encouraged to try out some new instructional strategies by her director or her peers, her level of interest in High/Scope may have been sustained. If she had worked at a center where supervision and perfor- mance appraisal processes were in place to ensure that she had the resources and technical support to adopt new ideas for her classroom, her
attempt at implementing the High/Scope cur- riculum would probably have been met with greater success.
The caregivers at a large urban day care center were discontent with their salaries, bene-
fits, and lack of job security. They met with a group of caregivers from another center that had
recently unionized to learn more about their labor rights. They decided they had nothing to lose by confronting their director with the possi-
bility that they, too, wanted to unionize if their current conditions were not improved. .Under pressure, the director convinced her board to implement a small salary increase. She also implemented new procedures for ensuring that the staff got a short break in the morning and the
afternoon. The teachers were jubilant. They felt empowered by their success at changing the center's policies. What they hadn't anticipated, though, was the increased strain and tension with the director that would result from their actions. The director felt she had been coerced to take action. She viewed the whole incident as
a direct challenge to her authority. What had been an amiable working relationship between the director and staff had now turned sour
We see, then, that there are several shortcom-
ings to the bottom-up model of change. If the administration of a center delegates completely to staff the right to define the change, it gives up its influence in the definition of problems and their solu-
tions. Even if one classroom adopts a change, the likelihood that the whole center will change will be less. Second, there is a high potential for clash if the
outcomes of the change are not valued or they conflict with the center's values. Finally, the likelihood
that the change will not become institutionalized is high. Virtually all changes in a program in order to be
sustained have to be supported from the top.
Collaborative Change
Top-down and bottom-up change represent extremes in the distribution of power in a center. For most kinds of changes, the most successful model is simultaneously top-down and bottom-up;
34
Blueprint for Action 25
it is collaborative change. Here both the adminis- tration and the staff are involved in identifying problems and developing solutions.
The concept of collaboration as having power with, not over, colleagues is central to success in this
approach. Parity in status and equal
"Nothing endures
but change."
Hero litus
responsibility for work characterize the relationship between teachers and directors in centers where this model of change prevails. In such environments, teachers are active partners in some or all of the stages
including clarifying the problem, collecting and analyzing the data, generating solutions, and evalu- ating results.
Behaving collaboratively does not mean that the director must relinquish the right and responsi- bility to provide expertise. however. Necessary technical assistance and support are clearly vital contributions of the director. What collaboration does imply is that the expertise of others is recog- nized and incorporated into the center's improvement efforts. Saxl (1989) states that a collaborative approach is focused and directed, but not directive in a controlling sense. It is similar to a "helping orientation" that induces cooperative learning, mutual growth, reciprocal openness, and shared problem solving. Collaboration rests on trusting relationships.
The drawback of collaborative change is that it takes longer to implement. Time for data collec- tion to discern problems, time for meetings to help clarify the direction of change, and time to provide feedback during the change process itself can be painfully slow. Immediate turnaround of a problem is not likely to occur. For this reason, it is under- standable that this approach is not used frequently. But these disadvantages appear to be outweighed by the positive benefits resulting from utilizing this model. In a collaborative model, staff tend to have a far clearer idea of expectations and what their roles and responsibilities will be in the change process. Most important, however, is that a collaborative model results in a higher level of trust and commitment and overall satisfaction with the direction of change.
211 Blueprint for Action
3
A collaborative model tends to be appropriate for working with individuals and groups who are achievement motivated, seek responsibility, and have a degree of knowledge and experience that may be useful in solving problems. Indeed, as we saw in the example with Kevin earlier, a mature group of teachers may become rigid and opposed to change if it is implemented in a directive manner. A directive approach is inconsistent with their perceptions of themselves as mature, respon- sible, self-motivated people who should be consulted on issues that directly affect them. At the same time, a collaborative approach may not be productive when working with a group of inex- perienced teachers who need a greater degree of guidance and structure. In Chapter VI, we will discuss how these models of change (top-down, bottom-up, and collaborative) relate to different supervisory styles.
In sum, there are no universal rules for imple- menting change in early childhood programs. Participation is useful sometimes, but its form will vary from center to center. One cannot assert that any particular change model is most effective; it depends on the situation and the nature of the problem being resolved.
The basic assumption of this book is that bringing about change is an important task of direc-
tors. But forcing changes even "good" ones endangers the goal of fostering human relations in a
center. Further, forced change only rarely results in a lasting change in teachers' behavior or in the operation of the center. The role of the director, then,
is to create the interpersonal context which frees, encourages, and helps people to experiment with change (Sergiovanni & Elliott, 1975).
Factors Influencing the Adoption of Innovations
There are many interrelating factors that can potentially influence one's behavior with respect to decisions about the adoption or rejection of educational innovations. These factors relate to the attributes of the innovation itself.
Attributes of the Innovation
Embodied in the decision-making process to adopt a specific innovation is the assumption that the individual or group responsible for the decision weighs alternatives in an effort to discern the rela- tive advantages of a particular innovation over existing practices or other potential innovations. These alternatives generally center on various attributes of the innovation and thus serve as incen- tives for adopting or rejecting the innovation. The individual's perceptions of these attributes are of considerable importance because they help explain why some innovations enjoy rapid and widespread dissemination while others fade to obscurity. It also helps explain the rate and ease with which different innovations are implemented. Drawing predominantly on the work of Zaltman and
Lin (1971), Rogers (1983), and Fliegel and Kivlin (1966), it is possible to develop a taxonomy of some of the characteristics used to classify a wide range of innovations. These eight criteria are not intended to be exhaustive, nor are they intended to be mutually exclusive. Considerable overlap exists among them. Nevertheless, taken together they represent a fairly comprehensive set of criteria for making decisions to adopt or reject an innovation.
Cost-effectiveness. Cost is clearly a critical factor for many innovations. But economic consider-
ations also involve more than initial capital investment, particularly when supplies and ongoing maintenance may be an issue. In considering cost, a distinction must be made between initial costs and continuing costs (or operating costs). It must also be remembered that cost-effectiveness is a relative attribute and must be assessed in relation to
other variables such as increased output, reduced production costs, or other economic or social factors deemed important. It is for this reason that microcomputers as an administrative tool are such a popular innovation. While their initial cost is high, the perceived benefits in terms of increased output and time savings generally make them an attractive innovation for early childhood directors to consider.
Social approval. This is a non-economic attribute associated with the status and prestige
that different innovations confer. Social approval is clearly an important motivator with respect to adop- tion and rejection decisions. The social cost of an innovation may come in the form of ridicule, ostracism, or even exclusion from a group. Some educational innovations are clearly seen as confer- ring more status than others. The widespread appeal of NAEYC's center accreditation project (NAEYC, 1984), for example, is due in large part to
the perceived professional status it confers on those centers that achieve accreditation.
Complexity. The degree of complexity associ- ated with an innovation may also have an important bearing on acceptance or rejection. Complexity is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as difficult to understand and use. Some innovations ard readily understood; others are more complicated. Innovations that are chal- lenging yet have a high likelihood for success are more apt to find wider acceptance than those that are too simple or those that are highly complex. The success of the adoption of the Creative Curriculum (Dodge, 1988), for example, can be attributed to the fact that while the innovation requires some specialized training, the training is not perceived as complex.
Efficiency. This is a rather broad attribute and can be measured both in terms of time saved and the avoidance of discomfort. The saving of time clearly has direct economic implications. It is inter- esting to note that the efficiency attribute is one of the strongest motivators for directors contemplating the use of computers for managerial functions. Unfortunately, what is often not anticipated is the considerable time and patience required during the initial orientation phase. This proves to be a disap- pointment for many new users expecting quick results and immediate gratification.
Tria lability. The degree to which an innovation may be experimented with on a limited basis before one decides on full-scale adoption also influences whether or not it is adopted. Trialability reduces the uncertainty associated with complex or costly innovations. The possibility of trying out
Blueprint for Action 27
the innovation on a limited scale allows one to minimize possible unanticipated negative conse- quences and to postpone decisions regarding large investments of educational resources. Many programs that implement mainstreaming, for example, first start out with just a small number of children in one classroom.
Observability The degree to which the results of an innovation are visible to others also has an impact on adoption decisions. In other words, the easier it is for individuals to see the results of an innovation, the more likely it is that it will stimulate peer discussion. This may increase the likelihood of adoption. The enthusiasm generated for the whole-language approach to emergent literacy is a good example of this principle. Having the oppor- tunity to observe a classroom where one can see first hand the results of this instructional strategy convinces many teachers it is a worthwhile innova- tion for their own classrooms.
Compatibility. The individual's or group's present values and past experiences have a considerable influence on adoption decisions. If an innovation is too incongruent with current prac- tices, it may be perceived as too threatening and thus unacceptable.
Tannins lity. Terminality describes the ease with
which a particular innovation or change can be ended if it isn't working out. Terminality can serve as a strong motivation to adopt or resist an innova- tion. Innovations that can be more easily reversed are more apt to be adopted. It is for this reason that many school districts have been slow in adopting a career ladder approach to professional advancement. Once implemented, a career ladder is difficult to terminate given the contractual agree- ments that it may have imposed.
It is important to underscore the salience of individual differences in people's perceptions with respect to these various attributes. What may appear to be a simple and easily understood inno- vation to one person may seem like a highly complex and intimidating one to another.
211 Blueprint for Action
Steps in the Change Process
Implementing center-wide cnange is essen- tially a problem-solving process involving a series of steps to remedy an unsatisfactory situation. These steps move from initial problem identifica- tion to action based on an agreed-upon solution. The following diagram graphically highlights the different steps in this process.
The first step in the center-improvement process involves defining the most pressing orga- nizational problems that need to be addressed. This step sounds fairly straightforward, but in reality involves careful analysis of present condi- tions and how these differ from ideal conditions. Change efforts, in other words, should focus on attempting to reduce the discrepancy between real (actual) and ideal (desired) conditions.
In order to form a clear, valid picture of the problems of a center, it is usually necessary to gather some data. Clear accurate data of the situ- ation at hand helps the director and staff avoid the mistake of focusing on mere symptoms of the problem (e.g., high turnover, parental dissatisfac- tion, or low commitment to center goals) rather than on the core problems that need to be addressed. Chapter IV will provide guidelines for directors who would like to undertake a needs assessment of organizational problems.
The third step in the change process entails analyzing the situation. This step results in generating
possible solutions and weighing alternative courses of action. From this analysis an action plan is devel-
oped to address problem areas in need of improvement. The final step in the process is evalu- ating the effectiveness of the change effort. The problem-solving process is essentially cyclical in nature since the information gleaned from evaluating
the improvement efforts should result in reformulating
and redefining new problems to be addressed.
A Final Word
This chapter has provided an overview of the change process in child care centers. It has also helped clarify why many organizational change
37
Fig ure 2,1
Steps in the Change Process
z
Evaluating progress
implementing at----D action plan
l
...." ..-."
Analyzing the situation
efforts fail to result in lasting improvements. In reviewing the research, Parkay and Damico (1989) conclude that failure to achieve the benefits we see from institutional changes are usually due to two reasons. First, there is typically a lack of staff input. This results in improvement efforts where the goals of the proposed change are not in keeping with the staff's needs and beliefs. Second, many change endeavors are viewed too narrowly; they
do not take an ecological systems approach that considers the current prevailing political, social, demographic, economic, and technological forces in the surrounding environment.
So far we've looked at the broad issues surrounding center-based improvement. Now let's turn our attention to the role of the director in the change process and how a systems perspective of child care centers can help to achieve lasting change.
Blueprint for Action 2
Chapter 3
The Director's Role in the Change Process
Rare is the director who does not feel caught in a whirlwind of activity With new staff to train, new procedures to implement, new curricula to evaluate wh 1 is the calm,
the expected, the anticipated? Change and child care administration go hand in hand.
How is it, though, that some directors are so successful in implementing substantial, significant changes in their centers? Who is it that initially senses the need for change and nurtures the change process? Where do the innovative ideas come from? And how can staff be motivated to support needed change? This chapter will explore these and other questions in an attempt to set the stage for how directors can take charge in imple- menting change that will improve center life and achieve program goals.
The perspective of change proposed in this chapter takes a systems view of centers as dynamic entities continually interacting with their external environment, changing and adapting to ensure greater congruence between people, structure, and processes. The underlying assump- tion of this model is that when these components are not congruent, the program cannot achieve its desired outcomes. When this condition does not exist, people in the center will perceive barriers to
accomplishing their work and meeting their personal needs. The director's job, in a nutshell, is to maintain a sense of congruence within and between these components of the program.
The Director As Change Agent
The director's role is central in the change process. In a number of powerful ways, the director shapes the center as a workplace. The director as leader plays a pivotal role in both assessing the current situation and structuring change to improve conditions. More than anyone else, directors are the agents of change. This does not mean that they impose change, but rather encourage and support it by devel- oping the interpersonal context which frees, encourages, and helps people to assess their program and become actively involved in the change process.
The important thing to remember is that direc- tors are facilitators of change, not dictators. Mobilizing and empowering people means helping others create new behavioral expectations. But keeping change efforts on target is not easy. Managing change is not a haphazard process. It is a delicate balance of providing direction yet suppressing the urge to overmanage. Facilitating change is the fine art of providing sufficient assis- tance and leadership on the one hand, yet avoiding oversupervising on the other. Facilitating
the process means helping to maintain the momentum, the pace, and the spirit.
"What you leave behind
is not what is engraved
in stone monuments,
but what is woven into
the lives of others."
Pericles
33
Blueprint for Action 31
1
Building a Vision for Change
Fundamental to successful change is directors' ability to have a clear, informed vision of what they want their centers to become. This sounds so basic,
yet often directors can articulate what is wrong with their programs, but have difficulty articulating just how their ideal program would function. Further, directors need to know how to translate that vision into realistic goals and expectations for teachers and children. This means creating the climate that supports progress toward goals and expectations.
A vision statement provides the direction and driving power for change. It is not some elusive abstraction, but rather the heart and soul of what guides a strategic plan of what one's program will look like in three to five years. A vision statement helps directors develop a sei of realistic goals that are both purposeful and achievable.
Before reading on, take a few moments to complete Exercise #3.1. Write a dozen or so words or phrases that would describe your ideal program. Now take those words and phrases and weave them into a short statement of your vision of what you would like to see your program become in three to five years. While your vision statement will have elements of your ideal, it will also be reality based. These thoughts will be incorporated into the organizational profile you will develop at the end of Chapter IV.
Serving as a Catalyst for Change
The director is the one who must sense the need for change and communicate that need to others. This means interpreting changes in the external environment that may influence organiza- tional effectiveness and developing mechanisms for eliciting feedback so as to have as much infor- mation and data about what is going on as possible. In other words, an integral part of the director's role is assessing the pulse of the center. Chapter IV will present a variety of assessment tools to aid this process.
Serving as the catalyst for change also means the director must be able to take the initia- tive. This necessitates being proactive rather than passive or reactive. Taking the initiative some-
32 Blueprint for Action
times requires being a risk-taker, an uncomfort- able role for many administrators.
Finally, if directors are to be effective change agents, they need to keep abreast of new methods,
approaches, and current research in the field. Studies have shown a strong relationship between directors' professional orientation and their degree of innovativeness (Jorde-Bloom, 1986b; Jorde- Bloom & Ford, 1988). The extent to which child care
programs change and are receptive to innovative ideas depends in large part upon the professional orientation of those in charge. It stands to reason that directors who regularly participate in profes- sional organizations, subscribe to journals, visit other centers to get ideas about innovative prac- tices, and attend conferences to enhance their expertise are more likely to be exposed to a wider variety of innovative methods. They are alsc more likely to develop a network of resources to help in the implementation of desired changes.
Acknowledging that the director is the one who serves as the primary catalyst for change does not mean that we should underestimate the ability of those around us to come up with innova- tive ideas. Many good suggestions for improving program quality come from staff, parents, and even the children we serve. The key is to manage in such a way that divergent thinking and creative problem solving are promoted at all levels.
Creating the Climate for Change
The director is the key figure in establishing organizational norms that support or inhibit change. By a combination of position and sheer persuasiveness, directors can initiate or inhibit, build or erode, expand or contract the norms that bear critically on center quality. Developing a sense of trust, openness to experiment, willing- ness to risk failure are all norms that will impact a center's ability to incorporate needed change. Further, the director must know how to deal with institutional cynicism (the "we've tried that before" syndrome) and be able to assess the underlying causes that breed cynicism and defensiveness. Sometimes the comments a director makes in either formal staff meetings or informal conversa-
4 0
Exercise 3.1
Vision-Building: Clarifying the Ideal
Write a dozen or so words or phrases that describe your ideal program. Now take those words and
phrases and weave them into a short statement of your vision of what you would like to see your program
become in three to five years. While your vision statement will have elements of your ideal, it should also
be reality based.
My vision of what the program could look like...
Blueprint for Action 33
41
tions when talking to staff can reinforce or inhibit norms of experimentation and risk-taking.
The director also has a strong impact on insti- tutionalizing norms of self reflection and looking for ways to do things better. These norms cannot be changed overnight, though. Many programs have a culture characterized by inertia. -Coaxing the system to be less complacent is not easy, but it is essential if a program is to work on resolving prob- lems. Thus, the director's role in creating a climate for change is essentially one of energizing the problem-solving process.
Caw Staley: The ChIldreat Censer Christine was the newest teacher to be hired by
the Children's Corner. She was young, enthusiastic, and a recent graduate of the university's early child- hood program. At one of the first staff meetings in the tali, a discussion ensued about the problems teachers were experiencing with tote bags getting mixed up and papers being sent home with the wrong children. "I have an idea," Christine chimed in. "At the lab school we color coded the tote bags. It really helped organize everything. We bought plain canvas tote bags, dyed each groups' bags a different color. Then we put the children's names on the bags in big bold letters. The parents paid for the cost of the bags." Bea immediately countered, "Well, that may have worked at the lab school, but it sure won't here. You forget what kind of background these Head Start kids come from. Their parents sure as heck don't have money to throw away on a new tote bag every year!"
Inside Martha was furious at the way Bea just dismissed Christine's suggestion. But she also real- ized there was much more going on in this brief exchange than met the eye. Martha knew that Bea actually felt a bit intimidated and perhaps even threat- ened by the youthful exuberance Christine exhibited. Her comments were really a defensive posture intended to put Christine "in her place." Calmly Martha intervened, "You're right on target, Bea. Our parents don't have the money to buy a new tote bag. But I think Christine has an innovative idea here that is worth exploring. How could we take this idea and turn it into a workable solution to our tote-bag problem? Think we might have a small fundraiser to cover the cost of the tote bags? Bea, you've had a lot of experience with fundraising. Do you have any suggestions on how we might proceed?"
34 Blueprot for Actron
BEST COPY AVAILABLE
Providing Resources, Support, and Recognition
Another vital function the director plays in the change process is that of resource provider. The director brings together a variety of needed resources. These can be financial resources such as money for substitutes, materials, trainers, travel,
equipment, or evaluation. Resources may come from professional associations, publishers, vendors of new material, or outside consultants.
Another leadership task is providing encourage-
ment and recognition to staff for their efforts. The importance of this task cannot be overstated. Reinforcing positive behaviors, listening, providing emotional support, and allowing people room to make mistakes are all part of the director's role in providing support for change. In a defensive climate, people do not have the time or emotional energy to be creative because their energies are dissipated in trying to protect themselves from critical feedback.
Beer (1980) states that in order for change to spread through the organization and become a permanent fixture, early successes are needed. It is desirable but not necessary for the results of a change to be able to be measured. But Beer believes feelings of success are more important than quantitative measures. When individuals or groups feel more competent than they did before a specific change was implemented, this increased sense of competence reinforces the new behavior and solidifies learning associated with the change. He cautions, however, that intrinsic feelings of success are not sufficient for patterns of organiza- tional behavior to be changed permanently. Self-confidence will quickly erode if extrinsic rewards in the organization do not immediately follow the early indicators of improved perfor- mance. These rewards can include recognition by the director, the board, or peers. The structure and processes of the center such as personnel policies and practices, performance appraisal procedures, promotion guidelines, and budget allocations must also support the new behaviors being sought.
Managing (and Protecting) Time
Time is the biggest barrier to change. The press of everyday events typically requires
42
teachers and directors to be more concerned with just maintaining the stability of the status quo than envisioning change. In fact, time is a central ingre- dient in the change process itself. Time is needed to share knowledge and information about the content of a planned change or innovation; time is needed to develop the skills necessary to ensure a smooth change process; and time is needed to make the coffee, order the donuts, and set up the chairs for the meeting to plan and carry out the proposed change.
Time can also be viewed as a kind of resource.
As such it must be judiciously planned and jeal- ously protected if change endeavors are to be successful. Unfortunately, it is the kind of resource that is typically neglected in the planning process. It is easy to underestimate the amount of time needed
for information sharing, training, support group meetings, and administrative coordination. Change initiatives will make little progress without adequate
time being allocated. We know that carving out sufficient time to
address organizational issues is a persistent problem
for directors. Directors undertaking any change endeavor will ask themselves, "Where will I possibly
find the time to do a proper diagnosis of center needs?" "How can I ensure that staff will actually devote the time needed for this change?' "Do I have the time to manage all the activities, locate appro- priate resources, and follow through in a way that will
ensure success?" "And how can I help my staff so they do not become impatient with the amount of time it takes to achieve workable long-range solu- tions?" An important part of the director's role in ensuring success in any change endeavor, then, is to
assess how time is currently being used, set priorities for the judicious use of time, and eliminate time wasters whenever possible. In fact, the use of time in
a center may well be the focus of change efforts.
The Challenge of Balancing Individual and Organizational Needs
Schein (1985) calls the interactbn between the individual and organization a dynamic, two-way process. This interaction, he believes, consists of a
mutual sense of obligation between the interacting parties. Schein calls this reciprocation. Centers employ individuals because their services are essential for the center to achieve its goals success-
fully. Individuals, in turn, relinquish some of their personal autonomy and independence to the center in order to fulfill their personal needs. This rela-
tionship is cooperative only when it offers both entities the individual
and the center the opportunity to fulfill their respective needs.
If we could distill the essence of
what leadership means in the context of early childhood program administration, perhaps it could best be summed up by the challenge directors face in balancing individual and organizational needs. The center must achieve a balance between helping individ- uals meet their personal needs and at the same time it must meet organizational goals. Successful directors acknowledge the importance of centers being goal-oriented, but they are also mindful that "people are not willing to sacrifice themselves at the altar of the organization" (Dyer, 1984, p. 123).
"The well director
doesn't work to make
people love her but
makes people love
to work for her"
Roger Neugebauer
The issue of how to best balance individual and organizational needs has caused many a sleepless night for Carlos. As the program administrator of a multi-site child care organi- zation, he is keenly aware of the staff's dissatisfaction with their level of pay. He's heard their grievances and listened attentively to their complaints. Yet he struggles to come
up with a satisfactory resolution to the problem. From the teachers' perspective, the solution to the problem seems clear; raise tuition rates and let the parents assume a greater share of the cost of providing a quality program. The teachers feel that for too long their low wages have subsidized the centers' low tuition rates. Carlos is sympathetic to their situation. He feels, however, that the teachers don't understand how difficult it is to balance the budget. He has worked very hard to have tuition rates structured so that he can assure a
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Blueprint for Action 35
full enrollment. He feels certain if he raises the tuition, he will lose some families and cause dissatisfaction among others.
Leadership Style
The director is typically the individual who has the "big picture" of the organization. It is akin to being the only one who knows what the picture on the front of the jigsaw puzzle box looks like. Staff make up the individual pieces of the puzzle. And linking their individual needs together to achieve a unified whole is the challenge of effective center leadership. Often it comes down to achieving a balance between order and coordination (getting the job done) and respecting the individual's professional right to autonomy and individual expression.
The organizational management literature is replete with references to the effects of different leadership styles as they relate to organizational effectiveness. The work of Blake and Mouton (1969), Getzels and Guba (1957), Hersey and Blanchard (1982), and Reddin (1970) are particu- larly helpful in understanding how different leadership styles can help directors to balance organizational and individual needs. The following conceptualization is a synthesis of their work. It is characterized by three different styles.
The task-oriented style stresses institutional or organizational needs. Directors whose behavior is characterized by this style tend to emphasize the requirements of the center and the achievement of center-wide goals. They tend to go by the book and stress following appropriate procedures. Staff are expected to conform to organizational expec- tations. Directors employing this style try to be conscientious in applying the same rules and procedures to all staff. Conformity and control are emphasized. The director assumes that if roles are well developed, clearly articulated, and closely monitored, then center goals will be achieved. The message is clear; the center's needs come first. Job descriptions are precisely defined and staff are expected to conform to the demands of the role. While this style tends to promote efficiency, staff working in centers with this type of leadership
31; Blueprint for Action
may complain that it is too bureaucratic and neglects individual needs.
The people-oriented style is characterized by a director whc focuses on people and their individual needs more than organizational requirements. This
type of director puts a premium on human relations and believes a happy staff will be a productive staff. The director thus devotes considerable atten- tion to maintaining comfortable, friendly, and satisfying relationships among staff. This leadership style stresses the importance of allowing staff to exercise control, allowing them to actualize their individual needs, and become more self-directed. Although acknowledging the necessity for some policies and procedures, the people-oriented director believes that rules and regulations should be tailored to fit the needs of individual staff. Job descriptions are designed with specific individuals in mind. While positive human relations are a desir- able outcome of this style, staff working in centers with this style of leadership may complain about the lack of order and coordination.
The transactional style stresses an appropriate emphasis on the center's needs and the individual worker's needs. The transactional leadership style is situational in that it calls attention to the need for moving toward one style under one set of circum- stances and toward another style under another set of circumstances.
Directors characterized by this leadership style understand the necessity of having explicit roles and expectations for staff, but also under- stand that roles and expectations are implemented by people who have needs that must be met. This style of leadership rests on the premise that the director should not simply steer a middle course between organizational and individual needs, but rather assess the correct balance for different situa- tions. In other words, different situations require different leadership behaviors and the effective- ness of an approach will depend on the situation in which it is used. The transactional style stresses that the demands of the center need not clash with the needs that people have for satisfaction and recognition from their work. This leadership style is most likely to yield optimum results in a center.
4 4
Results, in this case, mean achieving center goals and maintaining a high level of morale among staff.
In many respects, achieving the appropriate balance between organizational needs and indi- vidual needs requires one to balance all the technical
aspects of running a center (tasks) with the people aspects of the program. Directors who are too task-
oriented may be viewed as being inflexible, uncaring,
and too controlling. Directors who are too people- oriented may have centers that lack unified goals, seem uncoordinated, and foster role ambiguity and role conflict. Effectiveness in one's administrative role
may be gauged, then, by the degree to which the director can develop relationships with employees so
that they are motivated to accomplish organizational goals of their own volition.
Change Viewed from a Systems Perspective: Linking People, Structure, and Processes
There are different schools of thought about the best way to create change in child care centers. Some focus on changing individuals through staff training and educational programs; others emphasize direct intervention in the processes of the center (e.g., changing decision- making processes); still others focus on changing the structures of the organization (e.g., pay and promotion policies). The central point of this book, though, is that lasting change must consider all three components of the center: people, structure, and processes. Centers need a variety of interven- tions to effect change and these changes may need to happen concurrently.
People, structure, and processes are noted here as the most important components to target if we want to effect change. That is not to say, though, that we ignore the external environment and the culture, but our strategies with these two components are slightly different. Yes, it is true that
impacting the external environment through different advocacy efforts will produce change, but our control over most elements in the external envi- ronment is limited. Because of this, the external environment is much slower to respond to our
change efforts. Those efforts are important, but they are not the focus of this book.
We can only change the culture of a center by changing people, structure, and processes. For example, there may be a strong prevailing norm at a
center that divergent points of view are not welcomed and that the board and director make all key decisions. But by changing decision-making processes at the center to those that are more participatory in nature, this norm will change. Likewise, if there is a norm at a center that staff do not talk about their rate of pay or the benefits they receive, this could be changed quite quickly if a center adopted a career ladder and salary schedule that detailed rates of pay and benefits for positions with differing qualifications and experience. We see,
then, that the culture will change as a result of our efforts to change people, structure, and processes.
Kathleen is the kindergarten teacher at a private school serving children three through six years of age. She received a flyer from her principal suggesting that she attend a Math Their Way workshop at the local university. Kathleen resented the implication that her math program was inadequate, but since the school offered to pay her workshop fee and provide a substitute teacher to cover her classroom during the two-day workshop, she agreed to go. Much to her surprise, she was amazed at how the workshop expanded her awareness of important math concepts. She realized how much more she could be doing in her class- room. Kathleen came back to the school energized and very much a convert to the Math Their Way approach. She offered to share what
she had learned at a staff meeting, but she was
told the meetings for the next several months were already scheduled with other more impor-
tant business. Still, Kathleen was eager to try out the Math Their Way approach in her class- room. She submitted a purchase requisition to her principal for $80 to purchase some new manipulatives for the Math Their Way activities.
She also asked if she might be able have $20 to pay the school's high school student aide to
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Blueprint for Action 37
help her make the games on a Saturday. The principal wrote back a note explaining that the budget was very tight and all the school could afford was $15 toward supplies. Further, the principal felt it would be too much of an imposi- tion to ask the aide to work on a Saturday She reminded Kathleen that the school had already
paid her workshop fee and the substitute. If she wanted to make some new games, she would have to schedule it into her free time. Kathleen was hurt and disappointed. Gradually her enthusiasm for Math Their Way disappeared. Somehow, she never did find the free time to make all the new games.
The above scenario is not atypical. There are no villains in this story, only miscommunication about expectations. The training did achieve its objective in increasing Kathleen's awareness, but the lack of school resources to support her after the training meant that real change in behavior never really occurred.
We believe change will be more successful if it takes a total systems approach. Changes in one component of the system will be more successful if they are supported by changes in other components
of the system. For example, if teachers are trained to
use new procedures for assessing children's progress, their use of these new procedures will be short-lived unless accompanied by structural and process changes in the program such as changes in
teachers' work schedules, the center's reward system,
or the center's performance appraisal processes.
People Strategies
Educational change is fundamentally depen- dent upon change in people's knowledge, attitudes, and behavior. The changes which occur in terms of utilization of space, delineation of roles, curriculum content, and all the processes of the center cannot happen without changes in the people responsible for those elements of the program. The importance of changing peoole to effect organizational change is essential. People's needs, expectations, beliefs, and abilities strongly influence all other components of the social system.
38 Blueprint for Action
4 6
Changes in knowledge tend to be the easiest to
make; they can occur as a result of reading an article or hearing something new from another person. Attitude changes are typically more difficult to make than knowledge changes. This is because attitudes are so closely related to one's values. This means they may be emotionally charged in a posi- tive or negative way. Changes in people's behavior are even more difficult and time-consuming. Most people who smoke, for example, are well aware of the health risks associated with smoking (knowl- edge). They may even want to stop smoking (attitude). But to stop smoking (behavior) is just too difficult a step to accomplish. Likewise, merely telling
a teacher that a new approach will make classroom routines smoother will not ensure the teacher will actually follow through and use the approach. We often assume as directors that just because we provide the knowledge about something that teachers will see the benefits and change their behavior. This can be an erroneous assumption.
Allison is the director of a small half-day nursery school. Recently, she attended a work-
shop on emergent literacy at the annual state conference of nursery school directors. She was really inspired by the presentation and later visited the presenter's preschool. Allison was quite impressed with what she saw teachers actively engaged in taking student dictations, words and phrases displayed around the classroom, and handmade books of children's stories displayed in the library corner. The whole language approach these teachers used obviously worked. Allison asked the presenter if she would come do a work- shop at her center. She paid her teachers to attend the workshop on a Saturday morning. The teachers reluctantly attended, but after- ward complimented Allison on her choice of presenters. They were equally impressed with the presentation. Given this level of enthu- siasm about emergent literacy, Allison was disappointed to see that over the next several months virtually nothing changed in the way the teachers taught in the classroom. She was
perplexed. They had obviously learned a lot from the workshop and thought the whole language approach was good. Why hadn't they changed their instructional methods to incorporate this new approach?
What Allison didn't appreciate was that she was actually quite successful in changing the teachers' knowledge and even their attitudes about emergent literacy. But changing their behavior by exposing them to one workshop was not a realistic goal. Behavior change is so difficult because it usually entails unlearning old behaviors and substi- tuting new ones. This is not something that can be accomplished easily with many individuals. There is an undeniable comfort in the status quo. The teachers at Allison's center were clearly impressed with the possibilities of a whole language approach, but they were obviously not dissatisfied enough with
their present techniques to want to change. Remember the principle of change presented earlier in Chapter II, "success in change is related to the felt need for change." The teachers in Allison's center didn't internalize the need to change. Indeed, they may have even resisted this kind of change because of the perceived additional work they thought this approach would entail.
Hall and Loucks (1978) remind us that change is a highly personal experience. Too often directors and administrators involved in staff development ignore the perceptions and feelings of people experiencing the change process. The personal dimension may be more critical to the success or failure of the change effort than the actual innova- tion or change being implemented. Since change is incumbent on individuals, their personal satis- factions, frustrations, concerns, and motivations, and perceptions must be taken into consideration.
Particularly when individuals have limited ability, flexibility, and confidence, they may' become frustrated with changes which they have not had an active part in planning. This is why staff development and change go hand in hand. The intention of staff development is to create the right set of conditions to enable change to occur. The process begins with self-diagnosis the indi-
vidual's perceived problems and needs. Chapter VI will provide a framework for helping individuals structure their own professional change. The director's job is to help ensure that this individual change supports center goals.
Wu (1988) cites research showing that the most crucial learning for teachers occurs in their first two years. Beyond that point, inservice educa- tion becomes a matter of unlearning as well as learning. That is why change is so difficult with staff who have been teaching for many years. The process of unlearning old behaviors may be more
difficult than learning new skills. Recall, for example, the last time you drove a friend's car. Think of how awkward it felt when you reached to turn on the lights or windshield wiper and ended up grabbing the wrong knob.
What happens if individual change is not forthcoming and an individual is not willing to adapt behavior to be consistent with center goals? Often in joint planning, it will become clear that the needs and expectations of the individual do not match those of the organization. If this is the case, directors are faced with decisions about replace- ment or termination. There may be problems with personal style, philosophy, lack of flexibility, skill, or
ability. While making decisions about termination is painful for any director, successful leaders under- stand that the replacement of key individuals can speed up changes in a group's performance and in achieving desired outcomes. The goal in the termination process is not to assign blame, but rather to help the individual understand that there is a mismatch between the individual's needs and the center's needs. Such an awareness conveys respect and allows the individual to be terminated with integrity intact. A systems perspective can help an individual realize the fit is not right. With an
open, direct, and supportive approach, it is possible to turn the termination process into an opportunity for personal growth.
Structural Strategies Early childhood educators have long regarded
people strategies as fundamental to achieving center-based change. Staff development, after all,
47
Blueprint for Action 39
is central to the director's job. But a systems view of
centers as organizations supports the proposition that change at the individual or group level is not as likely to be sustained unless it is supported by structural changes in the way a center operates. For example, increased competence in the class- room as the result of staff development is not likely to be sustained unless there are changes in the reward and promotion system or the performance appraisal system of a program.
Structural changes tend to be highly visible and can often be implemented relatively quickly. But structural changes alone cannot create permanent change. The educational experiments of the early 1970s with respect to open classrooms provide a case in point. Many districts knocked out walls, regrouped teachers, and changed teaching assignments. To the casual observer, it would have
appeared that these programs had implemented open classrooms. But while the physical structure of the schools changed, teachers, in many cases, had not. They still treated children in the same way and taught under the same assumptions as before. The teachers, it seems, had either not really bought into or fully understood the philos- ophy of open education. It is not surprising, then, that many open classroom experiments were considered a failure. Within a year or two, the walls went back up and the schools took on a more traditional look. The lesson learned from these fail- ures is that changes cannot be adopted wholesale: they must be modified and tailored to the unique conditions of each context and each group of teachers. Making a few structural changes in the program will not achieve lasting impact unless the people implementing the changes also adopt new attitudes and behaviors that support the structural changes.
Process Strategies
Directors recognize that many of the processes in their programs are neither efficient nor effective. These may be decision-making processes, commu- nication processes, supervisory processes, or any of the other processes detailed in Chapter I. Recall the case study of Martha at the Children's Corner.
40 Blueprint for Action
4 8
Clearly the processes that characterized her staff meetings were preventing her from achieving her goals for the center. The processes of an organiza-
tion as they relate to supporting structures and the people who carry them out certainly have a direct effect on center outcomes.
We have seen that a director who wants to improve center outcomes can do so by changing or redesigning organizational structures, or by changing the behavior of key individuals. But often, direct intervention is required in modifying center processes that may be blocking center effective- ness. Effective working relationships between people and groups depend on their capacity to communicate feelings and perceptions. This can only be achieved by getting people together to listen to each other, negotiate, problem solve, and work through feelings. In a sense, many of the process interventions center on helping people learn new behaviors and develop new relationships.
Janet and Maria both work part-time for a church-sponsored nursery school. They share a classroom, with Janet teaching in the morning and Maria teaching in the afternoon. For the past year they have felt they have not been able to carry out their tasks effectively because they have conflicting ideas about how the learning environment should be arranged. They also have a very different tolerance level for clutter. Their interpersonal relationship is characterized by tension and hostility. In the past, their director has essentially ignored the situation. Her philosophy is that people should be allowed to resolve their own differences without interference from her Neither Janet or Maria is willing to confront the situation directly Instead, they have made critical remarks to the other teachers and to parents about each other's style. The interpersonal relationship processes that characterize the interactions between these two teachers are clearly blocking their ability to carry out their roles effectively. Their interpersonal friction is also having some negative consequences on other aspects of the program.
Janet and Maria need help. The hands-off leadership style that characterizes their director's behavior is not helping the situation. Clearly a process intervention is needed to support a change in the attitudes and behavior of these two teachers. Their inability to appreciate their differing styles is having a negative impact on the program.
Sometimes process changes are best facili- tated by an objective third party. Depending on the severity of the problem, outside support may be needed to improve interpersonal relations and communication processes at the program.
Sometimes all that is needed is for the director to take a more active role in structuring and supporting needed changes. Process interventions are critical because they are most likely to have a
strong impact in modifying the culture of a center. In most centers, an assessment of group
meeting processes and decision making processes is a good place to start. Virtually all organizations experience some problems in communication, trust,
and relationships which block organizational effi- ciency and effectiveness. Process interventions can help deal with these problems directly. Chapter IV provides assessment tools to evaluate the effective-
ness of these and other center processes.
Tuning Into Staff's Levels of Concern
Hall and Loucks (1978) underscore the point that change is a personal experience for each individual involved. This means that each person will have somewhat different concerns about any particular change or innovation being considered. If the implementation of an innovation is to be successful, it is critical that directors tap into staff's
level of concern. Many teachers, for example, are well aware of
the importance of individualizing instruction for children, but they may resist approaches to indi- vidualize because they fear they will lose control of the group. Other teachers may have a fear of failure that may prevent them from embracing new educational ideas. These concerns need to be addressed up front. Often the most important infor- mation we need to generate before initiating any
new change has to do with the staff's feelings, assumptions, fears, values, defenses, end worries
about the specific change being considered. Directors can approach this in a couple of
ways depending on the type of change or innova-
tion being considered. Certainly the most informal and direct approach is to simply ask each staff person, "When you think about this innovation, what concerns do you have?" Such an open- ended approach can be used at any time a new change is being proposed.
Another approach would be to solicit feed- back by way of an informal survey. Assessment Tool #1 adapted from the work of Reddin (1970) is an example of such an informal survey. The approach has the ancillary effect of moving indi- viduals from a vague global feeling of concern to being able to pinpoint those specific areas that may be important to them. With this feedback, the
director is in a better position to counter any potential negative impact. An analysis of the feed- back generated from such a survey can help directors address those initial informational needs and personal concerns. These may be issues having to do with planning, time, or organization,
Hall and Loucks (1978) have developed another approach for soliciting information about staff's concerns that is appropriate for curricular innovations or new instructional techniques. Their instrument measures the individual's stages of concern about an innovation. Hall and Loucks believe that an individual's concerns move from self, to task, to the innovation's impact. Table 3.1 summarizes seven stages of concern.
Hall and Loucks (1978) have also developed a questionnaire to assess an individual's level of concern. Assessment Tool #2 is an abbreviated
version of their instrument using the High/Scope curriculum as an example of an innovation. The data generated from the administration of this questionnaire can be interpreted in a variety of ways. It is possible to simply note the stage that received the highest percentile score for the indi-
vidual (or for the entire staff if scores are combined). This indicates the kinds of concerns that are most intense for the individual or group at
4 J
Blueprint for Action 41
Table 3:1
Typical Expressions of Concern About an Innovation
Stages of Concern Expressions of Concern
A
A
REFOCUSING
COLLABORATION
CONSEQUENCE
MANAGEMENT
PERSONAL
INFORMATIONAL
AWARENESS
I have some ideas about something that would work even better.
How can I relate what I am doing to what others are doing?
How is my use of this innovation affecting the chil- dren? How can I refine it to have a greater impact?
I seem to be spending all my time getting materials ready.
How will using this innovation affect me?
I would like to know more about this innovation.
I am not concerned about this innovation.
Adapted from Hord, S., Rutherford, W., Hu ling-Austin, L., & Hall, G. (1987). Taking charge of change. Alexandria, VA: ASCD, p. 31. Reprinted with permission.
that particular point in time. The implications of this profile for planning staff development are seen in the following example.
Margo attended a conference where the High/Scope curriculum was being showcased. She did some additional reading about the curriculum and talked to several directors in her community who had gone through the High/Scope training themselves. Margo was convinced she needed to implement the curriculum in her center She took a proposal to her board asking that the center allocate money to pay for three Saturday inservice staff development days to train her staff in High/
42 Blueprint for Action
Scope techniques. Margo met with the trainer to ensure that the inservice sessions would be well designed to include intensve training in both materials and techniques. Before embarking on this training, however, Margo followed the suggestion of one of her board members who thought it would be a good idea if she administered the Stages of Concern inventory to her staff prior to the training. Margo
was sure glad she did. She discovered that her
staff was primarily concerned about how much time this new approach was going to take (management concerns). Further, several noted comments at the end of the question-
5 0
naire that they weren't sure if this innovation was even needed at all. It seems they were really quite content using the eclectic theme- based curriculum they had been using for years. She also noted their concern about having to give up a weekend day to attend training. Realizing her enthusiasm for this inno- vation might be met with a wall of resistance, Margo quickly changed her plans. Based on the results she got from administering the Stages of Concern questionnaire about the High/Scope curriculum, a decision was made to address information and persnnal concerns first. She decided to spend only a portion of the money she had allocated for training and have the trainer provide a half-day overview of the curriculum. Staff could elect to attend or not. Those that did would be paid at their regular hourly rate. After the overview, staff would be given the option to decide if the High/Scope approach was an innovation that would be worthwhile implementing at the center. If so, additional staff development days would be scheduled for those who wanted to participate.
Had Margo not assessed her staff's level of concern about this particular innovation, there is a high probability that her attempts at implementing change in her program would surely not have succeeded. By tapping into staff's concerns, she was able to redesign the staff development
program to address the issues that were most pressing to them. Nonusers, for example, are typi- cally less concerned about the implications of an educational innovation for students than they are about what the innovation means to them (e.g. added time planning, etc.). Hall and Loucks (1978)
believe that by using such an assessment tool, guesswork is removed from the planning process. "Gut feelings" about training needs are replaced by a reliable yardstick of concerns. Research on their instrument shows that the individual and group data generated can be used in various ways: to plan interventions, to evaluate progress, and to spot indi- vidual problems (Colette & Russell, 1988; Hall & Loucks, 1978; Hord et al., 1987).
A Final Word
Wu (1988) underscores the importance of linking what we know about change to what we know about staff development. "If staff developers apply the research with common sense, we will have a notably better chance to effect change in people and in programs" (p. 13). This chapter has stressed that one of the factors involved in improving child care programs is empowering the people engaged in the day to day life of the center and supporting their change efforts. The remaining chapters in this book will provide the tools neces sary to help you, the director, make collaborative change possible.
Blueprint for Action 43
Chapter 4
Assessing Organizational Needs
Directors often have a kind of global impression that things are either going well or not so well at their centers, but they lack specific informa-
tion on just what areas of the program's operation contribute to these impressions. Without a clear sense of how the people, structure, and processes of a center interact to produce desired outcomes, directors lack the knowledge of how to ensure that their program will be as effective as possible. The information gleaned from assessing organizational needs helps directors turn those vague or amorphous feelings into more precise data about what aspects of the program can be improved. Assessing organizational needs helps directors identify the issues that are most pressing so they can prioritize their time and resources to address these concerns. When used properly, orga- nizational assessment provides a sound basis for determining the objectives, content, and emphasis of staff development programs. It is the first step in linking organizational goals to individual goals.
This chapter will present a systematic approach
to assessing the external environment, people, struc-
ture, processes, culture, and outcomes of a program
in order to improve a center's effectiveness in solving
its problems and achieving desired goals. The focus in this chapter will be on tools for assessment at the organizational level. Chapter V will address issues pertaining to the assessment of individual needs. Later chapters will discuss how to mesh organiza- tional and individual needs. The approach is issue oriented focusing on existing and anticipated prob-
lems and generating possible strategies to neutralize
the forces that create the problems.
The Importance of Assessment
Ongoing assessment is important at the orga- nizational level not only because it gives structure to center improvement efforts, but because it also conveys respect for staff and encourages a team approach to problem solving. Staff can be incred- ibly resourceful at generating solutions to center-wide problems if provided the opportunity to participate in a meaningful way. The nonverbal message that is conveyed through assessment is a powerful one the responsibility for improving the center is a shared responsibility. Indeed, the most effective early childhood programs are those where teachers, students, administrators, and parents together engage in problem solving, deck cion making, and implementation of program improvement plans. Clearly, the more perspectives that can be obtained on any relevant issue will ensure that fewer obstacles will be encountered in
the change process. The two-way communication that can emerge
from assessing organizational issues can lead to a collaborative approach to problem solving and establish a precedent for future change. Since change is more likely to occur in work settings in which individuals feel that new ideas are welcome, such data can be used to "unfreeze" existing norms and attitudes. When the information is perceived as
52
Blueprint for Action 45
valid, accurate, and unbiased, the description of organizational conditions arrived at through the assessment process can be a potent force in helping bring about needed change (Bowditch & Buono, 1982).
Even when a center director is not aware of any immediate problems, it can be helpful to conduct periodic assessment of different aspects of the center's functioning. Monitoring center outcomes, in particular, is one way to ensure the center stays healthy. When used in this way, assessment is preventative in nature. It helps direct people's energies from potential griping to coming up with solutions before issues develop into unsolvable problems.
Diagnosing a Center's Need for Change
When we feel sick and go to our doctor to find relief, we expect that our doctor will do some kind of diagnostic assessment of our condition before prescribing a remedy for our illness. Doctors generally ask us to describe the symptoms we are experiencing. They may listen to our heart with a stethoscope, take x-rays, and even run a series of blood tests. All these diagnostic assessments provide the data our doctor needs to make an accurate diagnosis of our condition.
Directors of early childhood programs, as well, need diagnostic data to help them improve
their centers. Unfortunately, most
"Looking back. I think it
was more difficult to see
what the problems were
than to solve them."
Charles Darwin
directors lack a systematic way to diagnose and monitor center effec- tiveness. They may sense their program has a low grade fever or a few minor aches and pains, but lack the specific diagnostic skills to identify the problem or problems that may be contributing to these symptoms. Without concrete tools
to focus their assessment, directors may end up misdiagnosing the situation or merely treating the symptoms of problems. Worse yet, a haphazard approach to organizational assessment may even end up aggravating the ailment.
46 Blueprint for Action
53
Pinpointing Problems
OIn the diagram presented on page 29, we noted that the first step in the change process begins with the identification of
a condition that someone feels needs to be improved. The success of the change plan will be affected by the degree to which everyone involved realizes that a problem exists, defines the problem in the same way, and agrees that improving the condition is desirable (Dyer, 1984). Change is bound to get off track if some people see the problem one way but others either do not admit there ;s a problem or see it differently. Identifying the problem means achieving some kind of general consensus as to why there is a problem as well as what the problem is. This sounds rather straightforward; in reality, problem identification is very difficult to achieve.
A problem is the discrepancy between current and
ideal conditions. Hersey and Blanchard (1982) state that a problem exists when there is a discrepancy between what is actually happening (the real) and what you or someone else would like to be happening (the ideal). They stress that unless you can explain precisely what you would like to be occurring and unless that set of conditions is different from the present situation, no problem exists. "Change efforts involve attempting to reduce the discrepancy between the real (actual) and the ideal" (p. 267).
Hersey and Blanchard ccution, however, that change efforts should not always involve attempting to move the real closer to the ideal. Sometimes after
diagnosis, you might realize that your ideal is too unrealistic and should be brought more in line with what is actually happening. In other words, the director and staff need to ask themselves: Where are we now and where would we like to be? The problem is essentially the gap between where you are now and where you would like to be.
Problems should not be confused with symptoms.
Most problems manifest themselves in a variety of symptoms. For example, students may be disrup- tive, teachers may be apathetic, or parents may not follow through on their obligations. These situations
imply the possibility of a problem, but such behavior
is usually only symptomatic of the problem rather than the problem itself. Even so, symptoms should be noted because they signal where to search for the cause of the problem. Remember, a problem is defined as a difference between the present situa-
tion and the ideal situation. Recall the vignette in Chapter I where Connie
was experiencing high turnover among her employees. This turnover, while very troublesome, was really only a symptom of a far deeper problem
the lack of role definition and role clarity in personnel policies. Recall, also, the case study of Martha who encountered cynicism and overt hostility by several teachers at the first staff meeting she conducted in her role as director of the Children's Corner. This unproductive staff meeting was only symptomatic of a far deeper problem at Martha's center the lack of colle- giality, trust, and cooperation among the teachers.
A problem is more than a frustration. Schmuck and Runkel (1985) caution that we should not mistake frustrations for real organizational prob- lems. Some frustrations, they state, go away by themselves; others may remain as minor irritations.
When we listen to teachers discuss their frustra- tions, we hear them say or imply that they would prefer something to be different. Often, however, they are not able to specify the features of that improved state of affairs. Schmuck and Runkel state that teachers who complain about the present without conceiving a better alternative have not yet conceived a problem and are therefore not ready to solve a problem. "A problem is a discrepancy between a present state of affairs and a more preferred state sufficiently more preferred that one is ready to spend some energy to get there. Without the two parts the current situation and the more desirable one no problem has been specified. Frustration, irritation, anger, or confusion
is often a feature of a problem part of the present state of affairs but it is not in itself a problem" (pp. 200-201). Frustrations are usually only symptoms of underlying problems.
A problem depends on one's point of view. We
know that directors and teachers often have differing perceptions of organizational practices. Research has provided convincing evidence that directors uniformly rate organizational conditions far rosier than their staff (Jorde-Bloom, 1988b). Moreover, teachers typically look at issues from a fairly narrow perspective; directors hold a broader perspective of organizational issues. Whether the perspective is narrow or broad is of secondary importance in problem identification, however, because individual behavior is guided by one's own perceptions regardless of how "accurate" those perceptions are in some objective sense.
An understanding of point of view is critical to accurate diagnosis in center assessment. Because point of view is one's frame of reference for assessing
a given situation, it is important to determine through
whose eyes the situation is being described or observed your own, those of the board, the parents, or the staff. Ideally, to get a full picture of the
situation, you should get as many points of view as
possible particularly those people who will be affected by any proposed changes.
Schmuck and Runkel (1985) also point out that problems lie in people's heads, not in the real world. In other words, when a person says a center has problems, what that means is that person believes things should be different. But different individuals may have very different images in their heads of the present situation. The implication is obvious; one of the first steps in problem solving is to ascertain with some preci- sion the different images the people concerned have of the present state of affairs. Achieving clarity about differences in perceptions of any situ- ation is critical for effective group action. The goal of problem identification is thus to build a shared vision of what the center should be like and be able to articulate in meaningful images how the center will get there.
A problem usually involves more than one compo-
nent in the system. One way to approach problem identification is to ask yourself a series of questions about each component of the system (external envi-
54
Blueprint for Action 47
ronment, people, structure, processes, culture, and outcomes). This preliminary diagnosis can help you identify problems in congruence within and between components. Looking at program outcomes is partic-
ularly useful. For example, you can ask yourself if there is a discrepancy between what you want or expect you should be achieving and what you actu- ally have achieved? In this kind of analysis we can view a problem as the difference between actual anJ
ideal outcomes. A problem exists when a meaningfui
difference is observed between outcomes at the organizational, staff, child, parent, or community level
and what is desired. Remember, however, this infor-
mation only tells you that a problem exists; it does not
specify what the causes are.
We have seen in this section that agreeing on the problem isn't quite as easy as it might appear to be, but that should not dampen your desire to move forward. Picking the right problems and finding the right solutions to those problems is at the heart of center-based improvement. Exercise #4.1 provides a number of questions to get you started on the road tc dentifying the most impor- tant problem areas for your center that may need to be addressed. As you read through the series of questions, jot some notes to yourself in the margins of the exercise. When you have finished, write two or three problems as you presently view them.
Exercise 4.1
Pinpointing Organizational Problems
External Environment
How have changes in federal or state regulations affected the center in recent years?
How have mandated requirements from the center's sponsoring agency helped or hindered it from achieving its mission?
How does the physical location of the center affect center performance?
Does the community support the center? How does the immediate neighborhood react to the presence of the center?
How does the presence of other earl7 childhood programs in the community impact the center? How would you characterize your professional relationship with other centers in the community?
What experiences has the center had with respect to the vendors it uses for materials and equip- ment. food service, landscape maintenance, and other goods and services?
How does the current political, social, and economic climate affect the program?
Have their been any significant technological changes impacting the center over the past few years?
Has the center been able to utilize the resources of local universities, colleges, and professional associations effectively?
411 Bluepnnt for Action
55
People
Do employees possess the knowledge, skills, and attitudes needed to carry out their jobs effec- tively? Art) any employees overqualified for their assignments?
What do employees say they like or dislike about their work? To what extent do their positions allow them to improve and grow personally and professionally?
Who are the dominant coalitions? How have they changed over time? Do they help or hinder the
program from achieving its goals?
Have there been any noticeable changes in the clientele (parents and children) over the past few years? How have these changes impacted the program?
Are the current members of the Board of Directors supportive or critical of the program's func- tioning? Why?
Do supervisory staff set the tone for the center providing good role models for new or less-quali- fied staff?
Structure
What is the philosophy of the center? How has it changed over time?
Are the center's goals clearly defined? Are they understood and accepted by the Board and staff?
Does the written curriculum accurately reflect the philosophy and goals of the center?
How are teaching roles and responsibilities defined and communicated?
Are reporting, supervising, and evaluating relationships clearly defined? Are interdependence and collaboration supported by job descriptions and reporting relationships?
Is there a sound rationale for each level in the decision-making hierarchy of the center? Is the decision-making structure adaptable to change?
Does the division of labor facilitate or hinder communication and problem solving?
Are parents' roles clearly defined and communicated when children enroll in the program?
Does the physical environment support program goals and desired teaching practices? Does the physical environment facilitate team behavior?
Are space and materials allocated on the basis of task and need or on the basis of status?
How equitable is the pay and promotion system?
Do budgeting priorities reflect the goals of the center?
5 Blueprint for Action 49
Processes
How would staff characterize interpersonal relations at the center warm and supportive or tense and competitive? Do staff appear at ease? Do they laugh with one another and appear to
enjoy one another's company?
How are interpersonal differences handled?
Are personnel recruitment practices effective in attracting staff with the right knowledge, skills, and attitudes to do an effective job?
How are new teachers and substitutes treated? How are employees orici lied to their nev7 posi-
tions?
Do supervisory practices match the career level and professional needs of individuals?
How are staff evaluated? Do they perceive evaluation practices as fair? Do they perceive evalu- ation practices as being supportive in helping them grow in professional competence?
Are meetings productive? How are they conducted (who speaks most and to whom)?
How are organizational problems solved?
Are teaching practices consistent with the stated goals and educational objectives of the center?
Do leadership practices provide a clear vision for the center?
Culture
What are the center's shared values and beliefs?
What are the critical events in the history of the center?
What norms describe the culture of the center with respect to everyday demeanor, communica- tion, risktaking, and how employees are valued?
How would you characterize the general organizational climate of the program?
i Do individual and group behavior reflect a shared code of ethics?
Outcomes
What is the general reputation of the center in the community?
Does the center have full enrollment? Is the program fiscally healthy?
Does the center seem to be running efficientiy; is it able to anticipate and prepare for change or
does it operate in a crisis orientation?
54 Blueprint for Action
57
How would you rate general employee satisfaction and overall staff morale? Do they appear to be personally and professionally fulfilled?
How would you evaluate overall employee competence in performing their respective roles and
responsibilities?
Do employees appear to be committed to the center? Is there high absenteeism and turnover among staff? Are there indications of undue stress or work overload?
Are children achieving at expected levels? Do indicators of social and cognitive competence allow one to conclude they are thriving in the environment?
How would you characterize the general health of the children enrolled? Is there excessive absenteeism due to illness? Are there any indications of child abuse or neglect?
How satisfied are parents with the program? Do they communicate positive feedback when they are pleased or do they tend to focus feedback on only negative impressions of the program?
Perceived Problem: (Describe what is actually happening now in a particular situation)
Describe what :s likely to happen in the future if no change takes place.
Blueprint for Action 51
Collecting Accurate Data
In most cases your first attempts at stating
a problem will be incomplete. Additional data is usually needed to define the
problem more clearly and ascertain underlying causes for the problem. The goal of data collection is to form a valid picture of the needs and problems of a center as a basis for action. Valid information is fundamental to understanding and dealing with problems which staff face. The instruments used to collect data should allow staff the opportunity to both describe the factors which contribute to their perceived problems and their feelings associated with these problems. Collecting accurate data is integral to center-based improvement. It is part of the change process described in Chapter II. Before proceeding with the actual data collection, however,
several questions need to be addressed.
When should data he collected? It should be clear from the preceding section that center assess- ment is not a one-time process assessing center-wide conditions needs to be ongoing. After all, situations and people change and centers must respond. Directors will definitely want to collect data when a problem seems to have surfaced to which there may be multiple perspectives or when addi- tional information is necessary to clarify the problem situation. In most cases, an annual assessment of conditions will be sufficient. Many directors feel that the late spring is the best time to do this. Even if a center operates year around, there is a typical school-year pattern of enrollments and staffing that
seems to exist with changes being made during the summer months. If data is collected in the May or June, it can be summarized during the summer months and shared with staff as they prepare for the
new school term. Data should also be collected before under-
taking any kind of major organizational improvement
process, even if it occurs mid-year. This is important
because such data can serve as baseline informa- tion on progress toward achieving goals. Centers will sometimes implement exciting organizational changes but have no benchmarks to measure their progress. Initial baseline data provides a starting
52 Blueprint for Action
point for directors to chart their progress in im- proving organizational functioning. Virtually all of the
assessment tools described in this book can be used as a pre and post measure. In this way, both directors and staff can see the incremental progress they are making in achieving desired outcomes.
Mow nwch data should be collected?Data collec-
tion begins with an assessment of an existing state of affairs. Diagnosis can be simple and straightfor- ward or complex and very involved. It can include a few people or many. But in any case, it should give sufficient information about the existing situation so that plans for the future can be made with confi- dence. Diagnosis of any situation should provide sufficient data so that the director can find out:
1. What is actually happening now in a particular
situation?
2. What is likely to happen in the future if no change takes place?
3. What would people ideally like to happen in this situation?
4. What are the blocks or restraints from achiev- ing the ideal?
One caution, however. In their zest to get an accurate pulse on organizational conditions, some directors end up over-diagnosing. This can unwit- tingly have a negative effect on staff who will sense a kind of "paralysis of analysis" setting in. Too much time spent on diagnosis can convey to staff the impression that the center isn't really inter- ested in moving forward with constructive change.
Who should collect the data? This is a difficult question to answer because each situation will be different. In most cases, the director or adminis- trator of a center will be in charge of overseeing the assessment process. However, in some instances, it may be wise for an impartial outside party to collect the data. The key is to make people feel comfortable in stating problems without blaming anyone or arousing defensiveness. They need to be convinced that their perceptions are valued and important and that the data generated from assess-
5 5
ment will help the center develop realistic goals that address key issues.
Regardless of who collects the data, it is crit- ical to assure staff of the confidentiality of their responses. They need to feel confident that they can be as open as possible about sharing all posi- tive and negative feedback and that the results of assessment will in no way be used against them. They need to be told up front who will have access to the data, how it will be summarized, and the extent to which the results will be shared with those who participated in the assessment process.
Because confidentiality is the most essential prerequisite for obtaining accurate information, any doubts respondents have about where the informa- tion will go and who will be identified can cloud the accuracy of data. If staff do not feel that their responses and their identity will be safeguarded during the assessment process, they may choose not to be completely truthful about some questions.
This presents a problem for administrators wishing to develop a questionnaire and tally the results themselves. Workers may not be totally candid if they know that someone directly associated
with the center will be collecting and analyzing the results. The data generated from surveys conducted
in this manner may be biased and of limited value.
In some cases it may be important to assure anonymity in addition to confidentiality. This can be done by having an agreed-upon third party collect the data and summarize it. Sometimes those in supervisory positions may be perceived by the staff to be the source of the problem. Under such circumstances, it is essential to have an impartial outside person conduct and analyze the data collected from surveys or interviews.
Should the results he shared? Unless the issue
facing the center is highly sensitive, it is important to be as open as possible about sharing all positive and negative feedback. This process builds trust and confidence that staff do indeed have an impor- tant role to play in improving the center and that it is the collective responsibility of all concerned to both identify strengths of the program and come up with possible solutions to problem areas.
As an expression of administrative concern for their welfare, this step is what conveys to staff the director's intent to be open and supportive of needed changes. This demonstration of concern can in itself contribute to healthy staff relations. It can also open channels of communication and stimulate group problem solving. As feedback is translated into follow-up activities, staff will feel a greater sense of shared responsibility for imple- menting change and incorporating new practices.
Different Approaches for Data Collection
There are many different ways of gathering data. The assessment tools in this book provide several examples of different data collection tech- niques. It will be up to you to decide which assessments should be used to collect data about the problems you have described as a result of doing Exercise #4.1. The five most popular approaches to data collection include: question- naires, interviews, observations, records and documents, and standardized tests.
Questionnaires. Survey questionnaires are prob-
ably the mos; widely used data gathering technique in educational settings. Questionnaires are particu- larly useful when one is interested is assessing the attitudes, beliefs, and values of a particular group of
people. Moreover, they can provide useful informa- tion on changes in attitudes over a period of time.
The main strength of using questionnaires for data collection is that the approach is quick and, if the instrument is constructed well, the results are fairly easy to summarize. There are, however, some
inherent limitations to using surveys. Questionnaires tend to be impersonal. Moreover, the questions may
not adequately tap the desired information. Staff can also misinterpret a question, or skip over a question (or even a whole block of questions). Since
most surveys are conducted anonymously, there is usually no way that missing information can be updated or probed more fully. This could be a problem because nonresponses may pose a threat
to the validity of the data collected. The primary issue with respect to questionnaires
has to do with their validity and reliability does the
GO Blueprint for Action 53
questionnaire measure what it purports to measure,
and does it do so reliably and consistently. For this reason, it is probably wisest to use established vali- dated instruments when they meet your purposes. The successful use of questionnaires rests in large part on the trust of the respondent. If individuals suspect the data will not be kept confidential or not used in ways intended, they may give socially- desired answers instead of truthful responses.
The questionnaires included in this book include several different types of response formats. There are both open-ended response formats (where the respondent is required to construct the response) and forced-response items (where the respondent is required to select their preferred choice from two or more alternatives). Forced- choice formats include multiple choice, yes/no, or rating scale questions. Table 4.1 provides a list of ten questions to guide you in selecting a question- naire for your center-based assessment or in constructing your own questionnaire.
Interviews. Personal interviews are another approach to collecting data about your center. This approach is more direct and can lend deeper insight into the actual meanings of the issues addressed. Face-to-face interview methods provide greater flexibility to probe more fully certain issues that would be too difficult to elicit in a questionnaire. Like questionnaires, though, interviews can be open-ended or highly struc- tured. Successful interviews, however, require considerably more time to administer. Scheduling staff for interviews, transcribing interview notes, and summarizing the results of interviews, even for a small staff, is enormously time consuming.
Observations. Perhaps the most effective way to
tap what is actually happening in a given situation is to watch people's behavior as they work or interact with others. Such observations can be casual with anecdotal notes taken, or highly structured using checklists to code precise behaviors. Most directors
are familiar with using observational techniques to code children's behavior and teachers' behavior in the classroom. But observational techniques can also be used to provide greater insight into organi-
54 Blueprint for Action
zational processes other than just teaching prac- tices. For example, observing organizational processes such as group meeting behavior and providing that feedback to participants can help group rnembers increase their understanding of how to improve their methods of working together.
There are, of course, shortcomings to using observational techniques for collecting data. The most obvious is that observational methods are open to our perceptual biases. Since what we view is influenced by our own subjective feelings and experiences, it is possible to distort reality. We have
all been in a situation where we have witnessed an event with others only to hear later multiple versions
of the event being told. Objective reality varies with the lens one is using to view any situation. This underscores the importance of using observers who are highly trained and skilled in observational techniques. Saying that observers should be highly skilled does not necessarily mean that the observa-
tional tools need to be elaborate. Sometimes it is helpful to just have a frequency tabulation on how many people said what or how many times a behavior or an event occurred in a given situation.
Records/documents. Records and artifacts are another source of rich data for directors that can be collected to document certain patterns in orga- nizational performance. Attendance records, staff memos, and parent notes are all examples of documents that may provide clues to problem areas that need attention. Analyzing staff absen- teeism records or assessing annual turnover for the center may provide clues as to staff's level of commitment to the center.
Standardized tests. While the use of standard- ized tests with preschool-aged children is generally discouraged, they can serve a useful role in helping staff assess areas of the curriculum or instructional methodologies that may need to be improved. Children's scores on the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test, for example, may provide useful clues for the staff on ways to improve instructional strategies to enhance language devel- opment. With staff who have limited training, the director may also want to use some kind of stan-
61
Table 4.1
Some Things to Think About in Selecting or Designing a Questionnaire
1. Are the directions on how to complete the questionnaire written in a manner that is easy for staff to understand? Are directions concise, clear, and complete?
2. Is the purpose of the questionnaire clearly explained in the cover letter or the directions?
3. Does the title of the questionnaire clearly tell you what the questionnaire is about?
4. Is each question worded clearly and conciseiy and does it address only one issue?
5. Are any questions too personal?
6. Is the response format appropriate for the questions being asked?
7. Is the questionnaire too long?
8. Are staff provided with clear directions as to what to do with the nuestionnaire when they are finished?
9. Is the instrument clearly reproduced?
10. Overall, is the layout and design attractive?
dardized knowledge base test to assess level of knowledge in child development or specific areas of the curriculum. Such a test may be useful as a pre and post measure of changes in knowledge if a staff development program is implemented that addresses staff's training needs in specific child development or curriculum content areas.
Tools for Assessing Organizational Needs
Collecting adequate data to assess the many elements of center effectiveness will undoubtedly necessitate using several different types of instru- ments, each with a different focus. Using multiple sources of evidence is important because no single
instrument can capture the complex nature of orga-
nizational functioning with respect to people, structure, processes, culture, and outcomes.
62
In the appendix of this book are a number of tools (instruments) for gathering data about your child care center. There are times when you will want to use the tools from this book in the form in which they are presented. At other times, only a pa( of an instrument will meet your needs. It is hoped that the many examples presented in this book will assist you in gathering data about your center, diagnosing existing problems, and measuring your progress in achieving your objec- tives. The following provides a brief description of the range of organizational issues addressed in the instruments. More detailed information about administering and scoring these assessments is included with each instrument in the appendix.
One word of caution. It should be underscored that many of these assessments measure staff's perceptions about different organizational prac-
Blueprint for Action 55
tices. These perceptions may or may not mirror objective reality. Objective reality is not as impor- tant, however, as what people perceive to be the case. For it is these internalized filtered perceptions that will guide and shape their behavior.
Organizational Climate Organizational climate describes the collective
perceptions of staff regarding the overall quality of work life at the center. Assessment Tool #3 is the short
form of the Early Childhood Work Environment Survey (Jorde-Bloom, 1988a, 1989a) which can be used to
assess the organizational climate of a program. This
instrument measures staff's perceptions about a wide
range of organizational practices. It is short and can be administered to the staff annually to take a quick
pulse of organizational fundioning.
Leadership Style
The first part of Assessment Tool #4 was adapted from the work of Blake and Mouton (1969),
Getzels and Guba (1957), Giammatteo (1975), Hersey and Blanchard (1982), and Reddin (1970). It assesses three different leadership styles: the task- oriented style which emphasizes organizational needs; the people-oriented style which focuses on people and their individual needs; and the transac- tional style which stresses an appropriate emphasis on both the center's needs and the individual worker's needs depending on the situation. The second part of this assessment is an overall evalua-
tion of the director's management and administrative
behavior. It was developed by Exchange Press (Neugebauer, 1990). This instrument is designed to be completed by all staff who work at the center. The
composite results summarize the staff's perceptions
of the director's leadership style.
Goal Consensus and Communication
Peters and Waterman (1982) state that the hall-
mark of any successful organization is a shared sense among its members about what they are trying to accomplish. Agreed-upon goals and ways to attain them provide the foundation for rational planning and action. When the goals of a program
are broken into attainable short-term targets, they
56 Blueprtnt for Action
are called objectives. These constitute the tasks indi- viduals must accomplish in order to meet the organizational goals. They are important because they help prioritize activities. One cannot assume, however, that just because a center's goals and objectives are committed to paper there is uniform agreement about those goals and objectives. Indeed, consensus on program goals and objec- tives is often lacking. This is because the goals of the center may not be truly embraced by individual members. Assessment Tool #5 assesses staff's rank-
ings of various educational goals and objectives. From this information, you will be able to determine the degree of agreement that exists among your staff
regarding various educational objectives. Goal consensus rests in large measure on the
effectiveness of communication in the center. Communication is the degree to which information is
transmitted among the members of an organization. This transmission assumes many forms in child care
centers; it can be written or oral, formal or informal,
and personal or impersonal. Communication networks also vary in centers. They may be vertical
(from supervisor to teacher) or horizontal (between teachers). Assessment Tool #5 assesses staff's perceptions of the effectiveness of communication at
the center. The questions on this assessment tool were adapted from the work of Bean and Clemes (1978), Jorde-Bloom (1989a), and Rosenholtz (1989).
Collegiality and Collaboration
Assessment Tool #6 assesses staff's percep- tions regarding their overall co-worker relations, particularly the extent to wnich they feel teaching at the center is a team effort. Whether or not teachers work collaboratively depends in large part on the harmony of their interests within the center the degree to which they share similar goals and objectives. As Rosenholtz states, "Communal goals, problems, and values offer common substance from which to share" (p. 44). It should not be surprising, then, if the results of this assessment are similar to those of the goal consensus assessment tool described earlier. The questions on this assessment tool were adapted from the work of Rosenholtz (1989).
Decision-making Processes
The opportunity to participate in center-wide decision making is an important factor in the morale of teachers. We know from previous research, however, that the degree of desired decision- making influence by teachers varies from situation to situation. We cannot assume, for example, that all
teachers want the same degree of decision-making influence in all areas of program functioning. Thus the roles that teachers and director play in decision making needs to vary according to the nature of the issue being considered and the background and interests of the parties affected. Assessment Tool #7 was designed to assess staff's perceptions of their current and desired levels of decision-making influ- ence in five areas: ordering materials and supplies; interviewing and hiring new staff; determining program objectives; training new aides and teachers; and planning and scheduling activities. The purpose of this assessment is to measure the discrepancy between current and desired levels of decision-making influence. Assessment Tool #7 also
includes questions about how the staff perceives the decision-making processes of the center. The information yielded from this instrument will give you
a clearer picture of the areas in which staff desire a greater role in decision making. The questions on this assessment tool were adapted from the deci- sion-making subscale on the Early Childhood Work Environment Survey (Jorde-Bloom, 1989a).
Supervision and Performance Appraisal Processes
The cornerstone of a center's capacity for self- renewal rests on the ability of staff to grow and adapt to change. It is the supervisory and perfor- mance appraisal practices in place at the center that allow this to happen. Assessment Tool #8 measures staff's perceptions of the extent to which the supervisory and performance appraisal processes of the center pose restraints or opportunities for professional growth. Using this assessment to tap staff's perceptions can provide important clues as to how to better motivate them to higher levels of performance. This assessment tool can also serve as a useful pre and post measure of the center's attempt to improve super-
visory and performance appraisal processes. The questions on this assessment tool were adapted from the work of Bean and Clemes (1978), Jorde- Bloom, (1989a), and Neugebauer (1990).
Organizational Norms
Norms are the standards or codes of expected behavior at our centers. Although the existence of a norm is neither good nor bad per se, certain norms can facilitate or inhibit behavior. This in turn may have a positive or negative impact on the effective- ness of how group members carry out their respective roles. Norms can be both prescriptive (do's) and proscriptive (don'ts). Assessing staff's perceptions about the prevailing norms can serve as
a starting point for understanding those norms and how we can best implement needed changes that will impact those norms. Assessment Tool #9 assesses the prevailing norms at the center in seven
areas: everyday demeanor; use of space and mate- rials; time and task orientation; professional conduct regarding children and parents; collegiality; commu-
nication and decision making; and change and experimentation. This assessment tool was adapted
from the work of Fox and Schmuck (1973), Jorde- Bloom (1986a), and Schmuck and Runkel (1985).
Group Meeting Processes
In most organizations, workers spend consid- erable time in group meetings of one kind or another. Yet despite their importance to organiza- tional functioning, few workers speak favorably about meetings. They usually view them as a burden and waste of time. In child care centers, staff meetings are typically the primary vehicle for decision making and problem solving. It would seem important, therefore, to regularly assess the effectiveness of how meetings are conducted. Assessment Tool #10 assesses staff's perceptions of the effectiveness of the staff meetings con- ducted at the center. The questions on this instrument are adapted from the work of Schmuck and Runkel (1985) and Jorde-Bloom (1982). The information generated from this assessment should provide a wealth of data from which to improve group meeting processes in the future.
Blueprint for Action 57
Parent Satisfaction Meeting the needs of parents is central to our
mission of educating young children. It is incum- bent that centers, therefore, regularly assess parental satisfaction regarding the range and quality of services provided. Assessing parental perceptions about program functioning communi- cates to parents a sense that they are important and that their opinions are taken seriously. The information gleaned from Assessment Tool #11 will
provide the director and staff with parents' percep- tions of overall center effectiveness. It is probably best administered in the late spring of each year.
Moving Forward: Considering Different Strategies for Change
We've stressed in the previous section that diagnosis is the cornerstone of adequate problem solving in child care centers. Without complete and accurate data, problems tend to multiply. Problem identification and data collection naturally flow into data analysis. Once a discrepancy (problem) has been identified, the goal of analysis is to determine why the problem exists. Analysis consists of identifying aspects of people, structure, and processes that can be altered or changed to reduce the problem.
Now that you have collected additional data regarding the initial problem you identified as a result of completing Exercise #4.1 on pages 48-51,
you are ready to restate the problem, identify the symptoms, and summarize the results of the data you collected. This can be done on the Exercise #4.2 worksheet. The result-of this exercise wili yield a clear, succinct goal statement. This is nothing more than a precise description of the ideal situa- tion you want to achieve. Bean and Clemes (1978) state, "When a group defines goals it gives substance to what people feel is important. People's feelings, attitudes, and expectations are critical to the success of achieving goals. They provide the energy and commitment that are necessary to do the work required to fulfill goals; motivation to action arises from feelings" (p. 74).
58 Blueprint tor Action
Some examples of goal statements might be:
The center will achieve NAEYC center accred-
itation.
Teachers will engage in collaborative planning and positive interactions with one another.
The spatial arrangement of the physical environment will encourage children to
engage in cooperative play.
0. Parents will play an active role in center activities.
Having goals that are explicitly stated and focus on the future helps you and your staff direct your energies and encourages cohesiveness within the center. In sum, the purpose of this step is to generate a shared image of what the center will become. The importance of having a clear and shared vision for the change process cannot be overemphasized. All staff should be able to visu- alize a picture of what the center will be when the effort has been achieved.
Analyzing the Situation:
Assessing Helping and Hindering Forces
In the early 1950s, Kurt Lewin introduced a useful model for analyzing problem situ- ations. His Force-Field Analysis Model is
helpful in understanding the pressures and counter- pressures of various forces that act to block or bring
about change. He called these driving forces and restraining forces. He believed that organizational life could be characterized by a dynamic balance of
forces working in opposite directions. The approach is useful because it helps us to think about any problem situation in terms of factors that encourage
and facilitate change (helping forces) and factors that work against change (hindering forces). These
forces may originate inside the organization (people, structure, processes, or culture) or outside
the organization in the external environment.
Using this model as a framework for problem analysis helps us think of the present state of the problem as a balance between opposing forces.
65
Exercise 4.2
Restating the Problem, Identifying Symptoms, and Summarizing the Results of the Data Collection
Problem:
Symptoms:
Results of Data Collection:
Goal: (ideal situation)
6 Blueprint for Action 59
The task, then, becomes one of enumerating all the
forces that are on either side. The helping forces are those that support change efforts in moving toward an ideal; hindering forces are those that are blocking movement toward the ideal. Lewin's Force-Field Analysis is a useful technique because
it identifies the positive and negative factors affecting change, targeting the cause r ither than the effects of a problem. Exercise #4.3 is a work- sheet adapted from the work of Schmuck and Runkel (1985), Storm (1985), and Saxl (1989) to help you identify the helping and hindering forces as they relate to the present situation and your conception of the ideal you would like to achieve.
Generating Possible Solutions: Weighing Alternatives
The next step in the problem-solving process is to determine how the helping or positive forces can be strengthened or
increased and how the hindering or negative forces can be reduced or decreased. It is usually recom- mended that a program's first priority be given to reducing negative forces since these usually have a stronger effect in achieving a desired ideal state than trying to increase the helping forces.
The solutions that are generated will probably involve all components of the system: changing people (through staff development or supervisory practices); changing structures (by implementing new policies or redefining roles); or changing orga- nizational processes (by altering the way business is done). The internal components of the system are typically easier to change than the external environment. That is not to say, however, that some of the strategies might not entail changing aspects of the external environment that the center may have control over. Changing the culture of the program will probably not appear as an immediate solution. That is because the culture changes as a by-product of changes in people, structure, and processes. In other words, it will automatically change as a result of our efforts to modify other components of the program.
The next step is to determine the viability of each proposed solution. Some solutions will simply be impractical. Others will be too costly or take too
10 Blueprint for Action
long to put in place. In determining the viability of each solution, think, as well, of the possible effects that each solution will have on other aspects of people, structure, and processes. This involves anticipating the probable consequences of using each alternative strategy. The process implies trade offs. Exercise #4.4 provides a worksheet to guide your analysis. At the top of this worksheet state your
goal. This will describe the ideal state you hope to achieve. Then proceed to list all possible solutions. Do not begin to assess the merits of each until you have noted all the possible solutions to your problem. Next jot down the possible consequences of each. After doing so, you will be able to assess which solutions are the most viable.
Developing an Action Plan
Once viable solutions have been gener- ated and alternative strategies for change have been carefully considered
in terms of their intended and unintended conse- quences, it is then possible to develop a concrete plan of action. A written plan serves not only to avoid ambiguity about who is to do what by when, but also serves as a tool for reminding individuals of the progress that is being made. Exercise #4.5 provides a worksheet to guide this planning process. The process is essentially one of trans- lating the solutions generated from the previous exercise into objectives that will achieve the goal. This is the heart of your action plan because it provides the quantitative description of the goal you are striving to achieve.
Objectives are statements that define measur- able, observable behavior that lead toward a goal. Objectives are typically stated in phrases that begin
with the word "to," and they precisely define time limits. When writing objectives, think of what observ-
able behavior will tell you that you are making progress toward achieving a goal. While goals are often quite broad statements of what we hope to accomplish, objectives are precise statements of what needs to be done to achieve a specific goal. Bean and Clemes (1978) state that well-written objectives should contain four elements:
67
Exer.;i se 4.3
Analyzing the Situation: Assessing Helping and Hindering Forces
Goal: (ideal situation)
Helping Forces Hindering Forces
.11
/
Present Situation
66 Blueprint for Action 81
Exercise 4.4
Generating Possible Solutions: Weighing Alternatives
Goal: (Ideal situation)
Prop.:\sed Solution Possible Consequences
12 Blueprint for Action
69
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71
WHAT will be accomplished.
* the presence of new behavior
* the absence of a previously observed behavior
* the performance of a particular task
* the completion of a concrete product
WHO the persons are whose behavior will be measured.
* everyone
* a part of a group
* a person
WHEN the specific behavior will be measured.
* a specific date
* a contingent date (e.g. three months after a test is given)
* a general period of time (e.g. within one year)
HOW MUCH of the behavior will show that some standard has been reached.
* a score on a test
* a relative reduction in something (e.g. half as many...)
* a relative increase in something (twice as many...)
* an absolute number of something (10 instruc- tional units completed)
The next step is to note all the activities that will be necessary to accomplish each of the objec- tives. Next to each activity should be noted the individual or individuals responsible for carrying out the specific activities delineated, the total amount of time necessary to accomplish the task, a proposed timeline, and additional resources needed (noting costs).
Finally, the action plan should include check- points for evaluation. In other words, how will you know you have accomplished your objectives?
U Blueprint for Action
These may be actual products if your objective is to
produce something tangible, or it may be points in time where you will assess your progress. This last category is important because it will help you know how to measure progress in achieving your goal.
While we have shown the planning process in worksheet form here, it may be easier in group planning to make a separate task card for each activity. Each card should detail the task, who is responsible for carrying out the task, and how long the task should take to accomplish. These cards can then be arranged on a wall in the appropriate sequence to make a visual timeline in which they should be done. This process is recommended for undertaking goal setting which involves several objectives that entail multiple activities over an extended period of time. The process is useful because it provides all parties involved with a very visual blueprint of the scope of the change process to be undertaken.
On the following page we see how Martha, the director of the Children's Corner, defined her problem and detailed a plan of action. At the end of this chapter are the exercises that Martha completed for her program. These examples of completed exercises will be helpful as you identify problem areas that you want to improve in your own program.
Implementing the Action Plan
Picking the right problems and finding the right solutions only points you in the right direction. Implementing the plan is what
actually leads to center improvement. If goals and objectives are important to the individuals involved and if they are "doable," then implementing the action plan should be a fairly straightforward process. In a top-down model of change, the director has control over this process. In a collabo- rative model of change, however, the director's role
becomes a delicate balance of providing sufficient supervision to ensure that tasks actually get done, while at the same time providing sufficient leeway so that individuals will internalize a sense of owner- ship of the change process.
In Chapter III we discussed the vital role that the director plays in providing resources,
7 2
protecting time, and giving staff the support and recognition they need during the change process to ensure feelings of success. It is critical that the change process not be viewed as a linear event. All kinds of circumstances can arise that will necessitate a modification in action plans arid the timeline in which to carry out activities. Being flex- ible and viewing the action plan as a blueprint that may have to be revised from time to time will help you keep staff motivated to achieve desired goals.
Case Shidy: The Childress's Comm Given the newness of her position and the
gravity of the situation, Martha decided that time was scarce. The first couple of weeks on the job had convinced her that she would have to take the initia- tive to implement some changes. She would start out with a top-down model of change and gradually increase staff involvement as they were ready and willing. She knew that certain 'norms had set in over the years and that patterr.s of behavior would be diffi- cult to change. Bu, she had one thing going for her; she sensed that the teachers were also dissatisfied with the present situation. If she could implement a few structural changes and work on modifying some of the processes of the center, she might be able to establish the norms of collegiality and collaboration that would lead staff to begin to examine their own teaching practices.
Martha's first step was to clarify her problem. At first blush, she thought her problem was the hostility exhibited toward her at staff meetings. But after she pondered the issue for a while, she realized this might only be a symptom of a far deeper problem. She decided to collect some data regarding the staff's perceptions of center policies and practices. Martha was encouraged by how open and candid the staff were in completing the assessment tools. She saw how the process of asking their opinions signaled her interest and respect for them.
When Martha analyzed the data from the assess- ments, she realized tnat staff were generally distrustful of one another. Because of their lack of influence in decision-making processes and staff meeting processes over the past years, they had reacted by becoming very protective of their own turf. Martha knew that if she was to make any impact on this
Evaluating Progress
The final step in the change cycle is to evaluate progress in achieving desired goals and objectives (outcomes). Without
evaluation, the actions implemented toward change
would not be understood. Thus, evaluation should not be seen as the end of the process, but rather as a stepping stone to further identify new areas in need of change. This is a cyclical process, one which addresses the needs of a complex social system in action. What is the purpose of evaluating change? And what is the best way to pursue prac-
program, she first needed to improve the cooperative nature of relationships and establish an environment that encouraged collaboration. This became her goal.
Martha's objectives for accomplishing this goal were ambitious. First, she would try to increase staff's knowledge of different learning and teaching styles. Her hope was that this would lead to a greater appre- ciation of individual differences. At the same time, she would develop an individual profile on each staff person highlighting their teaching strengths. This information would be used to encourage collaboratio; ; between teachers. Second, she would work to modify some of the structures of the center that seemed to discourage collaboration. Staff work and planning schedules, in particular, seemed to be a real problem. Martha knew that meaningful interactions between teachers were often difficult given their overlapping and conflicting schedules. Even getting everyone together for staff meetings was almost impossible. She wanted to free up time to allow staff to plan activ- ities together, observe other centers together, and go to conferences and workshops together. Finally, she would make some bold changes in the way staff meetings were conducted. She realized that valuable time was being wasted talking about trivial details that could have been covered in a memo. Meetings did not start on time and people did not have a stake in the agenda or in supporting productive interaction processes. Martha decided she would involve teachers in setting the agenda and facilitating discus- sions. She would also work to help the staff begin to examine the roles that each of them played in meet- ings. She believed that increasing their knowledge of group dynamics would have the ancillary benefit of actually improving group functioning.
7
BEST CON AVAILABLL
Blueprint for Action 65
tical and useful evaluation procedures? Perhaps a good way to begin is to define what evaluation means in this context.
During the implementation process, the director plays a monitoring role. The easiest way to deter- mine how things are going is what Peters and Waterman (1982) call "management by wandering around," talking informally with staff involved in the change process. For example, the director may ask
staff questions such as: "How is the new literacy program working?" "What was accomplished at the staff committee meeting on multicultural curriculum?"
"Is our professional library for staff up-to-date?" "Have you noticed a change in the children's behavior since you rearranged your learning centers?" This informal "sensing the pulse" is a crit- ical element in keeping change on target. This kind of formative evaluation serves to provide information
on how the action plan might be improved. At a designated point in the change process,
however, the director will also want to gather data in a more formal, systematic way. This type of summa-
tive evaluation will assess the degree of success of the change endeavor in achieving desired outcomes. Formal evaluation occurs when the outcomes of these investigations are described in terms that can be measured. If the goals and objec- tives on the evaluation plan are described precisely, then this process is a fairly straightforward one. It may be done using some of the assessment tools discussed earlier as a posttest measure of the degree of improvement made in a specific area. This kind of evaluation provides useful data about the success of the change endeavor and any alter- ation in resources that may need to be made to make it more successful in the future.
Loucks-Horsley (1987) believes that the most important evaluation question to ask is whether the new changes are thought of as an improvement by those most affected by them. To assure objectivity in the formal evaluation process (particularly when the results of the evaluation will be used to docu- ment the need for additional funds from a sponsoring agency or external funding source), it is best to use an impartial third party to collect the
66 Blueprint for Action
evaluation data and summarize the results of the change efforts. In sum, evaluation is both a basis for assessing whether intended outcomes have been achieved and pinpointing alterations in the action plan that should be made in subsequent change endeavors.
A Final Word
We have seen in this chapter that picking the right problems and finding the right solutions to them is the heart of center-based improvement efforts. We have also seen that a systems model can serve as a viable framework for center anal- ysis and problem solving. Effective directors collect information on the quality of their center, compare the information with desired outcomes, identify discrepancies, and search for causes to problems. From this information it is then possible to develop a plan to alleviate the problems.
The director's role is to act as a catalyst to move
the center toward its goals. Data analysis is the step
that links the present to the future. If teachers can have an active role in analyzing the situation and generating alternatives, they will feel a greater sense
of shared responsibility for implementing change and incorporating new practices. Examining the changes the staff would like to see leads naturally to
developing objectives and designing appropriate strategies for change. The goal in the change process is to turn problem solutions into goal state-
ments that clearly state what will be done in a specific, realistic, observable, and measurable way.
In sum, the assessment process is essentially a self-renewing process it is dynamic rather than static. It is concerned with both outcomes and processes. It is a means for developing organiza- tional teamwork and building collaborative action to bring about an understanding and acceptance of changes necessary to reach center objectives, and the responsibility for implementing those changes. Ongoing assessment should be an integral tool for creating, designing, improving, and maintaining effective early childhood programs.
74
Restating the Problem, Identifying Symptoms, and Summarizing the Results of the Data Collection
Exercise 42
Problem: Xad of cioopLealz;em eunpy .leachas virrahl
Yt, ullether-arb.
Symptoms: Xo-ur saveineni- I;) s4elff Pneet;i1 111/54et5, 60,74tz: An 1.
VI/ L Vezzau, sha..e.: f iiieez.d) a4-At /wow-4w. Jaleitt, thdatZern.
Results of Data Collection: A.5514:14A14774 44/ jtaff it,reeipfie3775 of si-aff
frYleditid Acivihti abelue, mecter;2") a4k, bfrri. arid a was&
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S,h-ew 'hat ..517.1ff fed, eati.4741. te ,frenn ene, ameff? 614-t-wa4vb
uidif Azdaez, in zw m.ierfia-,:fenat ittiatang .4.5544.0471.142t -Teel 6172/.13,aeth-ndy, dOnate, see.re,
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am,1- men. eveig6P2i/w61 5uppirtive mk.rad.461,2 ludiv
c7W 12,no/A.47;
Blueprint for Action 67
Exercise 4.3
Analyzing the Situation: Assessing Helping and Hindering Forces
Goal: (ideal situation) wiz& 4nrie a) cella her,/ e 1/etrii-u4y- awl in
60,629efithi,e, Siefferfive ii;nle-Kmte.;e7te gite amo/liee.
Helping Forces
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GI Blueprint tor Action
Hindering Forces
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Present Situation
Generating Possible Solutions: Weighing Alternatives
Exercise 4,4
Goal: (Ideal situation) Aria, 9eZji2 1,,t) eadierdt Ipidzimi*!
041,07111,K.
Proposed Solution Possible Consequences
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7 ; Blueprint for Action 61
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Chapter 5
Assessing Individual Needs
Over the past 15 years, increased emphasis has been placed on child development as providing the underpinnings of early child- hood education. Specifically, teachers focus
not only on developmental stages of young chil- dren, but also on unique developmental patterns, experiences, abilities, and backgrounds of indi- vidual children. Yet in our preservice and inservice programs for the professional development of early childhood teachers, we seem to have forgotten this developmental focus. Instead, training programs continue to be designed for an entire staff, as if all teachers had the same back- grounds, interests, and needs. It is the intent of this chapter to present teacher development from an individualized perspective.
Adults as Individuals
Assessing individual teachers in light of their developmental patterns, experiences, abilities, and backgrounds should provide a realistic anal- ysis from which to design meaningful professional development approaches. It is our belief that knowledge and understanding of how teachers can achieve optimal growth rests on accurate assessment of individuals. This section looks at those areas that seem important in identifying strengths and needs of teachers. While there is some overlap amona these areas, they also repre- sent, to some degree, separate aspects of the developing adult.
E
Personal Background
The gathering of basic background information on individuals appears to be a relatively simple process on the surface. Often there is personal data gathered during the hiring process. To address family history or background variables in more depth, however, it is necessary for a supervisor to devote more time to the process; but the resultant information can provide greater insight from a developmental per- spective. Information on family
background, for example, may help illuminate why a teacher behaves in
a particular way. Knowing, for
instance, that a certain teacher was the product of a strict, religious upbringing can help the director understand why that teacher is a strong advocate of structured experi- ences for children. In the same way, knowing that a particular teacher is experiencing some turmoil going through a separa- tion or divorce can allow the director to be sensitive to the side effects of such an experience which may
impact job performance. Recognizing a teacher's lack of exposure to different ethnic groups can assist the director in understanding why the teacher is having difficulty with parents and children of different cultures.
Often a director may not have a clue to under- standing a teacher's behavior until this kind of interpersonal communication occurs. In the following
"Treat prople as
though they were what
they ought to be and
you will help them
become what they are
capable of being."
Goethe
Blueprint for Action 71
two examples, Martha telks about the connection between personal history and job performance:
Caw Star Tin Childrat Conger °Margaret seemed extremely nervous when I
observed in her classroom. And although I had encouraged her to call me by my first name, she continued to use 'Mrs.' After one particular observa- tion, Margaret and I met to discuss a child. I took the risk and told her she seemed bothered by my pres- ence in her room. The conversation then wound its way to Margaret's relationship with her mother, who was my same age. Margaret described her mother as very demanding, critical, and a real perfectionist. She explained that she disliked having her mother attend any event where she performed for fear of a harsh assessment. Once Margaret could express her feelings about me as representative of her mother, we were able to establish a better relation- ship as supervisor and teacher."
"Scott had been late for work many mornings over the past two weeks. He apologized readily to rrie and to his classroom aide who had handled the children on her own. But he made no effort to offer an expla- nation. He appeared rushed and preoccupied and left the classroom at night right after the last child was gone. I invited Scott to have lunch with me and talked with him about his lateness. Reluctantly, he opened up and shared his personal situation. His wife was having some medical problems, and the care of his two school-aged children was falling on his shoulders. Since he worked in child care, he was even more guarded about sharing his dilemma. After all, he should be able to deal with his children and still get to work on time! Scott and I talked about his situation and I think I was able to make some helpful suggestions. Even though his lateness was the surface problem that had to be dealt with, I felt confi- dent Scott benefitted from my having listened to all of the problems centering around his wife's illness."
Obviously, such information cannot be obtained
through data sheets or written profiles. Rather it is elicited through many open, supportive conversations
with staff. Just as the early childhood teacher seeks to
know each child, his family, his cultural heritage, and his particular experiences, so, too, does the successful supervisor or director seek to know his/her
staff. From such a knowledge base, understanding and meaningful support can be generated.
72 Blueprint for Action
Educational Leve lgraining/Experience
It is necessary under most licensing regulations
to document the staff's education, training, and experience. Well-maintained personnel records reflect specific educational degrees, the completion
of special training programs, and the years and type of teaching or volunteer experience. For directors to provide appropriate professional development opportunities for individual staff members, they must
be keenly aware of this data, as well as more informal information that staff members might not record about themselves. For example, through a conversation in the lounge, one director became aware that a particular teacher had completed two courses in sign language. With encouragement from
the director, this teacher began exposing her 5-year-
olds to signing through the singing of simple songs.
Feedback was very positive from the parents concerning this curricular innovation.
With respect to experience, it is important for the director to be aware of the many and varied roles teachers may have performed over the years. Some may have.worked in home day care or parent cooperatives while their children were young. Others may have volunteered in different capacities within the public school sector. Such experiences can provide a broad knowledge base from which the preschool teacher can interact effectively with parents and the community. Taking time during the initial interviewing and hiring process and at ongoing intervals throughout the year to discern the many and varied experiences of individual staff members contributes to their effective utilization and involvement and enhances the center's program.
interests/Skills/Talents
Also important to note is specific information related to special interests, skills, and talents of staff. Often teachers have talents, particular skills, or abilities that can be integrated nicely into the early childhood program. Frequently, teachers have
musical training or special artistic abilities that can enhance the program as well as the teachers' sense of their own worth. Sometimes teachers have
very unusual or unique talents that are not readily
8
apparent. One director told of a teacher who was an avid cook and baker. She was pleased when the director talked to her about using these special talents within the early childhood program. Menu planning and classroom cooking projects were woven into this teacher's role. Another teacher had a special talent for graphic design; the monthly newsletter became her special project. Through the scheduling efforts of a director, a teacher aide who spoke fluent Spanish and had a strong interest in bilingualism was able to spend some time in each classroom working with small groups of children. A Nigerian man working part-time in a university preschool program had an interest in enhancing the multicultural aspect of the curriculum. And one
teacher who traveled extensively during the summers with her husband had a wonderful photo collection which the director encouraged her to build into the curriculum.
Acquiring and utilizing personal background data in a constructive manner requires that the director be able to establish a sense of trust with her staff. The director who is sincerely interested in the unique needs of individuals and is able to communicate a commitment to individual growth will be able to elicit that trust. Often it takes gentle probing by the director to find out about particular interests and talents. Staff members may not see their attributes as vehicles for contributing to the overall program. The director ie in a position to take a supervisory role which emphasizes this kind
of holistic approach.
Personal Traits and Characteristics Adults, just as children, have very unique
personalities and characteristics. To view supervision
from a developmental, individualized perspective, it
is necessary to consider such uniqueness.
Energy level. First, from a physiological stand- point, adults have very different energy and drive levels. Two teachers who seemingly have the same family demands, responsibilities, and
outside interests may come to the work site in very different states. One complains constantly of being tired and worn out; the other seems to possess
unlimited "bounce" and stamina. In conversations with these two adults, we find that one is able to go
on very little sleep each night; while the other says she can't make it without her eight hours! Granted, such states may be related to performance potential psychological stress; but physically there are also legitimate differences among people.
Level of abstract thinking. An additional personal characteristic identified by Glickman (1985) is the level of abstraction demonstrated by individual teachers. Abstract thought, using Glickman's definition, is "the ability to determine relationships, to make comparisons and contrasts between information and experience to be used to generate multiple possibilities in formulating a decision" (p. 57).
Glickman classifies the abstract thinking of teachers as low, moderate, or high. Teachers who reflect a low level have trouble determining how to begin making changes in their classroom. Or, they don't seem to see the relationship of their own behavior to a problem they've identified. They often want quick answers or direction from a supervisor. Such a perspective is apparent in one teacher's plea to her director.
"These kids won't sit in a group for more than five minutes! All the boys want to do is play in the block area; and they all come to me constantly for help or to tell about somebody.
What should I do throw this developmentally
appropriate stuff out the window? This
approach just doesn't work with this group!"
"Everyone has peak
you just need to know
where they are coming
from and meet them
there."
Kenneth Blanchard
Teachers with moderate levels of abstract thinking, according to Glickman, realize that the problems relate in some way to what they are doing. However, they are unable to adequately define the problem and find an appropriate remedy, as the following example illustrates:
"Some children want to spend all their time in
art or blocks. So, I've decided to move small groups through each interest area for 20 minutes
6 2
Blueprint for Action 73
at a time. That way everyone will experience each area, and I won't have to be fighting with children to get them to try new things!"
Finally, highly abstract teachers use a rational process of problem solving by incorporating several sources of information and applying their own knowl-
edge and experience. Before making a final decision
about changing something, these teachers consider all available data and reflect on past experience in order to arrive at the best solution. !n the following scenario, a teacher discusses her problems with her director concerning Peter, one of her students:
"I've been trying to find some new strate- gies to use with Peter when he becomes so frustrated and angry. I talked yesterday with his mother to see if we could come up with a consistent approach. It may be that excluding
him from certain activities is warranted. I've resisted removing him from the block area, but I'm beginning to think this is necessary. His behavior is threatening the safety of others. I think it's important, however, for Peter to be involved in constructive things after he has been removed. In other words, I don't think he should just remain alone, unattended. He seems so vulnerable emotionally, and he needs my support."
Table 5.1 summarizes Glickman's delineation of levels of abstract thinking and can be used as a quick reference for determining where a particular teacher might be functioning.
Temperament/Psychological type. Many of the differences between people are reflected in various aspects of their personality and behavior. Some
Table 5.1
Levels of Abstract Thinking
Low Moderate High
Confusion about situation
Can define situation
by focusing on one dimension
Doesn't know what Can think of several can be done responses
Asks to be shown
Has habitual responses to varying situations
Has difficulty in thinking
of consequences of changing the situation
Can define the situation by drawing relationships between several sources of information
Can relate the information to
change in classroom practice
Can generate many alternative responses
Can evaluate the consequences of each response and choose the one most likely to succeed
From Glickman, C. D (1985) Supervis;on of instruction A developmental approach. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, p 59 Reprinted with permission.
74 Eilireprot for Actron
83
adults, for example, thrive on constant interaction and communication with their colleagues, while others need and want more alone time and may recoil from constant chatter and exchange. Some people respond in very flexible ways to unexpected demands and changing situations, while others may
react quite negatively when routine and order are disrupted. The latter personality type wants every- thing planned carefully and exactly; the former is more of a situational decision maker and can thrive
with a flexible, less-structured approach. Carl Jung (1923) believed these similarities and
differences in personality are not random, but rather
predictable. In studying patterns of human behavior,
particularly the way people perceive information and
interpret reality, Jung concluded that people are born
with a predisposition for certain personality prefer- ences. 'n Jungian theory, behavior relates to basic functions involved in gathering information about one's world and making decisions based on that information. Jung's theory of psychological types was
expanded by Katharine Briggs and her daughter, Isabel Briggs Myers, who developed the Myers- Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) (Myers, 1980).
The MB-I I assesses preferences for how we function along four continua: extraversion/ introver- sion; sensing/intuition; thinking/ feeling; judging/ perceiving. Table 5.2 summarizes the key charac-
teristics of each dimension as they relate to preferences in different work situations. The
extravert sees people as a source of energy, while the introvert prefers solitude to recover energy. The sensing type is more practical and concerned with the here and now, while the intuitive type tends to be more visionary and innovative. Thinking types base decisions on logic, data, and facts; feeling types base their decisions on their personal gut feeling of what is right. People who have a strong need for closure are likely to be judging types, while people preferring to keep things open and fluid are perceiving types. Use of the MBTI yields one of 16
psychological typologies. Keirsey and Bates (1978) have taken the work
of Jung and Myers and adapted it to educational settings. They refer to differing personality prefer- ences as one's temperament. Temperament, they
state, is a somewhat broader concept than "func- tion type." As such, they believe it is a better explainer of behavior. Keirsey and Bates define temperament as "that which places a signature or thumbprint on each of one's actions, making it recognizably one's own" (p. 27). Keirsey and Bates state that because people have a preferred style or temperament, they are often baffled by others who do not see the world as they do. An awareness of similarities and differences in personalities can help
foster interpersonal understanding.
Learning style. Styles and approaches to learning vary among any group of teachers. Dunn and Dunn (1978) state that each individual has an innate learning style that is modified with experi- ence. Some adults are very self-directed, while some are other-directed. Self-directed teachers have the motivation to learn and the skills to choose the means to accomplish the learning. Other-directed learners may lack the necessary motivation and the skills to accomplish their goals.
According to McCarthy (1980), teachers' learning styles will also influence the selection of activities and learning situations. Some teachers learn best by reflecting, others learn by observing, and still others acquire new skills only by doing. While some teachers relish the idea of using the group setting to discuss problems and situations at length, others see this approach as time-consuming
and cumbersome. Even more specifically, adults have prefer-
ences in terms of perceptual mode of presentation. Some of us are visual learners, while others are mainly auditory. The lecture format with detailed charts and graphs may be the choice of visual teachers while auditory learners may enjoy brain- storming, debate, and group collaboration.
Wonder and Donovan (1984) discuss the split- brain theory as providing insights into our thinking and learning preferences. They propose that indi- viduals have a tendency to prefer one side of the brain over the other, which affects their approach to
life and work. It is possible for individuals to develop the skills of the less-preferred hemisphere, but they cannot change dominance or preference. Rather,
Blueprint for Action 75
Table 5.2
Effects of Each Preference in Work Situations
EXTRAVERTS
Like variety and action. Tend to be faster, dislike complicated procedures. Are often good at greeting people. Are often impatient with long slow jobs. Are interested in the results of their job, in getting it done and
in how other people do it. Often do not mind interruption of answering the telephone. Often act quickly, sometimes without thinking. Like to have people around Usually communicate freely.
INTROVERTS
Like quiet for concentration. Are careful with details, dislike sweeping statements. Have trouble remembering names and faces Tend not to mind working on one project for a long
time uninterrupted. Are interested in the idea behind their job. Dislike telephone intrusions and interruptions. Like to think a lot before they act, sometimes without acting Work contentedly alone. Have some problems communicating.
SENSING TYPES
Dislike new problems unless standard ways to solve Like an established way of doing things. Enjoy using skills already learned more than learning
new ones.
Work steadily with realistic idea of how long it takes. Usually reach a conclusion step by step. Are patient with routine details. Are impatient when the details get complicated. Are not often inspired. Seldom make errors of fact Tend to be good at precise work
INTUITIVE TYPES
Like solving new problems. Dislike doing the same thing repeatedly. Enjoy learning a new skill more than using it. Work in bursts of energy powered by enthusiasm, with
slack or-iods in between. Ree nclusion quickly. Are 1. :t with routine details. Are patient dith complicated situations. Follow their inspirations, good or bad. Frequently make errors of fact Dislike taking time for precision.
THINKING TYPES
Do not show emotion readily and are often uncomfortable dealing with people's feelings.
May hurt people's feelings without knowing it. Like analysis and putting things into logical order. Can get along without harmony. Tend to decide impersonally, sometimes paying insufticient
attention to people's wishes. Need to be treated fairly. Are able to reprimand people or fire when necessary. Are analytically orientedrespond easily to people's thoughts. Tend to be firm-minded.
FEELING TYPES
Tend to be very aware of other people and their feelings. Enjoy pleasing people, even in unimportant things. Like harmony. Efficiency may be badly disturbed by
office feuds Often let decisions be influenced by their own or other
people's personal likes and wishes. Need occasional praise. Dislike telling people unpleasant things. Are more people-orientedrespond more easily to
people's values Tend to be sympathetic.
JUDGING TYPES
Work best when they can plan their work and follow the plan Like to get things settled and finished May decide things too quickly. May dislike to interrupt the project they are on for a more
urgent one May not notice new things that need to be done. Want only the essentials needed to begin their work Tend to be satisfied once they reach a judgment on a thing,
situation, or person
PERCEIVING TYPES
Adapt welt to changing situations. Do not mind leaving things open for alterations. May have trouble making decisions May start too many projects and have difficulty in
finishing them May postpone unpleasant jobs. Want to know all about a new job Teno to be curious and welcome new light on a thing,
situation, or person.
Reproduced by special permission of the Publisher, Consulting Psychologists Press, Inc. Palo Alto, CA 94303. From Introduction to
Type by Isabel Briggs Myers. Copyright 1980 by Consulting Psychological Press, Inc. All rights reserved Further reproduction is
prohibited without the Publisher's consent
76 Blueprint tor Action
they tend to have a thought style that results in a consistent pattern of behavior in all areas of their lives. For example, the left-brain dominant person is more apt to solve a problem by following a logical, sequential, and organized approach, while the right-brain dominant person will wait to see what happens and be more intuitive in solving problems. Wonder and Donovan stress that there is nothing inherently good or bad about a particular prefer- ence; but identifying one's preference may lead to a greater understanding of why some learning envi- ronments are more conducive than others.
Hunsaker and Alessandra (1980) offer a framework for assessing learning style types and identifying their characteristics. They describe the four learning modes as feeling, watching, thinking, and doing. "Feelers" learn best by involving them- selves in experiences. They rely on intuition and feelings to make decisions in each situation. "Thinkers" are most comfortable with abstract conceptualization; they use rational logic when making decisions. "Doers" learn best through active experimentation and use the results of their tests to make future decisions. And "watchers" take a reflective, tentative, uninvolved approach to learning; they use careful observation and analysis.
The insightful director can discern linkages between individuals' learning preferences and their expectations of the director. Some teacners prefer a supervisory style that promotes self- directed learning, independent decision making, and indirect guidance. Others, however, look for clearly delineated curriculum guides, specific directions, and director-initiated decisions and answers. The following examples illustrate two different learning styles:
Belinda complained to her director Sandra, that the role-playing sessions being used by the consultant who was presenting conflict resolution strategies to the staff were time- consuming and tiresome to her. She asked Sandra if she could just read the material on the subject and try implementing the approach on her own. The group sessions, as Belinda described them, were too "touchy-
feely;" she did not like being observed while trying new ideas and strategies.
Another staff member at the same center, Constance, mentioned at a staff meeting that she didn't feel the conflict resolution training was being tied closely enough to the actual classroom situations. She asked if the consul- tant could observe her as she taught in her classroom and give her specific feedback and suggestions. She stated that teachers needed to be given more support and direc- tion in trying to implement something new.
These two teachers probably represent the two
learning modes identified by Hunsaker and Alessandra of thinking and doing. Belinda would prefer to get the ideas from written material and try them out on her own. Thinkers usually learn best in impersonal learning situations, guided by theory and
their own analyses. On the other hand, Constance would like to carry out the suggested theories and have someone observe her doing so. Doers thrive on active involvement in projects or innovations.
Degree of flexibility/Openness to change. In- dividual variance is great with respect to flexibility. Some teachers are firm believers in routine, order, "tried and true" solutions, and stability. Others seem to thrive on change, risk taking, and exploration of alternatives. Having both extremes on a staff can be
a definite challenge to a director! Most people fall somewhere in between on a continuum; and, in providing individualized supervision, it is important for the director to have an idea of a particular teacher's orientation. Knowing how resistant or receptive to change a teacher might be can be very important when new curriculum ideas or practices are being promoted. If a director knows ahead of time that several teachers tend to be cautious and skeptical of change, she can work to offset potential
resistance. For example, the director might allow these teachers to observe a particular curriculum idea in operation at another program before it is presented in the staff meeting. Presenting new ideas carefully and slowly while allowing discussion is another strategy a director can use to introduce an innovation. Less flexible individuals do not like
S
Blueprint for Action 77
new approaches thrown at them without lots of preparatory work on the part of the supervisor.
The degree of flexibility reflected by a partic- ular staff member can also be described by the dichotomous terms of adaptor and innovator coined by Kirton (1976). Kirton conceptualizes the trait of innovativeness as a behavior preference related to two contrasting cognitive styles. He sees peopie as adaptors or innovators based on their preference to "do things better" or to "do things differently." Adaptors are characterized by preci- sion and conformity; innovators prefer to approach tasks in unusual and different ways. Knowing where staff fall on this continuum allows the director to gain an insight into the diverse thinking and tunctioning preferences of individuals. Such knowledge can allow a director to understand why one teacher is so resistant to changing the phys- ical environment of her classroom, while another teacher is constantly rearranging furniture and equipment to conduct experiments on the effects of different arrangements on children's behavior.
When one moves from theoretical constructs to practical application, Kirton's conceptualization of innovativeness is particularly appealing because it may assist in promoting collaboration in an organi- zational setting, especially in times of change. The approach emphasizes that a balanced staff is needed in order to be prepared for all contingen- cies. Thus we should not treat the noninnovative person in pejorative terms. Under pressure, adap- tive personalities and innovative personalities usually disagree on what steps are appropriate to take, and they often hold negative viewpoints of each other when collaboration would be a more fruitful strategy. Innovators perceive adaptive indi- viduals as dogmatic, stodgy, timid, inflexible, and compliant to authority. Adaptive people tend to see innovators as being unsound and unreasonable. Kirton states that an organization needs to allow for mutual appreciation of those with different modes of problem solving.
General dispositions. Quite often directors or other administrators refer to particular traits of staff that don't fit into the categories of skills or attitudes.
78 Blueprint for Action
They speak of individuals having characteristics ranging from supportive, accepting, and enthusi- astic to rejecting, impatient, and dull. Katz and Raths (1986) identify these characteristics as dispositions. They define a disposition as an attri- bution which summarizes the trend of a teacher's actions across similar contexts. The construct is descriptive; for example, a teacher who uses praise in specific contexts and on many occasions might be attributed a "supportive dispo- sition." Katz and Raths argue that dispositions thought to be related to effective teaching can constitute goals for teacher development. For instance, a director might find herself in the position of talking with a teacher about the lack of a supportive environment in the classroom. Such a discussion would be more abstract in nature than one focusing on a particular skill. Yet, as many directors are aware, and as Katz
and Raths propose, positive dispositions are essential to teacher effectiveness. It is important that supervisors addressing staff development issues from an individualized perspective be aware of the importance of particular dispositions.
Self-confidence/Self-efficacy. The issue of self- confidence or self-efficacy is a central factor in assessing why some teachers approach their own development in positive, assertive ways while others seem reticent about doing so. According to Bandura (1982), self-efficacy is the conviction that one can successfully execute the behaviors required to produce a desired outcome. Such judg- ments are important since they affect the decisions individuals make, how much effort they will expend on a particular task, and how persistent they will be to master that task. In other words, ihose teachers who have a strong sense of efficacy will usually exert greater effort to master new challenges.
According to self-efficacy theory (Bandura, 1982), there are four principal sources from which people form estimates of themselves:
"I am a person.
Do not bend, fold,
spindle, or mutilate."
picket sign at
Berkeley, 1964
8 7
Past performance accomplishments. A teacher who has been able to design and implement an effective classroom in which students and parents are comfortable and students achieve and grow has a strong sense of her own worth and efficacy. She is able to use such an experi-
ence as a base to go forward and continue to grow and improve. Likewise, teachers who have had very negative classroom experi- ences, who are left with the feeling of inadequacy and ineffectiveness, have difficulty approaching subsequent experiences with any sense of confidence. They may be very reluc- tant to tackle new approaches or have someone observe in their classrooms.
Vicarious experiences. Teachers who have the opportunity to observe other teachers in different settings often come away with a renewed sense of confidence (i.e., "I do a lot of those same things which someone else is saying are wonderful! I must be good, tool") Vicarious experiences rely on judgments of how similar one is to the person modeling a particular behavior. Observing others who are seen as being similar in ability carry out teaching practices which are successful can raise self-efficacy expectations.
Verbal persuasion. When a director tells a teacher she is doing something well, it does not
mean that the teacher will necessarily believe it. Verbal persuasion is not as strong a source
of efficacy information. Yet if the teacher perceives the verbal reinforcement as sincere, specific, and supportive, it may also enhance the teacher's sense of self-confidence.
Emotionalsousal. The teacher's state of emotional
arousal is another source by which self-efficacy expectations are acquired and/or altered. High arousal generally inhibits performance because teachers are less likely to expect success when
they are tense or anxious. Thus, feelings of self- efficacy can be context specific in that a teacher
may feel very confident in one area of her teaching and less so in another.
According to some researchers (Bandura, 19'82; Hackett & Betz, 1981), self-efficacy also relates to gender differences. Females are typi- cally more cautious of taking risks and tend to view themselves as less efficacious than males at certain activities. In the early childhood arena where we deal most frequently with females, this information is important to consider.
The following examples illustrate different perceptions of self-confidence/self-efficacy which appear to have come from particular experiences of the teachers presented:
Sharon was pleased when she was asked to help prepare a state presentation on infant and toddler curriculum with the director of her program. She had been refining her infant/toddler curriculum for the last five years and knew she had done a good job. Her ideas for the physical environment, sleeping arrangements, supervision of students in the setting, and parent feedback had met with praise from different sources. At her last state conference, she had attended sessions on infant/toddler curriculum and felt that, in many cases, she had better ideas than the presen- ters. She left the director a note the next day: "Thanks so much for inviting me to join you at OAEYC. I think I can do a good job with this, and I appreciate your thinking of me. One thing I know at this point ;5 good program- ming for infants and toddlers!"
The staff met to discuss the parent open house scheduled for the fall. It was decided that each teacher would conduct an informa- tion/discussion session in her classroom on developmentally appropriate curriculum rela- tive to the particular age group. After the meeting, Janet came into the director's office to express her anxiety. "I don't think I can do this talk to the parents. I know what develop- mentally appropriate is, I think, but I'm not ready to try to explain it to the parents. It gets too confusing with all of this Piaget stuff and questions about academic and reading readi- ness. We never talked about this approach
Equepont for Action 79
when I was in school. And anyway, I hate talking to big groups; you would be a much better person to do this!"
Obviously, these two teachers reflect very different perceptions of their own self-efficacy. Sharon has had experiences and observations which have confirmed her feelings that she knows a lot about infant/toddler programming and can artic- ulate that knowledge. Janet, on the other hand, implies that the new curriculum emphasis is over- whelming to her, especially with respect to articulating it to a group of parents. Most likely, she has had very little experience in presenting things to groups of people: and she apparently has not had sufficient experience with developmentally appro- priate practice to give herself a sense of confidence
about promoting the approach to others. It becomes the director's task to understand that
the lack of self-confidence can impede the perfor- mance and growth of an individual staff member. Sometimes it takes verbal persuasion on the part of the director to help the teacher begin moving in the direction of having more confidence in herself. And just as we attempt to plan experiences for children which build on their previous experiences in order to enhance self-efficacy, we need to do the same for the
adults with whom we are working.
Needs and Expectations
The staff of an early childhood program is comprised of individuals with many different needs and expectations relative to themselves and the center. It is important for the director to be aware of a particular teacher's perceived needs and specific expectations of the workplace. At the same time, the director must also be aware of her own expectations relative to staff performance and be able to honestly communicate them.
Expectations are the assumptions whether conscious or unconscious that we have for our own or another person's behavior. In other words, we predict that the other person will act in a
anner consistent with our expectations. Concurrently, howrnier, the other person also has expectations for his or her own behavior. If an
110 Blueprint for Action
honest feedback process does not exist between the two individuals, confusion and disorientation can result. Consider the following interaction between a director, Marcy, and a teacher, John.
Marcy: "You don't seem to be taking as much initiative as I thought you would in keeping and organizing anecdotal records on the children. In
your initial interview, I can remember your saying that this was a priority of yours."
John: "Yes, but I thought someone would provide me with some guidance on doing it. It seems like part of your job as director should be
to assist teachers in setting up record keeping." Marcy: "I guess my assumption is that you've
had practice doing this type of thing in your teacher training program. Wasn't observation a key focus of on0 of your Curriculum courses?"
John: "Not where I went to school. Anecdotal records were discussed, but we never had real experience using them. The concept behind using them makes sense to me, but part of the problem is finding the time to do them! How do you suggest I work them in?"
In this example, both players had different expectations relative to roles. John expects that Marcy, as a supervisor, should provide a lot of direction in an area that she sets as a priority. Marcy, on the other hand, assumes that John has the training and is proficient in carrying out such a process on his own. Without communication on this issue, both John and Marcy would tend to blame the other for the unmet goal. Cor isequently, both would cast the other as inadequate and tend to lower their expectations for desired behavior, or they might become hostile and discouraged.
Staff members of a center also represent a variety of needs, some of which are quite uncon- scious. The need for equity is clearly an issue for Pat at the Children's Corner whereas recognition seems to be a strong need for Shelly.
It is important for the director to address indi- vidual needs and expectations regularly so that honest, informed interactions can result. Once such issues are out in the open. they will appear far less insurmountable.
83
Caw Study: Da Chi !dram's Corner
Pat is a very seasoned, talented teacher at the Children's Corner. The competitive climate of the center in recent years, however, has heightened Pats basic need for equity and fairness. During the first month of school Martha became conscious of how important equity and fairness were to Pat. This need first came to Martha's attention in late August when classroom art supplies were being distributed. Pat made a big fuss about how important it was that every teacher receive a fair and equitable portion. Equity issues for Pat also carried over into space, lunch hours, and expense reimbursement. Martha surmised that in a more collaborctive, cooperative environment, these equity issues might not be quite so important to Pat. Unfortunately, the negative climate of the program tended to bring out the worst, even in this excellent teacher.
Case Study: Da Cid Idrox's Corner
Shelly, a young, new teacher at the Children's Corner seems to have a strong need for recogni- tion. As soon as Shelly was hired, Martha quickly became aware of Shelly's need to be recognized for any extra time she put into the center. If this recognition wasn't forthcoming. Shelly tended to pout or make snide remarks about how early she was coming in each morning to prepare her class- room. But if Martha made comments on a regular basis relative to Shelly's overtime work, Shelly seemed quite content.
Adult Development Stages
Research in human development has found that
v,e, as adults, continue to develop and change in adulthood just as children grow and change during their childhood. The literature in this area focuses on
two aspects of development the study of adults' capabilities to improve over time and research on life
span stages and transitions. One major finding is that cognitive. social, and larguage development do not solidify at adolescence or early adulthood but continue to develop throughout life (Glickman, 1985). Unlike in children, these changes are usually more subtle, but move in the direction of greater complexity and higher levels of understanding.
The literature in the area of adult development has expanded greatly over the past twenty years
Many different theories have been proposed to account for changes in people over their life span. In this section, we look at three key theorists whose
work relates to issues of professional development.
loevinger. Loevinger's (1976) research on ego and personality development identifies ten devel- opmental stages from self-protective to integrated. At the lower levels, people may be characterized as more impulsive and symbiotic in their thinking. In other words, they are more dependent on others for decisions. At the middle of the continuum, indi- viduals tend to conform in terms of socially approved codes but will also begin to develop self-evaluation standards. At higher levels, people show more autonomous and integrated thinking and respect for individuality.
Just what does this mean in terms of behavior?
A person in the self-protective stage tends to blame others, circumstances, or parts of herself for which she does not feel responsibility. At the conscien- tious-conformist level, rules remain very important, but there is a growing awareness of self. In place of one right way, multiple right ways can be more easily understood and tolerated. At the highest level, the integrated stage, corflicts and polarities are transcended. Individuals have high respect for themselves and others.
Loevinger's theory underscores the fact that interpersonal relations are altered as people move through the ego stages. In the cognitive area, the same general trends are apparent. While our nervous systems decline with age and our reaction capabilities become slower, our abilities to process and understand information increase. Horn and Cattell (1967) label the latter as crystallized intelli- gence. Older people have more experience and knowledge to draw on. Thus, the problem-solving process becomes a slower but more thorough process with age.
Erikson. Research in the area of life stages and
transitions offers additional insights when addressing individuals. In Erikson's (1968) theory of
psychosocial development, each stage evolves into a new strata of social interactions establishing many new possibilities for building relationships between
8 0
Blueprint for Action 111
oneself and others. Erikson believed that the deci- sions a person makes during a lifetime continuously mold and shape the tenor of an individual's relation-
ships with other people. Each dimension of interaction can be viewed from the perspective of the two extremes of a continuum (e.g., trust and mistrust, intimacy and isolation). Growth and devel- opment occur when a balance is achieved. For example, too much trust can be as problematic as no trust at all. Overall, according to Erikson, there is a continuous search for identity because adulthood is not a static phase. Interactive experiences designed to meet the psychological needs of adults in different phases will promote growth throughout the life cycle. Such experiences will allow adults to continue to interact with others and to feel produc- tive, to guide the less experienced, and to consolidate their life experiences.
How can an awareness of Erikson's life stages help directors and teachers better understand them-
selves and their particular stage of development? Directors and teachers can gain insight into interac- tive experiences by stepping back and assessing their reactions to different situations. For example, does working at the center promote feelings of safety and security? Do daily interactions give workers a sense of control over their environment and promote feelings of suppo.1 and belonging?
As director of a small nursery school, Sonja worked hard to develop a strong esprit de corps among her staff. She frequently planned social activities in addition to professional development sessions and tried to promote open communication and a sense of commu- nity One teacher, Anna, however, did not seem to appreciate Sonja's efforts. Although sh:i attended staff meetings and training sessions, Anna never came early to chat or stayed after- ward to enjoy a snack and coffee. She always seemed in a deliberate hurry to get away. Moreover, she usually made excuses for her lack of attendance at social gatherings.
Sonja was concerned about Anna's pronounced isolation and decided to have a talk with her. The initial interaction felt awkward
12 Blueprint for Action
and strained; Anna indicated in many ways that she did not wish to share information about herself. Finally, Sonja asserted herself and told Anna that she really wanted (and expected) her to be more involved with the staff. This appeal seemed to open a floodgate of emotions for Anna and she shared with Sonja her reasons for withdrawing so frequently It seemed that over the past six years she had suffered many losses the death of her husband and her sister; a relation- ship with a man who later left her for someone else; and the breaking of a confidence by a very close friend whose support she had counted on. Consequently, Anna was fearful of
forming close ties with anyone. She openly admitted she did not want to be vulnerable again. She stated that she would rather not be dependent on anyone any more. She would carry out all her responsibilities, but she didn't wish to be part of the "family" Sonja seemed to
want to create.
Levine. Levine (1989) describes the three stages of adulthood (early, middle, and late) as characterized by different orientations and outlooks. Young adults are still experimenting with a variety of roles and relationships. They are domi- nated by life dreams, idealism, and feelings of omnipotence. In middle adulthood, people become more aware of their limitations. Becoming estab- lished in the workplace is the main objective along with the realization of possibilities in regard to marriage and home. In late adulthood, the focus becomes the reassessment of priorities and a consequent reallocation of their energies.
As adults move through these phases, they appear to go through periods of transition (Levine, 1989). We are all familiar with the commonly referred to transition, "midlife crisis." These times may be characterized by questioning, confusion, discouragement, or apparent burnout. Transitional periods take up almost half of our adult lives. Working with individuals at such points in their lives can be particularly challenging for supervi sors and peers.
Di
Adult development theorists consistently emphasize that adults need to take an active role in helping to define their own developmental stage and needs. The challenge for the director is to listen closely to individuals on the staff in order to be able to assist in this process of self-definition. This is done in the same way that we observe young children to determine what experiences and approaches are needed to mesh with their devel- opmental levels.
Committing to a model of staff development that addresses individual differences requires an understanding of the many ways in which adults change over the life cycie. Overall, adult learning theorists believe that adults become increasingly self-directed if they are stimulated by real life tasks and problems that fit their developmental levels.
Career Stages
The idea of stages in people's careers is intri- cately related to adult development. Lilian Katz (1972) identifies four stages in teachers' profes-
sional growth patterns. Table 5.3 summarizes Katz's developmental stages of teachers' careers and their corresponding concerns. In Stage I, survival, the teacher's main concern is coping whether or not she can just survive. A new teacher is frequently overwhelmed by all the new tasks and responsibilities required of her. This stage may last a full year; it is dominated by feelings of self-doubt and a strong need for acceptance.
In Stage II, consolidation, teachers move beyond an egocentric focus and begin to focus on individual children and problem situations. They begin to develop a knowledge base about children's behavior. In Stage III, renewal, which often occurs during the third or fourth year of teaching, teachers seem to tire of doing the same things. Recent research has shown that the third year of teaching is
a critical time; many teachers leave the profession at
that point. Gehreke (1988) notes that teachers in the
third year begin to perceive the job as basically unchanging. They grow bored and unchallenged.
Teachers who decide to remain in the field may
Table 5.3
Developmental Stages of Teachers' Concerns
Developmental Stage Concerns
Stage !V Maturity
Finding new perspectives and insights Sharing knowledge and expertise
Stage III
Renewal
Sustaining enthusiasm Maintaining interest in new developments
Stage II Consolidation
Handling individual problem children Solving problem situations
Stage I
Survival
Surviving on the job Being accepted by colleagues
Bliroprilit tor Action 83
92
permanently remain in Stage III and continue to battle "professional fatigue," or they may internalize a renewed spirit for their work and move on to Stage
IV, maturity. These teachers now ask deeper, more abstract questions. They begin to integrate their knowledge and experiences and take on more responsibility in the center and in the field.
It is important to note, however, that not all teachers move on to Stage IV. As many directors are aware, some teachers remain stagnant and unmotivated, no matter what kind of energy and time are invested in them. Jorde-Bloom (1982) in writing about teacher burnout, calls these teachers the "rustouts." These individuals present real dilemmas for the director. The dirertor is forced to make the decision of whether to terminate them or continue to deal with their diminished enthusiasm and less than adequate performance.
VanderVen (1988) describes a five-stage sequence in her model of professional develop- ment which extends the work of Katz. The formulation examines each stage in terms of level of professionalism, roies and functions, variables in adult and career development, adult cognition and affect, the concept of life long careers, male and female differences, guidance of practice, and educational preparation.
Stage I &vice. Novices work directly with children. They practice as nonprofessionals and usually enter the field without prior commitment as reflected by acquiring educa- tional preparation. Often they reflect the lowest permissible legal level of education to be hired in a caregiving or aide position.
Stage Initial. Initial stage practitioners also work directly with children. They are differenti- ated from novices in that they have shown some formal commitment to developing a career in early childhood education, often through participation in training at a prepro- fessional level.
Stage informed Informed stage practitioners work directly with children, but may work with parents and other professionals as well. They
114 Blueprint for Action
hold a minimum of a baccalaureate degree as the first level of professional preparation.
Stage IV Complex. Complex stage practi- tioners at this stage usually hold an advanced degree. There are two career path options that they follow: a direct practice path involving more advanced and specialized work on behalf of preschool children and families; and an indirect practice path involving work with the system (e.g., administration, supervision, program development, training).
Stage V Influential. Influential stage practi- tioners may hold a doctoral degree or similar advanced credentials. They are the leaders, and hopefully, the movers and shakers in the field with adequate preparation and experience to transform the entrenched systems, particu- larly the economic and political systems, that are detrimental to the advancement of the field.
Burden (1987) also identifies career stages for teachers which support Katz's model. He describes the beginning stage as one in w`lich the new teacher is struggling for survival; the middle stage as a time in which the teacher is adjusting, growing, and exploring; and the final stage in which the teacher functions as a mature professional.
Fuller (1969) found that teachers with different stages of professional experience show different concerns. Like Katz, she found that beginning teachers were concerned mainly about their own survival. Adequacy, classroom control, and others' perceptions of their capabilities are the main issues.
Older teachers are more concerned with the impact that they have on students. And highly experienced teachers always focus on pupil progress. Fuller states that when concerns are 'mature' (i.e., charac- teristic of experienced teachers), they seem to focus on pupil gain and self evaluation as opposed to personal gain and evaluation by others (p. 221).
McDonnell, Christensen, and Price (1989) identify eight stages of the career cycle preser-
vice, induction, competency building, enthusiastic and growing, career frustration, stable and stag- nant, career wind-down, and career exit. The
9 3
research conducted by these authors indicates that appropriate incentives need to be linked to respective career stages of teachers. The differ- ence in teachers career stages points to the need to consider models that advocate personalized, individualized support systems.
The complexities of human behavior do not allow for an oversimplified use of the career stage model. And often, with the move to a new classroom,
a teacher may temporarily regress to an earlier stage
as she takes on a different age group or works at a different center. Burke, Christensen, and Fess ler (1984) suggest that teachers may experience many reoccurring cycles or professional career loops within
their adult life. Teachers may work in the profession for several years, drop out to raise their families and
then re-enter at a later point. Others may decide to enter a teacher training program for the first time in their late thirties or early forties. Thus, the interface between adult stages of development and career stages is not necessarily parallel. The director must draw on information about the individual teacher from
both perspectives when looking at personal and professional development.
The case examples that follow present portraits of two different teachers employed at the Children's Corner whose career and adult devel- opment stages appear to overlap.
Cam Slade: The Chi *NA Comer Shelly is 22 years old and in her first year of
teaching. She has come from a teacher training program that emphasized developmentally appro- priate curriculum and practices. ln her conversations with Martha, she expressed her frustrations with her job. "This group just doesn't respond to all tha things
learned. They don't listen! They're alwaya fighting and calling for My assistance. Maybe it's because there are so many aggressive boys in there! I'm not sure. But it would probably be better if we had more help. It's really a zoo! I thought 41ear-olds wouki be delightful and that I would be great with them! But I'm beginning to think I chose the wrong field. 1 worry all .the time that parents will complain to you. But honestly, they've allowed their kids to be so disre- spectful to people. And then we're supposed to straighten them out!"
Case Nair The ChilikseV Censer Georgia has taught different age groups at the
Children's Corner and at another preschool for over twelve years. She always appears prepared and has a good attendance record, but her comments to Martha show an underlying lack of enthusiasm.
-- not sure where I go from here. I like the kids, but I'm so tired of hearing the same old complaints from the parents. And I know you try to get us more money, but still the pay is low and the hours are so long. And, quite frankly, I hate all these training sessions we'ip -been having, If I hear one more person tell nie how to manage a classroom or interact with parents; I'll scream! I know how to teach; I just need better conditions to do it in! I guess I really,dOn't knoW where I go from here. I'm drained! My husband says I shouldn't take it so seriouslY. In fad, h prabablY wouldn't Mind if I quit O I Could give him more time. Maybe that's not
such a bad idea."
Shelly's remarks reflect several points identified
in adult and career stage theory. First, she seems to be in a self-protective stage as evidenced by her tendency to blame others and circumstances for her problems. Secondly, she alludes to her "dream" of what teaching 4-year-olds would be like. She is not comfortable with her identity as a teacher but feels the need to commit to a profession.
Shelly seems to clearly represent the new teacher in the survival stage. Her responsibilities seem somewhat overwhelming to her. She nas feel-
ings of self-doubt and is striving for acceptance by students, peers, and supervisors; and she appears to be trying to achieve a security level in dealing with everyday problems and issues.
Georgia seems to be trying to reconcile some inner conflicts in relation to teaching in the field. She
has a good sense of her worth and effectiveness, but she appears to need a "lift." She seems to be in the process of reassessing herself and reallocating her energies. As Levine (1989) suggests, she seems to be trying to redetermine her priorities.
Georgia appears to be in Katz's Stage Ill, in which teachers tire of doing the same things. They perceive their jobs as basically static and grow bored and unchallenged. Georgia in her maturity, is reflecting upon why she is doing this work. She
Blueprint for Action 85
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recognizes that she may need to be re-energized, but her job description doesn't seem to give her avenues to do so.
Organizational Commitment
Organizational commitment is the relative strength of the staff's identification with and involve-
ment in a particular center (Jorde-Bloom,1988c). It can be characterized by at least three related factors: a strong belief in and acceptance of the organization's goals and values; a willingness to exert effort on behalf of the program; and a strong desire to remain working at the center (Mowday, Steers, & Porter, 1979). To a large extent, organiza- tional change depends on the degree to which individuals can integrate the goals of the center into their own structure of needs and values. This sense of belongingness represents the anticipation that one will be able to achieve personal satisfaction within the organizational framework. It is the essence
of organizational commitment. Interdependence through achieving a common goal leads to relation- ships of trust and respect.
Hall (1988) defines commitment as "the soul of work." He states, "It is the sense of purpose that guides one's activities; it is the meaning that justifies
one's investment of self; it is the feeling of responsi- bility that defines one's role and reason for being; and when shared, it is a common bond which holds people together in ways that transcend differences and personal gratification" (p. 100). Commitment is a personal desire to contribute to the success of the
center. The goal of directors is thus to develop a strong sense of personal ownership and responsi- bility. According to Hall, three conditions are essential in order to achieve this: impact, relevance, and community.
Impact. People need to know that what they are
doing makes a difference. Teachers, in partic- ular, may feel they make a difference in the lives of young children and may derive a great deal of personal satisfaction from their work each day, but they also need feedback that the work they do has a positive impact on what happens in the center. Impact relates to our
U Blueprint for Action
personal feelings of importance. For feelings of
importance to be enhanced and sustained, people must receive affirmation of the impor- tant role they play in achieving center-wide goals. This affirmation supports a sense of purpose and commitment to something larger than one's own personal satisfaction.
Relevance. Particularly in early childhood work settings, people need to expect their talents are being used appropriately and the time they spend on important tasks helps move the center to achieving its objectives. Many times staff will perceive they are stuck with irrelevant tasks which take time and seem meaningless. Hall states that irrelevant tasks undermine the sense of purpose so critical to commitment; they spawn frustration, resistance, and stifle motivation. Listen to the words of Twanya, a head teacher at a state-funded prekinder- garten program.
"I've beeri teaching for 15 years in this district and have consistently been evaluated as an exemplary teacher Last year the program administrator decided it would be a good idea if
we turned in our plan books showing our detailed lesson plans with educational objec- tives for each activity. I wouldn't mind doing this
activity if I felt somebody cared. My sense is that
these lesson plans just get filed anyway. Nobody
even looks at them. If the purpose of this exer- cise is accountability then somebody ought to use the information. All this added paperwork takes so much time away from other activities that I feel are so much more important."
How widespread irrelevant work haS become! It not only diverts energy, it undercuts commitment. When people are asked to spend their time doing mindless paperwork or sitting in on meetings that have little relevance to what they are doing, a sense
of frustration and indifference cannot help but surface. The director's task, then, is to ensure that people spend time on "core" activities. People need to perceive they are supported in doing activities which they see as germane to their work.
95
Community. Hall states that for relevance to become a shared experience, and for the sense of personal challenge and contribution to become a collective feature of the organization, there must be a norm of interdependence and mutual reliance. Little (1982) calls these norms of collegiality. Collegiality and interdependence foster mutual respect and a sense of shared responsibility for each other's well being. Community refers to the sense of oneness or a spirit of belonging. It is the belief that people can depend on one another. Striking the balance is difficult. In supporting individuality, some directors end up encouraging too much independence and unwittingly foster competi- tion. Other directors are so task-oriented, they end up eroding collegiality. The goal is to try to focus on people and their needs and try to create conditions in which they can work together to achieve common goals.
Directors of programs are keenly aware of differences in individuals' levels of commitment. The teacher with a strong sense of commitment demon- strates active involvement in the center and in the field of early childhood. She usually arrives early to prepare her classroom, she turns in requested lesson plans or parent forms on time, and she takes an active role in professional activities.
Conversely, the teacher who does not demon- strate a strong commitment will not be eager to initiate or participate in opportunities for develop- ment. It becomes the director's task, therefore, to address this lack of commitment and decide to what degree it is interfering with the teacher's performance. Perhaps there are basic unmet needs; or perhaps the teacher is not clear about expectations and goals. The director may be able to assist the individual in making a personal assessment. If it is the,case that commitment is so low that the teacher is lax about many aspects of her teaching role, the director may need to decide not to renew the teacher's contract.
Level of Motivation
Commitment to a center is directly related to
the level of motivation an individual exhibits. Directors frequently find themselves asking why
--some people show a lot of initiative and desire to contribute to the organization, while others do not. Moreover, directors also wonder why certain incentives increase the motivation of some employees and not others. In other words, some people may be quite capable of assuming different roles and responsibilities, but they are not willing to do so. The "willing" part of the equation rests squarely on their level of motivation.
According to Weiner (1980), motivation is defined as the complex forces, drives, needs, tension
states, or other mechanisms that start and maintain
voluntary activity directed toward the achievement of
personal goals. Motivation, according to Porter and Lawler (1968), results from the expectation that one's
efforts will lead to anticipated outcomes.
Numerous theories of motivation have been proposed over the years, but perhaps the most well-known in the field of education is Maslow's hierarchy of needs (1954). The fundamental premise of Maslow's theory is that higher-level needs become activated as lower-level needs are satisfied. For example, if children come to a preschool program not having had breakfast in the morning, hunger presents itself as the prime moti- vator. It will be difficult for them to attend to other higher-level needs like achievement. Likewise, if teachers feel there is little job security where they work, they may be unable to focus on other goals or plans. A director reported that one of her most enthusiastic and dedicated teachers resisted attending staff meetings held after program hours. Upon looking closer, the director discovered that this teacher, a single parent, did not have the finances to cover the extended child care costs that resulted from her attendance. Lower-level needs must be largely satisfied before higher-level needs can be felt and pursued. An understanding of Maslow's theory may assist a director in consid- ering whether an individual's basic needs are met and, therefore, whether that person is able to focus on higher-level goals.
Herzberg's (1966) research on motivation supports Maslow's hierarchy of needs. Herzberg
Blueprint for Action 87
distinguishes between the positive aspects of an individual's job that are "satisfiers" and the nega- tive aspects of the job that are "dissatisfiers." The two categories, Herzberg asserts, are quite distinct as they relate to issues of motivaticin. Dissatisfiers include such things as salary, working conditions, status, job security, technical supervi- sion, and organizational policies. Satisfiers, on the other hand, include the nature of the work itself, the individual's degree of responsibility, opportuni- ties for growth and advancement, and a sense of achievement. Herzberg believes that eliminating dissatisfiers seldom improves an individual's performance; it merely reduces the irritations and frustrations in doing one's job. To motivate individ- uals to higher levels of performance, changes in the structure and nature of the work itself (the "satisfiers") need to be addressed.
WhilE th available theories may not explain exactly why individuals demonstrate so much vari- ance ir. motivation, they may be helpful in assessing adults and designing appropriate staff development strategies. The following example shows the relationship between one teacher's personal situation and her lack of motivation in addressing her work situation.
Maureen, an infant/toddler teacher came in to discuss her annual evaluation with her supervisor. Maureen didn't disagree when they reviewed the low ratings in a number of areas
disorderly storage area, late lesson plans, cluttered classroom shelves, and inconsistency in keeping high chairs and equipment clean. But the reason for the disorganized aspects of the classroom operation related to something very personal. Maureen stated that she was having marital problems. Her perceived lack of stability in her personal life seemed to be keeping her from approaching her job respon- sibilities with the enthusiasm she knew she should have. She seemed unable to keep her professional life in good order when her personal life appeared to be in shambles. Sharing this information allowed the director to gain new insights intn the reasons for some of
88 Blueprint for Action
Maureen's difficulties. She now realized that Maureen was quite capable of being an excel- lent teacher but the personal issues that were consuming Maureen were sapping her energy. The result was a lack of motivation.
Professional Orientation
Commitment to a center and overall motivation to perform certainly relate to commitment to the field
of early childhood education. It stands to reason that
those who are more committed to the field will have a stronger professional orientation. Professional orientation is characterized by an individual's emphasis on growth and change, skill based primarily on knowledge, autonomy in decision making, a reference-group orientation, the achieve- ment of goals, and loyalty to clients and professional
associations (Corwin, 1965; Jorde-Bloom, 1989b).
Most directors have i idea of where indi- vidual staff fit on a col .tinuum relative to this concept. Some teachers are very active in NAEYC and ACEI affiliate groups, read professional books and journals on a regular basis, and see them- selves as members of the early childhood profession. Many others, however, see their work with young children as a tolerable job and have little incentive to connect themselves to a profes- sional organization. They perceive their work as a
"job" as opposed to a "career." The director may not be able to move all staff
toward a career orientation. As in all professions, some people see teaching young children only as a vehicle for earning income and plan to get out of the field if something better comes along. This reality can
be an area of frustration for directors; such an orien-
tation does not promote organizational commitment or enthusiasm. For the purpose of individualized staff
development, it is important for directors to know where individual staff members stand with respect to
professional orientation.
As the profession of early childhood education gains credibility and career ladders become more established, the issue of professional orientation should receive more emphasis. Obviously, profes- sionalism is interconnected with salary and incentive
issues, as well as with the status of the field.
9'7
Beliefs and Values
In Ayers The Good Preschool Teacher (1989), much of the focus is on the beliefs of the six teachers who are profiled. Anna thinks of herself as a substitute mother and "...struggles to achieve an intensity and investment in each child that will truly support and nurture and challenge" (p.127). Ghana has come to some solid conclusions about the issue
of separation in children's lives. She thinks of herself
as a person "who understands what makes separa-
tions successful experiences from which to grow and build" (p. 127). Joanne's strongest belief is that children need to be empowered that they need to be able to make decisions for themselves. For Darlene, patience is the key attribute of a good teacher. Michele emphasizes the importance of order and organization and productive work for chil- dren. "At the center of Michele's teaching is a strong
valuing of education" (p. 128). And, finally, Maya infuses her teaching with a strong belief in warmth and respect. "She tells stories of her grandmother, who told her to respect herself and never to put herself in situations where she wasn't respected, and
who insisted that she associate only with other chil- dren who were doing 'interesting things- (p. 129).
The rich, descriptive profiles drawn by Ayers underscore the importance of looking at the beliefs and values of teachers in order to understand the meaning teachers give to their work. Again, it becomes the task of the director to listen closely to teachers to hear what values and beliefs support their teaching practices. Moreover, through an active, reflective listening process, the director can assist teachers in clearly identifying and articu- lating the beliefs and values that they bring to their present role which have been developed during their childhood, their educational training, or years of teaching experience.
The following comments illustrate some of the beliefs that undergird the classroom practices of teachers:
"This article on the Corporate Community School of America says that they have been able to teach children regardless of back- ground to read and enjoy it. I'll bet they select-
ed only the smartest kids!" (Belief: Home background and inherited ability are more important than teaching as factors in learning.)
"I don't think teachers should dictate to chil- dren how they should spnd their time, so I have long periods of free play for children; group time is just 10 minutes a day" (Belief: Autonomy is important; teachers should not intrude on children's learning.)
"Children, first of all, need structure. They feel safer with firm limits and rules. I can't buy into all of this talk about letting children make their own decisions." (Belief: Adults are the experts; they know what is best for children.)
"Parents need to be more connected to the classroom operation in day care. I'd like to see us encourage more visitation at lunch time and more discussion sessions with parents." (Belief: My role is only secondary to that of parents; I cannot effect change without parents' support.)
Such statements by teachers are based on beliefs and values. Often we can trace these beliefs back to the way we have been raised or educated. The values our parents and teachers inculcated have a deep and lasting impression on our belief system.
Regardless of their origin, it is important that beliefs be identified and articulated. Otherwise, teachers may try to implement new curriculum models or approaches and not understand that their beliefs may be in disagreement with the uriderlying assumptions of the curriculum models they are using.
Kim, a young first-grade teacher, accepted a job in a primary wing where they were experimenting with open classroom models and approaches. In the job interview, she was able to articulate quite well the theory and philosophy underlying open classroom prac- tices; it had been part of her teacher training program. She had also done quite well in her student teaching experience in a traditional
Blueprint for Action 89
kindergarten program. However, once she got into a classroom with real children and real situations within a structure that promoted autonomy and flexibility, she became very frustrated with allowing children a lot of choice and decision making. She began using a loud, harsh voice to try to maintain a better sense of order. In a discussion with the prin- cipal following his observation of her teaching, she began recalling her own school experi- ence. She was the product of a rigid parochial school. While she disliked aspects of this model, she also began to see, as she verbal- ized her feelings, that she believed children should "listen" to the authority figure. Overall, this teacher's belief system was in conflict with
the model in which she was teaching. Identification of this dilemma helped the prin- cipal assess this teacher's needs for support and development opportunities.
Those teachers who move to a higher level of abstract thinking and altruistic motivation have reflected cn their own values and beliefs in an attempt to clearly identify the linkages between their beliefs and their behavior. The director can be instru-
mental in assisting teachers to move in this direction.
Concomitant Roles
Also important for the director to consider is the number of roles teachers assume in their personal lives outside the center. This is a particu- larly important focus given the fact that the profession is dominated by women, many of whom wear many hats. One director expressed her feel- ings about this issue quite well:
"I'm amazed at how many different things my
staff, all of whom are women, are involved in. Most of them are mothers; some of them are single parents. Two women, in particular are very active in their husband's work as well as their own. Others are quite active in community
activities school, church, arts, social action programs. Three of my teachers are pursuing graduate degrees; two of them are finishing their bachelor's degree. In general, I believe
90 Blueprint for Action
that all of this involvement makes them better teachers; but it does mean adjustment on my part at times. For example, when a teacher's child is sick, I try to make it possible for her to leave. I also provide a child care benefit for teachers with preschoolers. This practice promotes quality and retention, I think. And I've
been trying to provide release time for some of the staff development activities like course attendance. Like I said, it's rough to respond to
all of these things sometimes, but 1 think overall
the program reaps the benefits."
Being aware of the concomitant roles of indi- vidual teuchers further sensitizes the director to plan
staff development and supervisory activities in a manner that allows for optimum flexibility, while still maintaining high standards for the overall program.
Tools for Assessing Individual Needs
In order to collect adequate data on individual staff members at a center, many different types of instruments can be used -- some formal, some informal. Because of the inherent complexity of human beings, using multiple sources of evidence is important. In the appendix of this book are a number of tools for gathering data on individual staff members. You may not find all of them appro- priate or relevant to the assessment of particular individuals. But hopefully, some of them will elicit information that will be helpful in designing individ- ualized professional development plans.
The following provides a brief description of the areas assessed by these instruments. More detailed information about administering and scoring the assessments is included with each assessment tool in the appendix.
Teaching Practices
There are many different types of teaching practices that we want to evaluate in our centers and direct observation is typically the best way to collect this kind of data. NAEYC's guidelines for center accreditation (NAEYC, 1985a) provide a good overview of the many different types of
99
teaching practices that can be observed. Assessment Tools #12, #13, #14, and #15 are modi- fied versions of the four observation scales used in NAEYC's accreditation process. They are included here to provide a kind of overview of four critical areas of teaching practices: interactions among staff and children; the classroom curriculum; health,
safety, and nutrition; and the physical environment.
Learning Style
Assessment Tool #16, "Appreciating Individual Differences," can be used to ascertain the learning style or preference of individual staff members. Part I elicits an individual's style of thinking. This section was adapted from the work of Wonder and Donovan (1984) and Torrance (1979). Part II looks at environmental, emotional, sociologicaI, and physical elements related to learning style. This section was adapted from the work of Dunn and Dunn (1978). The results of this assessment can be used to plan staff development opportunities that match an individual's preferred learning style.
Temperament/Psychological Type
An understanding of different temperaments/ psychological types can elicit a deeper appreciation for those who function differently than we do. Assessment Tool #17 is based on the work of Jung (1923) and Myers (1980) and provides a brief assessment of psychological type along four dimen-
sions: extraversion/introversion; sensing/intuition;
thinking/ feeling; and judging/ perceiving. The infor- mation gleaned from this assessment will help you consider the implications of different typologies for your work situation.
Beliefs and Values
Assessment Tool #18 can assist a director in determining what particular values and beliefs seem
to guide a teacher's attitudes and behaviors. A teacher's answers to the eight questions in Part I can
serve as a springboard for a discussion about class-
room environment, parent interactions, discipline, preferred instructional strategies, and other impor- tant issues related to teaching. Answers to Part II can serve to help teachers understand what traits
they value in children and how they encourage the development of those traits through their practice.
Job Satisfaction
Job satisfaction may be defined as one's valu- ative reaction to a center. It is a kind of "psychological contract" between the worker and demands of the workplace that is influenced by personal needs, values, and expectations (Jones & James, 1979; Jorde-Bloom, 1989a; Mumford, 1972). Job satisfaction may be conceptualized as the discrepancy between real conditions and ideal conditions. When job satisfaction is high, the discrepancy between existing and ideal conditions will be small. Assessment Tool #19 is a modified version of the Early Childhood Job Satisfaction Survey (Jorde-Bloom, 1989a). It assesses five facets of job satisfaction: co-worker relations, supervisor relations, nature of the work itself, working conditions, and pay and promotion oppor- tunities. Knowing in what facets of their work teachers are feeling content or discouraged can assist a director in designing organizational prac- tices that facilitate higher levels of job satisfaction.
Professional Orientation
The "Professional Activities Questionnaire," Assessment Tool #20, can be used with staff to indicate their level of professional orientation. You may want to use this assessment in the initial hiring process to gather information about an individual's level of involvement in different types of profes- sional activities.
Role Clarity
The clarification of roles for staff members at an
early childhood center is of crucial importance, both for new staff and for veteran teachers. Program effectiveness is increased when role conflict and role ambiguity are low. Role conflict occurs when one's formal position has conflicting organizational expectations. For example, teachers are sometimes asked by parents not to have their childern take a nap in the afternoon because they will not be tired enough for bedtime at an early hour. For teachers, this presents a conflict in expectations between
u
Blueprint for Action 91
what the center requires (mandated naptime) and wht the parent wants. There is an inherent tension in making decisions in the best interest of the child because different parties will interpret "best interest"
quite differently. The role of teacher may be subject to a variety of different and incompatible expecta- tions from divergent groups such as the center's board, the funding agency, the parents, and the director. Role ambiguity occurs when individuals do
not have a clear understanding of the scope and nature of their jobs. Role ambiguity is often the result
of vague job descriptions, center policies, and operating procedures.
Assessment Tool #21 assesses staff's percep- tions about their roles. It is adapted from the work of Dyer (1984), Fox and Schmuck (1973), Rizzo, House, and Lirtzman (1970), and Seashore, Lawler, Mirvis, and Cammann (1983). The resultant information can assist directors in seeing where teachers' perceptions differ from their own. Assessment Tool #22 is specifically designed to be used with new staff. It should be given to staff approximately four weeks after they have begun the position. The results of this assessment should help alert the director to potential misunderstand- ings on the part of the new employee.
Organizational Commitment
Earlier in this chapter we defined organizational commitment as the relative strength of the staff's identification with and involvement in a particular center. Assessment Tool #23 provides information to
a director about the level of commitment of a partic-
ular staff member. Since some items on this assessment tend to be of a sensitive nature, it is important that the director allow staff to use it as a self-survey. The results could then be brought by the
teacher to a planning conference with her super- visor. This information may be useful in stimulating discussion between the director and teacher about ways to maximize commitment and motivation. Identifying a lack of commitment could lead to the identification of underlying problems and concerns.
Perceived Problems Hall and Loucks (1978) believe staff develop-
92 Blueprint for Action
ment can best be facilitated using a client-centered diagnostic/prescriptive model. Too often inservice training activities address the needs of trainers rather than those of the staff. Assessing teachers' perceived problems in the classroom is the first step to achieving this goal.
Teachers often feel overwhelmed by the myriad
of problems they face on a daily basis. Helping them to zero in on the precise nature of their prob- lems can serve as a first step in solving them. Johnston (1984) has prepared a "Prekindergarten Teacher Problems Checklist," which is provided in the appendix as Assessment Tool #24. This can be used as a vehicle for building staff development programs around teachers' perceived problems. The 60 items that comprise this instrument were generated by teachers themselves and represent the problems that were found to be significantly frequent, significantly bothersome, or both frequent
and bothersome.
Flexibility/Openness to Change Teachers vary greatly with respect to their will-
ingness to accept new approaches and alternative ways of doing things. It is important for a director to
be aware of potential resistance or receptiveness on the part of staff members. Assessment Tool #25 provides a means for an individual to develop a flexibility profile; the results indicate a person's approach to risk and change. Directors might have teachers use this tool as a self assessment and bring the results to a discussion meeting. It is important for the director to project that there are no right or wrong answers on the profile. The results may help explain why an individual has taken a particular stand on an issue at the center. Seeing behavior within such a framework can be useful in providing reasons and justifications.
A Final Word
The process of assessing teachers from an individualized, developmental perspective does not lend itself to quick and easy methods of anal- ysis. Instead, the director must view this type of supervision as an ongoing, continuous collecting
1 I
of relevant information that contributes in a mean- ingful way to individual growth. :n many ways, it is more of a mindset on the part of the director. The process conveys respect for individuals in that they have a role in defining their own professional development. Any and all information concerning an individual teacher becomes data from which to build a comprehensive and personalized staff development action plan.
To be sure, the process itself is both time- consuming and complex. It grows out of the premise that the most important part of a director's job is staff supervision and development. Directors and other administrators give many excuses for not devoting time to such an in-depth process. Some of the excuses are valid; directors wear many hats and are indeed busy! But the energy and time devoted to individualized staff assess- ment will pay off in many ways, some of which will save the director time in other areas. For example, when staff are challenged in meaningful ways, when their personal goals are tied into the organi-
zation's goals, and when they feel valued and respected, staff turnover will assuredly be less. Thus, the director will have to spend less time in hiring and interviewing processes.
Procedurally, recording developmental infor- mation on individual teachers in an ongoing manner is quite similar to anecdotal record keeping of children's behaviors and interests. Having a small notebook readily available at all times allows the director to jot down notes on indi- vidual staff members. These notes can include specific comments and examples of verbal inter- actions. From this notebook, more permanent entries can be made in each teacher's file.
One note of caution may be in order. We must be careful not to over diagnose people. If the director spends too much time on diagnosis, teachers may feel overwhelmed by the number of problems and be unable or unwilling to take action. Directors should be satisfied with a good overview of the situation and not get caught in a paralysis by spending too much time on analysis!
Blueprint for Action 93
Chapter 6
Implementing an Individualized Model of Staff Development
The overall purpose r_sf implementing a model of staff development in our programs is to improve the quality of the experiences of the children in our care. Beyond this overarching
purpose, however, it is perhaps useful to keep in mind the multiple other purposes that provide a rationale for engaging in staff development activi- ties. Stonehouse (1986) provides a useful summary of these reasons in Table 6.1.
As we can see from the variety of reasons detailed in this table, staff development goes far beyond the idea of training. Training programs are usually short-term, skill-oriented, and typically address only one aspect of teaching. For the most part, training deals with specific behavioral changes in people. The individualized model described in this
chapter, on the other hand, addresses the overall education and professional development of a person. This model focuses on long-term growth and addresses change in individuals' thinking processes. It rests on the assumption that as thinking progresses to higher levels of complexity, an
individual becomes more flexible and open to a wider range of stimuli (Dillon-Peterson, 1981). When
viewed from this individualized perspective, the goal of staff development, then, is to move the individual
to the next stage of rrofessional competence.
Facilitating Change in Individuals
As we have stressed in previous chapters, staff development is most meaningful when
viewed from an individual perspective. Adults, just as children, are at different levels of development and, therefore, have ditferent needs and abilities. Thus their professional develop- ment plans should be differentiated based on a holistic view of the life span. What this means in practical terms is that planning staff develop- ment activities must be done in such a way as to accommodate individuals at different stages in their careers. Table 6.2 describes a model of staff development that embraces this principle. For each career development stage, a super-
visory style, corresponding staff development goals, strategies, and content areas are suggested. In this chapter we will describe this model in detail. Before launching into a description of the specifics of the model, though, it is perhaps useful to review the assumptions upon which such an approach is premised.
"Knowledge of how
teachers can grow as
competent adults is the
guiding principle for
supervisors in finding
ways to return wisdom,
power, and control to
both the individuals and
the collective staff in
order for them to become
true profest ionals."
Carl Glickman
Assumptions of Individualized Staff Development
The primary underlying assumption of an indi- vidualized model of staff development is that teachers are individual learners in various stages of
adult growth and development. Research suggests that there are differences in adult learners on devel-
opmental variables such as cognition, ways of
103 Blueprint for Action 95
Table 6.1
Why Have Staff Development?
To provide basic skills and an orientation to the profession for those staff who are untrained
To extend teachers' expertise and skills in specific areas
To provide opportunities for teachers to learn about new developments in a rapidly changing field
To remind staff about center expectations
To identify resources (people and materials) that staff can pursue themselves
To decrease professional isolation
To broaden teachers' perspective or professional "world view" of child care
To promote the establishment of informal support networks among teachers
To empower teachers to take a more active role in their own work, their own education, and their own professional development
To increase the enjoyment of work
To boost morale and self respect
Adapted from Stonehouse, A. (1986). For us, for children: An analysis of the provision of in-service education for child care centre personnel in Australia. Canberra: Australian Early Childhood Association, p. 13-16. Reprinted with permission.
thinking, and interpersonal orientation. These differ- ences account for variation in the performance of teachers. According to Hunt (1971), teachers at higher stages of development function in a more complex way in the classroom. Thus, if we wish to improve the quality of education in the classroom, we need to consider the relationship between adult development and effective teaching.
A second assumption of the model is that teachers need to engage in identifying and helping to solve their own concerns and problems related to their development as individuals and as professionals. Such involvement empowers people by focusing on strengths and insights into their own developmental processes. Cookie-cutter approaches where inservice training and staff development programs are planned by the director for whole-group participation are bound to fail because there is no way they can meet the
96 Blueprint for Action
different professional needs and interests of indi- vidual staff members.
Third, individualized staff development is based on an enabler model, not a deficit model. A deficit model implies that the teacher is unprepared or incompetent and that by using prescriptive tech- niques, we can "fix" the teacher just like we might fix a broken typewriter. An enabler or growth model focuses on the individual's strengths. It implies that teaching and learning are complex activities in which no one ever masters the totality of the profes-
sion (Hegland, 1984). An enabler model is developmental, not judgmental.
The philosophical premise of this staff devel- opment model is rooted in a Theory Y tradition of leadership rather than Theory X (McGregor, 1960) Theory X directors assume that their employees dislike work, and that they need coercion and tight supervision to get the j / done. Theory Y direc-
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tors, on the other hand, assume that people have integrity, will work hard toward objectives to which they are committed, and will respond to self- control and self-direction as they pursue their objectives. The Theory Y director's role thus becomes one of facilitating growth.
Supervisory Style
An individualized model of staff development necessitates a developmental approach to super- vision. This approach focuses on the fact that individuals who function at different conceptual or developmental levels and who are at different stages of their careers should be supervised in qualitatively different ways. They require diff- erentiated learning environments for optimal development. For example, teachers who are more concrete in their conceptualization or are in their first year of teaching will probably benefit more from a structured supervisory approach. At the other end of the spectrum, mature teachers who function at a high level of conceptualization or abstraction will appreciate more loosely structured approaches to staff development.
Glickman (1985), in delineating a model of developmental supervision, proposes that it is the job of supervisors to promote higher level thinking in teachers. He notes that teachers in general appear to be in a relatively low stage of ego and conceptual development one characterized by dependence, simplicity, and concreteness. In order to move teachers forward in their thinking, the director needs to begin where each teacher func- tions by presenting ideas and opportunities that meet the identified developmental level. Sound familiar? This process parallels the developmental approach we advocate for young children.
At this point, you may want to assess your own
supervisory beliefs and preferred style. Glickman (1981) has developed an instrument (Assessment Tool #26) to determine one's tendency toward directive, collaborative, or nondirective supervision.
Assessing yourself from this perspective will allow you to see how much control you believe is neces- sary when supervising staff.
98 Blueprint for Action
In ascertaining approaches to use with indi- vidual staff who may function at very different levels,
we must remember that developmental levels of an individual are not static. Therefore, a director should take into account the current status of the individual and work to structure professional development opportunities which will stimulate growth to higher levels (Dillon-Peterson, 1981). Again, this emphasis directly parallels the cognitive-developmental philosophy being implemented in our early child- hood programs with young children.
This perspective provides us with a framework for considering staff development from an individual- ized approach. While there are certainly exceptions to the rule, less developmentally mature individuals
usually profit most from highly structured staff devel-
opment environments. Conversely, individuals who are professionally mature are likely to profit more from low-structured staff development environments.
If we translate this principle into practice, the director
of a center, as the key person in the environment, would supervise staff different according to their assessed developmental levels.
Glickman (1985) puts a slightly different spin on this concept. He provides definitions of different supervisory styles which directly relate to the issue of control. Directive supervision is characterized by high supervisor control and low teacher control. When control is conceptualized more equally, the strategy is labeled collaborative supervision. Finally, low supervisor control and high teacher control is referred to as nondirective supervision.
All three approaches are valid as long as they are linked to the developmental needs of teachers and aim to increase teacher self-control, according to
Glickman. When teachers are unskilled and unmoti- vated or are very new to the profession, a directive orientation may be the best approach. On the other hand, when teachers have had some experience, have shown some success and competency, and appear motivated, collaborative strategies will prob- ably be a more successful approach. And for teachers who have had extensive background and experience, have demonstrated independence and autonomy, and have high problem-solving abilities, a
nondirective orientation is most appropriate.
107
Glickman's Supervisory Behavior Continuum (Figure 6.1) provides a sequencing of supervisory behaviors matched to the three general approaches
identified above. When the supervisor deterrr&les the actions for the teacher to follow, by directing what will be done, standardizing the time and criteria of expected results, and reinforcing the consequences, the approach falls into the directive category (far left on the continuum). A collaborative approach is evident when the supervisor partici- pates in the discussion by presenting his or her own ideas, problem solving by having the teacher also propose alternatives, and then negotiating to find a common course of action. In this case, the control over the decision is shared by both teacher and director. On the far right of the continuum, the behaviors fall into the nondirective category of supervisory behavior. With this approach, the super-
visor listens to the teacher, clarifies what the teacher says, encourages, and reflects. The supervisor is an
active prober or sounding board for the teacher to make the decision.
Interactions between directors and teachers in early childhood programs are presented below to further clarify different supervisory styles and behaviors.
Directive Approach.
Director: "Have you looked through the new science materials that came in a few weeks ago? I haven't seen anything on your lesson plans that looks like you're using them."
Teacher: "I just haven't had any time to come in and review them. We need a lot more planning time to do things like that!"
Director: "I know you're busy, but science is an important part of our curriculum. I'd really like to see more science activities in your lesson plans. Perhaps you could take some of the things home this weekend and consider using them the following week."
Teacher: "Well, actually, I'm not sure what I'd want to do with them. The sand and water tables seem to be enough for my kids."
Director: "Why don't we get together next week to talk about this some more? I'll get your
room covered and put a note in your box. Make
sure you bring your lesson plans cllong, okay?"
Teacher: "All right. Any help would be appreciated."
A directive supervisory style can be useful when, as in this case, the teacher possesses little ex-
pertise in an area and doesn't seem motivated to find
out about the subject on her own. Directive behaviors
are also useful when the director cares about an issue, but the teacher doesn't see it as a priority,
Collaborative Approach.
Teacher: "I really think 4-year-olds still need
naps!" Director: "In general, I agree. But in the
case of Josh, I'm not sure it's true. Having to lie on the cot for an hour and a half seems difficult for him."
Teacher: "But even resting is good for the kids. Otherwise they get real craw later in the afternoon."
Director: "That might be true for a lot of chil-
dren, but is it for Josh? Josh's mom is asking that we let him play quietly during naptime. She says he's very upset over having to lie there so long. Perhaps we should think about an adjustment of some kind for him."
Teacher: "But you know the problems that causes. Once one child is allowed the privi- lege, they'll all want it!"
Director: "On the surface, that's true. But maybe there's some other way to do it."
Teacher: "Maybe you're right. I just thinking maybe if we had him lie on his cot until everyone else was settled or asleep and then let him go to the books or manipulative area, it would work. I don't know. But it's prob-
ably worth a try" Director: "Sounds so simple, but I think you
might have something!"
The collaborative approach encourages a frank exchange of ideas. Differences of opinion are encouraged, not suppressed; equality in problem solving characterizes the nature of the exchange. Collaboration should be used when the teacher
Blueprint for Action 99
and supervisor have approximately the same degree of expertise on an issue (Glickman, 1985). In addition, for collaboration to work, both teacher and director must intensely care about the problem and be involved in carrying out the decision. In the case above, both teacher and director would deal with the parent to communicate the decision about naptime and explain the adjustment.
Nondirective Approach.
Teacher: "Boy, we sure had a mess in that room today!"
Director: "What happened? Sit down and relax a minute. You look exhausted!"
Teacher: "Well, one of the volunteers did the
"footprint activity" today and didn't prepare for it well enough. Can you imagine how many places we got prints and drips when she forgot newspaper and towels7 I thought I told the volunteers at the training session what they needed, but they came unprepared. I didn't notice until too late!"
Director: "I know how frustrating that is. You must have been ticked!"
Teacher: "Ticked is right! I'm going to have to think of how to inform these volunteers so they hear. I know they mean well, but they have to be better prepared."
Director: "Do you still give out the guideline sheets you developed last year? They seemed so clear"
Teacher: "Yes, I still do. But apparently I'm not placing enough emphasis on them."
Director: "You think they don't read them careful,' '9"
Teacher: "That's about it. They probably stick the papers in with everything else I give them about the center I shouldn't be trusting that they read them without being prompted."
Director: "Well, you've always been good at setting expectations for our volunteers."
Teacher: "Yeah, I've thought so, too. I'll just have to get back to being more thorough again. Thanks for your ear!"
Nondirective supervision is based on the assumption that a teacher knows best what changes
100 Blueprint for Action
need to be made and has the ability to think and act on his or her own. The role of the director is one of assisting the teacher in the process of thinking through different possible courses of action. However, if the teacher lacks the expertise or capa- bility, the nondirective approach is definitely an unwise choice. Only when teachers have expertise,
take responsibility, and care about the issue will the nondirective supervisory approach prove viable.
A final consideration with respect to supervi- sory style is the recognition of the director's developmental level and continual growth. Caruso and Fawcett (1986) postulate that supervisors go through a series of phases as they move toward maturity (i.e., beginning, extending, and maturing). Like teachers, directors may move back and forth from one phase to another during their careers. Caruso and Fawcett note that even mature, educated, and talented directors may demonstrate some characteristics of beginners when they work in new roles, in unfamiliar settings, or with people they don't know.
An awareness of their own growth and devel- opment can assist directors in realizing that they cannot be all things to all people or know all the answers at all times. As directors gain experience, they are more comfortable in making decisions and soliciting group input into those decisions. There are times, though, when directors have to acknowledge that they may not have control over all the variables affecting their programs. Supervisors, just as teachers, are individuals with their own strengths and limitations.
Staff Development Strategies
Teachers who are in the survival or early consol-
idation stages, and who may function at a low level of abstraction, tend to focus on the practical. They are concerned with determining what to do in specific situations, rather than reflecting on philo- sophical principles and abstract ideas that can be generalized to multiple situations. Consequently, these teachers need more concrete, precise infor- mation on what to do, how to do it, and the circumstances under which it should be done (Dillon-Peterson, 1981). They benefit from lectures
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on specific topics related to classroom situations and visits to other centers. Sample materials for their use should be clearly organized and sequenced.
Glickman (1985) identifies this group of teachers
as low in abstract thinking and recommends an emphasis on demonstration of the new practice, skill,
or program. Since these teachers are hesitant and inexperienced, workshops should focus on teachers'
understanding of the personal advantages to be gained from the proposed changes. In early child- hood centers, such inexperienced teachers benefit initially from a rather structured program of inservice
activities and clearly organized goal plans. They need the support of the director in managing their classrooms and dealing with problem children.
Teachers who function at the career stage of consolidation or renewal and exhibit a moderate or high level of abstract thinking may resist manda- tory staff development programs that appeal to teachers in the survival group. Although they may not have clarified their own point of view, these teachers express their criticisms of the way things are conducted and want to apply principles they have learned on their own (Dillon-Peterson, 1981). With this group, it is important that staff develop- ment activities allow opportunities for alternatives both with respect to content and presentation. Teachers at this level benefit from group discus- sions in which participants are given the chance to express and elaborate their own points of view.
Glickman (1985) sees this group of teachers as benefiting from applying newly learned principles to
classroom activities. However, they are still in need of help from a supervisor in defining what they want to do and how to do it. Direct assistance from the director or peer supervision needs to be provided.
At the mature level of the career stage continuum, teachers frequently function at a very high level of abstraction. They require very different approaches with respect to staff develop- ment activities. Dillon-Peterson (1981) suggests that democratic decision-making procedures are particularly applicable at this levei. By involving these teachers in the planning process, directors are allowing them to express their own unique- ness, knowledge, and experience. This group is
102 Blueprint for Action
expected to focus on the link between theory and practice, philosophical underpinnings, and more complex concerns. Glickman (1985) sees these teachers as contributing actively to brainstorming and group problem solving processes in a center.
Mature teachers function well in mentoring roles with new or inexperienced teachers, in conducting parent education programs, and in articulating the goals, curriculum, and philosophy of a center to the public. Presentations by these individuals at conferences provide opportunities for sharing their knowledge and experience and keeping them actively involved in the profession.
As Table 6.2 shows, there are many and varied
staff development strategies that can be used with teachers at different developmental levels. While it is not our intent to go into an in-depth discussion of
each of these strategies, an overview of some of them wouId seem appropriate.
Mentoring. The idea of using a knowledgeable and experienced person to guide another has gained credibility in education over the past 15 years. Gray and Gray (1985) believe that formal- ized mentoring, ii implemented carefully, can meet the specific needs of beginning teachers and provide increased professional satisfaction to mature teachers acting as mentors.
Mentors, according to Gehreke (1988), are more than master teachers; they also serve as coach, positive role model, developer of talent, opener of doors, protector, sponsor, and successful leader. Driscoll, Peterson, and Kauchak (1985) studied teachers' perspectives of what actual func- tions performed by mentors were considered the most important. The top four items were: observes and comments on your classroom performance; gets involved in solving specific problems with curriculum, instruction, and people; assists you in knowing how well you are doing as a teacher; and helps you cope with the practical details of being a teacher. These researchers also present criteria for screening prospective mentors. These include the amount of time the individual has available to devote to mentoring, his/her concern for the needs of beginning teachers, the presence of a commu-
112
nicative-supportive personality, and overall level of
professional competence. Also of importance is the need for some type of
structured support system for mentors themselves. Driscoll and her colleagues (1985) emphasize that if a mentor is to work closely with teachers in the class-
room, he or she needs expertise in observation, conferencing, and clinical-teaching support. This assistance must be an integral part of the mentor
system. If such a support system is in place, mentoring benefits the new teacher, the mentor teacher, and the students in the program.
Workshops. Workshops have long served as a vehicle for staff development in early childhood settings. The drawback of workshops, as Caruso and
Fawcett (1986) point out, is that we tend to expect too much from them. "In one or a few sessions, participants are supposed to develop new skills or understandings, or to change attitudes toward chil- dren and parents. They are then presumed to be ready to demonstrate what they have learned on their
return to the classroom. It is no wonder the results are
often disappointing" (p. 204). Workshops will be more successful as a staff
development strategy if the following considera- tions are kept in mind. First, workshops need to be geared to the interests and developmental needs of participants. That means ensuring that there are multiple options for staff to select from. By having multiple options, teachers can self select those workshops that will be of most interest to them. A single topic workshop designed for all staff is bound to disappoint half or more of your teachers.
Second, the presenter should have an aware- ness of the specific context of the program and the real-life concerns of the teachers attending the session. There is nothing more disconcerting than a
presenter who laces his/her presentation with exam-
ples that have no resemblance to the concerns or issues experienced by the participants.
Finally, sufficient follow-up needs to be planned to ensure that teachers have integrated the ideas and concepts into their day-to-day prac- tice on the job. Workshops can be a viable means for increasing the knowledge and skills of teachers and even changing attitudes and their behaviors if
they are supported by supervisory processes that reinforce what has been learned. Stonehouse (1986) emphasizes that the most successful well- planned workshops embody both educative and supportive functions. In other words, they not only increase participants' knowledge and skills, they also enhance their self esteem and support systems in the field.
Professional reading. An important staff develop-
ment strategy is to stimulate regular professional reading by staff members. Greenberg (1975) takes a
very direct approach in this regard. She suggests that staff be given a regular reading assignment followed by problem solving sessions based on the readings. Finding time for professional reading is a worthwhile goal for staff at all levels of professional responsibility, but is particularly essential for teachers
in the early stages of their careers.
Obviously, there are also less structured ways to
encourage professional reading. Having a private staff area well-stocked with journals, books, and other
resources will assist in the promotion of this strategy. Developing a resource file for parents will also cause
staff to search for new and better articles and ideas.
Classroom research. The idea of teachers func-
tioning as action researchers in their classrooms has been given renewed emphasis in the last decade (Loucks-Horsley, 1987; Rogers, Waller, & Perrin, 1987). This strategy is best utilized with mature teachers who are ready to systematically study and reflect upon some aspect of their class- room operation.
For teachers to undertake an action research project, they need support and guidance from the director. Release time will most likely be necessary
for a teacher to stand back and observe her class- room at different points in the day or week. Assistance will als(, be necessary for designing the study (either from an outside resource person or from the director), as well as on-going discussion sessions to address data collection, procedural problems, data analysis, and implications. The time is well-spent, however, when a mature teacher is ready arid interested in pursuing this staff develop- ment strategy. It allows the seasoned professional
113
Blueprint for Action 103
Content Areas for Staff Development
Child Care
Legal issues Licensing Program evaluation Public policy Resource and referral School-age pi ograms Summer camps
Child Development
Child assessment Cognitive Emotional
Language Moral
Physical
Sex roles
Social
Exceptional Children
Developmentally delayed Gifted Physically disabled
Families
Parent education Parent involvement
Single parent households Teen parents
Blended families
Staff Needs
Building team relationships CDA credential Communication skills Community resources and services Time management
1-,a17 le 6.3
Curriculum
Art Children's literature Computers, child uses Curriculum development Environments/space Equipment/materials Health
Infant stimulation Language arts Math readiness Movement/dance Multicultural/multilingual Music Nutrition
Play
Playgrounds Reading readiness Safety
Science Social studies Staff-child interaction
Adapted from Abbott-Shim, M. S. (1990, January). In-service training: A means to quality care. Young Children,
p. 16. Reprinted with permission.
to go beyond informal assessment of her class- room and learn new skills of systematic study. Such
involvement usually serves to re-energize and chal- lenge a teacher at this level.
In addition to the more formal strategies detailed
above, there are numerous other informal strategies
that we can utilize when identifying staff development
strategies. Stonehouse (1986) suggests: visits to other centers to observe programs: opportunities to
meet with staff from other centers for informal discus-
sions; opportunities to meet with staff from other community services for children and families to discuss issues of mutual interest; individual on-site consultations with resource people possessing specialized expertise; participation in short courses,
164 Bluepnnt for Action
conferences, and seminars; and involvement in professional organizations.
Stall Development Content Areas
In the staff development model presented in Table 6.2, a number of different content areas are identified for staff development which match the developmental stages and goals. In general, these content areas move from concrete topics to those that are more abstract and complex. Thus, begin- ning teachers in the survival stage are usually not interested in or ready for a session on grantsman- ship or child advocacy. Beginning teachers are focused on their classrooms and issues related to curriculum, health and safety, and the physical
114
Implementing an Individualized Model of Staff Development
Figure 6.2
Evaluating progress
Cimplementini-) the plan
CWriting an action plan
C'--- Setting goals
Gathering data
Conducting a planning conference
environment. Conversely, mature teachers will most likely be bored with topics which center on these issues; they are ready for discussions related to administration and supervision or mentoring approaches.
Another way to think about content areas is to group them into categories. Abbott-Shim (1990) provides a fairly comprehensive list of topic areas for staff development. Table 6.3 summarizes these areas. Abbott-Shim suggests using such a list as a
training needs assessment survey that can be distributed to staff to assess their level of interest in
different topics. In considering actual content areas, directors
must constantly be aware of the relationship
between developmental stage and interest in a particular topic. These linkages are indeed no different from the ones we facilitate for young chil- dren. A 4-year-old will not be satisfied with putting objects in and out of a container like the 1-year- old. And just a8 children let us know the materials in which they are interested, so, too, will adults.
Implementing Individualized Staff Development
The primary goal of an individualized model of staff development is to have teachers understand their own professional growth needs and strengths as contributing members of the center in which
115
Blueprint for Action 105
they work. As directors allow teachers more choice and control over classroom practices, teachers will become more committed to improvement and to a cause beyond oneself (Glickman, 1985).
Individualized professional development plans cannot be done haphazardly; a systematic way to approach individuals is needed. Figure 6.2 details a seven-step process that can be used on an ongoing basis. While the seven steps here are visu-
ally displayed in a cycle, it is probably more useful to think of it as a "professional spiral," where new data are added, goals are refined, and new targets
for professional growth are set each year. The seven steps in this process parallel the organizational problem solving process of change detailed in Chapter II. Where Figure 2.1 on page 29 focused on the center as the target of change, Figure 6.2 focuses on the individual as the target of change.
Gathering Data
The initial interview with a new employee is a good place to begin collecting data on ail aspects of the individual you have
hired. The open, trusting relationship you establish at that time will provide a precedent for future inter-
actions with that person. As director, it is important to acknowledge that you want to get to know this person better, that you want the person to come to you with concerns and problems, and that you wish to establish a good working relationship. Ask questions, look interested, and be concerned! In the final analysis, this interpersonal relationship is the key to meaningful dialogue.
With veteran staff, too, it is important to keep "checking back." How are things going? What's happening at the homefront? Have any problems surfaced since we last talked? As director, you set the tone of open communication. Your knowledge of individual staff increases daily through many and various informal and formal contacts. All of these contacts generate data for planning individ- ualized professional development opportunities.
Relative to the job itself, there are many sources of data that directors can use. Teachers can be observed in action to assess the quality of
106 Blueprint for Action
their teaching practices using Assessment Tools #12, 13, 14, and 15. This data can be supple- mented with informal daily observations that you record. Teachers frequently complain that their supervisors do not spend enough time observing in their classrooms. Brief, frequent visits by the director are less threatening to teachers than formal
observations. Frequent visits convey a sense that the director is "in touch" with what is going on in the program. When the director is able, in a discussion session with a teacher, to present a number of specific instances of particular classroom practices, the director's credibility is greatly enhanced.
In using observational data for professional development purposes, we must try to suspend judgment on what is observed. In other words, there is a strong tendency when we observe teachers in action to judge whether the teacher is doing things "our way" or not. If the intention is to gather data to support someone's professional development, it is good to ask yourself "How can I account for what I am observing?" "Why is the teacher responding to the situation this way?"
Certainly the feedback we receive from parents and co-workers will also be helpful. Directors cen gain valuable information about teachers through ongoing, informal exchange with parents and through conferencing with other staff who work with the teachers. But some of the most useful data will come from the individual teacher herself. Using the assessment tools in this book, or adaptations of them, will generate meaningful data in a number of areas role clarity, job satisfaction, commitment, perceived problems, and temperament.
Anecdotal notes are another valuable source of data. Although it is time consuming to keep anecdotal records, they provide rich, descriptive examples of the way a teacher functions. These examples can be used in discussing a more abstract concept. For example, one director recorded the following exchange between a new teacher and a parent:
Parent: "I thought you would be working on the alphabet with Jenny by now. She really seems ready for it."
1 6
Teacher: "Our program is more play- oriented. We don't believe in pre-reading activities."
The director was able to refer to this exchange when discussing parent communication with the teacher. Although this particular early childhood program was indeed play-oriented, the answer the teacher gave to this parent's question did not assist the parent in understanding why play and social interaction had been established as emphases of the program. Moreover, stating that there were no pre-reading activities was erro- neous. Children were read to frequently, print was readily available in the classroom, and art work was often enhanced with children's dictations. This simple interaction identified several areas in which the director could work with the teacher. Having a specific example facilitated a meaningful discus- sion on important issues.
To simplify the recording of anecdotal entries, directors may wish to carry a small notebook or 3" x 5" cards around with them. Another method is to keep a notebook on the side of your desk so that items can be readily jotted down. The task here is quite similar to teachers' efforts to record anec- dotal data on the children in their classrooms.
The overall goal of data gathering is to pinpoint staff's needs and confront rather than avoid probiems. Without adequate information on an individual, it is impossible to devise a profes- sional development plan that is worthwhile.
Compiling an Individual Profile
After sufficient information has been gath- ered on an individual, it is time to create a
profile on that person. The appendix includes blank sample forms that you can use in your program. This section includes examples of two sets of sample forms showing data compiled on two teachers from the Children's Corner Pat,
a mature, experienced teacher and Sheily, a new, inexperienced teacher. The areas noted on Sample
Form #1 reflect the use of many of the different acsessment instruments previously discussed. For example, there is a space for temperament type
and learning style. The accompanying observation sheets, Sample Form #2, show anecdotal entries on the two teachers which provide evidence for statements made on the profile. Obviously, these entries will be far more extensive after the individual has worked for the center for a period of time.
This first profile you prepare should be consid- ered tentative until you have a planninc ^,onference with the teacher where you will elicit further infor- mation and clarification. Also, as you observe the classroom and receive ongoing feedback on the teacher, other modifications may need to be made.
Conducting a Planning Conference
It is important that a formal get-together, a planning conference, be conducted to begin the process of developing a profes-
sional development plan with the teacher. For new teachers, we suggest a planning conference six weeks into a new job and then every May or June. For
veteran teachers it is usually sufficient to meet once a
year. May or June provides a good time because it is
a logical point to think about setting new organiza- tional and individual goals for the following year.
Prior to the scheduled conference, it may be helpful to allow the teacher to prepare answers to some of the questions that will be presented. Sample Form #3 is provided for this purpose.
The goal of the planning session is to create the open, trusting atmosphere in which a teacher will openly share information and concerns. There are fol.!. types of information about teacher behavior that can be examined (Luft & Ingham, 1973).
The open self. Much of what we know is infor- mation which is known both to the teacher and others in the center. Gina is a good piano player; she loves music activities.
The secret self. Some information is known to the teacher but not to others. Gina is terrified each time she has to conduct a parent conference.
The blind self. There is information about the teacher's behavior which is known to others but not to the teacher. Gina seems to reinforce sex role stereotypes in her classroom.
117 Blueprint for Action 107
The undiscovered self. Lastly, there is informa-
tion which is unknown both to the teacher and to others. Through professional development oppor- tunities these qualities may emerge. Gina has the potential to be an outstanding mentor teacher to less experienced staff.
The challenge to the director is to motivate the teacher to go beyond the open self and to delve into the secret and blind self when identifying improvement areas.
From the responses to Sample Form #3, we can begin to get an idea of what kind of activity or support the teacher needs. Pat, for example, is interested in gaining experience in the administra- tive side of child care. She has a desire to improve her supervisory skills. Perhaps a break from the long hours in the classroom might be appropriate for her. Obviously, we would need much more information on Pat before being able to put the pieces together. But the planning conference allows the teacher to articulate to the director her perceived needs and desires. All of us relish the opportunity to do this in relation to our work!
Be sure to allow the teacher the opportunity to initiate questions and raise concerns over and above your questions. The goal of the planning session is to establish an open, trusting atmo- sphere that helps teachers identify areas of strength and areas in need of improvement. At the conclusion of this session, you should be able to add more information to the profile you have begun to create on an individual teacher.
Developing a Goals Blueprint
Toward the end of the planning confer- ence, the focus should move to goal planning. Goal planning should be a joint
process. When directors include staff in goal setting, they express confidence in their staff as reliable sources of information. The director's role is facilitative in the sense that she can help ensure that the individual is setting realistic and achiev- able goals that are congruent with the individual's developmental profile.
108 Blueprint for Action
Begin the goal setting process by identifying and discussing the strengths of the teacher. By doing so, the process of goal planning begins on a positive note. Next, specific areas in need of improvement or growth can be noted. From this point, goals can be articulated. Sample Form #4 is provided for this purpose. Goals need not be grandiose, but they do need to be meaningful and moderately challenging.
The approach advocated here is a "needs analysis approach," one where teachers are helped to identify problem areas and then target specific objectives and activities that will reduce or eliminate those problems (Peters & Kostelnik, 1981). A needs analysis approach in working with individuals is essentially the same model that we used to assess center-wide needs. It is one that defines a prohem as the discrepancy between what is and what is required or desired. In this case, it is the discrepancy between the knowl- edge, attitudes, or skills possessed by the teacher and those deemed desirable for the position.
It is important for directors to be mindful that there is often a difference between inferred and expressed needs. Many staff development programs in centers operate on an inferred needs basis. In other words, the director infers the training needs of staff based on her expert judg- ment alone. When teachers are permitted to express their own training needs, often different themes emerge (Peters & Kostelnik, 1981).
Writing a Staff Development Action Plan
A direct outgrowth of working together on goals is writing the staff development action plan. This plan breaks the goals
down into activities, time, resources needed, and the how and when of evaluation. Sample Form #5 was designed for this purpose. The sample action plans on Pat and Shelly are quite different. Pat's activities reflect her maturity both in terms of her development and her career stage; they are directed beyond her classroom and emphasize her move into assuming a leadership role in the center. Shelly's plan, on the other hand, is focused on her classroom, as this is where she needs and wishes
118
to concentrate her energies. Developmentally, this focus is appropriate because it addresses her survival orientation. Let's take a ctoser look and see
how these action plans evolved. At the conclusion of the goal setting confer-
ence, you might want to have the teacher complete
Assessment Tool #27. This instrument was designed to assess the individual's level of motiva- tion in tackling the goals and objectives that have
cla POP Th. 44.10.10 Clintar :Martha andShelly:sOhedUled.a time:to Meet to
work on Shesity'S, aCtien, plan 4.Or the,. year: .Martha thought -a kit'ebout how to halidE. this ocinferenCe. Clearly, there were se,Many:areaS Of Shelly's perfor- mance that heeded attention:7-7 her.lack Of control of .the children in ...the, clasercorn,.her:C.Verly. etrectured instructional_ style, .rierihtioitihi to deal- with parents. effectively, The list, seemed tit. go en -and on. But Martha also realiZed that Shelly's Self-esteem as a teacher was quite 'fragile.. She was convinced that with the right kind of supervision' and mentoring, Shelly could develop-into Elpornpetent and capable teacher.' That is Why' thie first i)lanning Conference was so crucial. If Shelly left the COnference overwhelmed by having to tackle too many improvements all at once, there was a coed -chance, Martha felt, that Shelly wOuld simplY burn oUt, before she ever really made a commitment to the profeseion.
Martha decided to proceed cautiously. She let Shelly take the lead in the discussion regarding her perceived problems In the. classroom: She was pleased at how Shelly Opened up and hoW receptive she was to Martha's SeggestiOns On ways they might work together totielp solve soMe ofShelly's problems. Martha quickly realized that what Shelly needed most of all was 'to feel torhe- Serise::Of-*Centrol- over the management of her classroom. Trying-to take on other goals right.now such-as improving her interactivestyle with parents, would jast, be too 'much.' First .and fore- most Shelly needed AO See .herSelf aa..a competent teacher in control of her 'own' claseroom. Once, that happened, Martha felt Confident Shelly would be more ready to take on some Of the other areas that needed improving such as parent relations, .
In talking to ShellY, Martha began to see how instrumental her 'own' role wee in helping create a collegial and supportive atmosphere in the center. She talked to Shelly about doing some observations in Georgia's room. White Martha knew that Georgia
been outlined on the action plan. If the results of this assessment reveal that the teacher has very little motivation for achieving the stated goals and objectives, then it will be important for the two of you to meet again to revise the action plan to more accurately reflect those goals that the teacher is sincerely interested in accomplishing. Otherwise, the entire goal setting endeavor will become merely
a paper exercise.
wasn't ready to be a mentor, she did knew that Georgia had a wonderful interactive style With the chil- dren and would serve as a good rOle.model for Shelly in the area of .classroom management. Martha alsfy" thought that this just might be the shot in the arm that Georgia needed to re-energize her own teaching. All kinds ef possibilities were racing through Martha's mind. She thought, "Why couldn't Pat serve as ShellY's mentor, the person to meet with her each week to go over her progress in meeting her staff development objectives?" When she suggested this to Shelly, she liked the idea. Shelly stated that she always felt like she was "bothering" Martha every time .she came to her with a problem because Martha was busy with so many other administrative responsibilities. Shelly liked the idea of having a "big sister" to go to with all her problems. Martha wasn't sure what she was getting herself into, but she said she would talk to Pat the next day at Pat's goal setting conference and see how Pat felt about the idea of mentoring Shelly.
When Pat and Martha met to work on Pat's action plan, the conference was, of course, far less directive from Martha's perspective. Martha listened intently as Pat talked about wanting to take on a more active role in the local AEYC group and how she wanted to "get up her nerve" to make a preentation at the state conference the following year. Mariha prOposed the idea of mentoring to Pat, thinking inside that Pat would graciously decline given how much additional work this would entail. She told Pat that she would revise Pat's schedule to give her two hours a week for mentoring, one hour to meet with Shelly and one hoUr to gather resources and plan for her session. Much to Martha's surprise, Pat was eager to take on the assignment. She told Martha how honored she was to be asked and that no supervisor had ever shown that much cOnfidence in her before. Martha loaned Pat some books on supervision and mentoring and they scheduled a three-way meeting with Shelly to work out the details. Martha was elated.
Blueprint for Action 109
BEST COPY AVAILABLE 11.9
Implementing the Action Plan
1
Action plans often need revision as they become operational. It is important for the director and teacher to view them as being
flexible, making changes as they seem warranted. The director is the key person in monitoring the staff
development action plans that have been initiated. Without the exercise of leadership on her part, the entire process will crumble! Staff development does
not happen just by talking about it. There must be active follow through to keep the process moving and relevant.
On Shelly's plan, for example, her third goal was to keep anecdotal records on the cl,-.ssroom
operation. Through a review of
"We are the architects these records as well as observa- tions of the classroom, Martha and
of our own future." Pat (as Shelly's mentor) will try to determine if Shelly is more aware of interactions in the classroom and what might be influencing them.
Once this awareness develops, the record keeping can be dropped and a new goal established.
Much of the director's time will be spent scheduling activities as appropriate and providing resources as needed for individuals to achieve goals. Often staff members need assistance in managing their time so they can attend to the action plan that has been agreed upon.
Sometimes the director can plan small group or even large group inservice workshops if there is high congruence among staff members in terms of needs and interests. This is a different approach than that of selecting a group topic that does not meet the goals of the individual teachers. The director is in a position to know in which direction to go on behalf of her staff.
Anonymous
Evaluating Progress
It is the director's responsibility through monitoring the action plans to evaluate progress on a continuous basis. Evaluation
in this sense relates specifically to whether the goals
have lor-.s,, attained, not to how well the teacher is
110 Blueprint for Action
doing her job from an overall perspective. Sometimes
this responsibility can be partially delegated to a mentor, as in the case of Shelly. Martha is still respon-
sible, however, for ensuring that the mentor/protege
relationship is progressing smoothly. If not, she must intervene and make adjustments in supervising Shelly's progress in meeting her goals. Overall, it can
be assumed that teachers in the survival or consoli- dation stages will require more time in assessing progress in meeting the goals stated on their individ-
ualized staff development plans. Teachers at more independent levels of functioning will require a super-
visory style that is less direc
Evaluation from this perspective, therefore, is linked directly to activities and their accomplish- ment. Most certainly the outcomes will be one piece of evidence in considering merit and pay increases or promotion to a new position of responsibility. Staff evaluation as it relates to overall performance appraisal from a more global framework will be presented in Chapter VII.
A Final Word
This chapter has focused on strategies and supervisory approaches for implementing individual-
ized guided staff development. The emphasis has been on the "match" between the individual's devel- opmental level and the selected supervisory behavior. Vygotsky (1978) uses the terms "scaf- folding" and "zone of proximal development" to describe how teachers can facilitate the growth of children. We think the same terms apply to teachers'
development. Your role as director in implementing an individualized model of staff development is to "stretch" teachers, helping them to move with competence and confidence to the next level of professional development. Clearly, the process is a time consuming one. We believe, however, that it focuses your time as director on the most important priority in your program your staff. In the long-run,
we are convinced it saves time by reducing, if not eliminating, many of the staff-related problems that impact the quality of program services.
120
Individual Profile
Name Ad
Sample Fomi #1
Age c2d...,
Education/training L144.eti4-te 144E1. civi,..41..kawe....,
Teaching experience 1--)4/34.4-46-ri4t, a.t itia..} , 441
. 1,VaL et- .4444-?-tryni,t)althii . ' ./ rt.
41/k15 C
Professional orientation
_ A-A
/V. 6
a41.4
.144.
Special interests/skills/talents 1twn41 4.k) h..44) 4441447-14-)
AA:u friLe
1111/21e14,
Relevant personal history ft.1.4t. CA A .1- )) ft-at" 11.41-4eA4-0V444- /U241 4-4t)
42aNair- 4,61) a cktL. h4,1, kifk,
Concomitant roles -14/1-1-- (it4244.4,fLk 44.1.) 4.41-4,/ --.44.4)4y-Ofro-41 it.ente...d4crion)
,t6L- a., -14)-6-ntl-n%4) irt.en-1-441 /,1
kilthiGn.)._2eedelet--1
Staya of adult development/ego development yiwi at-tt-dente-- CA0714c41-,'
et. I
4
I/ t
Ara al a 'ad. . aqat . a .1 . /AL. ,Lug / i
4_0
Career stage
Blueprint for Action 111
121
Personal traits and characteristics
Energy level Wet/ /14-4_0'' /-1,0?-6 aeave/,112&_Lisel;94_CLZ- Gt
Level of abstract thinking 24 .4t LP714.(/..a/ 7tilE((4/
Add-rie-m-hip ti) h./A, 7,61461.4//.19v Loo-fed, fr,v utdc ,a064ti4,---frw
Temperament/psychological type k.5F-3 eti
Learning style
General dispositions
064.411,),11)i,
-,4 OIL
z4yeA,) . . .
Self-confidence/self-efficacy 410212._./21
Degree of flexibility/openness to change
adid.dalepAtfte
4 I Of ids eirl
p2114.2(_,
. .14.214,
Commitment/motivation '61.44;y) a, Lti-t 6'6 frnihta1..1-01.10--- /ay LUJ5 4izi-n..1) 071 a ' r22/40;
t.et
40, ..'.
Beliefs and values Aa_ 46.)
h44//41-1.4tid 4p0-u,(14,-, amidoprialiigri/ p)a.ac.ce,, wei,6-oleiez.19&pu,d, au:11.4.pu /
Expectations/needs it.ppee/A4 h4W-C ,01401, flZU Itl/appl-011-E2-4. .147tpelt44174 -V64J2et1z4
AzzOrte4id. a.4 ib a4t1 '.6-44?-ratifi:
112 Blueprint for Action
2 2
Sample Form #2
Observations
Name Adiy/
Date: /0 / 5 TO
7 ./ iI4-' 14 / MI.., ,/_.4 A
('7h eiGt ot 07-14,t4-a.
At4
a-et -t4041,1, Zy .116
tcc 6652mf h-tede twit.
Date:
if Ii44441 1,6- be/14,1,-e- 1;) e AL'
he;nti
Date: //- 9 0
at thi /materkp)6 d-zoidf_L pa,-1,-C,v VALI, ZeltA. of f/id/ ' -,_. 4- ....I 4 A
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CA(.41,tmi dovhf Acme- azt,(41ti.ed amd, bi(pizejedo f t)itL,
..4111 '4! d
123
Blueprint for Action 113
Sample Fomi #4
Goals Blueprint
Teacher's name //Shzdet)
Strengths as a teacher
1. gin-fhad44-; kv e/ntAn,
2. Cen4cztifritt&4
3.
Date Or..t.v4e/2) 1990 nay- /99/
1..111d/ nL
Areas in need of improvement/growth
1. ) .111 14 _..AIL.:11 &GI
.Y....ad AAA.. lAid
/ ..,11/Ilif 11 iI"
3. Neida tir Attuzz ermak aaA4 AtAi Alt& 14ti 7k& el-46144&tn-L-
Goal
Objectives
1.
2.
3.
//1 .14.11 AL .1 Ph . Lii Ldi JAI -1" 1/ did V
I LE /tat Ar4. .4'.1 14 J / .1 .... Si II a %% AUZI( /
I 1 a ./1114 1. di J, I .A.L.4.42 A I
114 Blueprint for Action
124
pi/tidily/pi-her?
Sample Fomi #5
Staff Development Action Plan
Name Date bcto-k4. /990 /Val /99/
Objective #1 a.,,,AttfrItput eikidlerent 1144/0t4.;1
Activities Time Needed Resources Needed
1. -Rzad., Oubturt441, i. (4441 Apiz. a4) 1. aptalt . ID kei.ot/i Atarb, /yaw/.
a_ Ivy-WI . wil)=1,
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-14.it.v Dag c., A T. Re7-4,1 tim,:vnirv't ao a. ria.c,cumithritatepi.
2 VA4A4) 14 i, i1 I Siefai 1A-4d14141'
.. )(p4A.44nt,,,,t : Aldt/utat.W., apa-e-L.) ots-de/w-C, eLauw-i-e-v) asse4.4..., 0-11-4 A
Evaluation (how/when)-wiLithrttainr nOn-itior. 141.4 ividc,Ofnavt roa4 /5 A.5 pos
Objective #2 Jo im:Ifytivt, Cae.44445-rwirnevnarmt4WC,atigtaiad
Activities Time Needed Resources Needed
1. 664Ducx, fjarliluil plucholt,. 04.44) etwai papt4ty pe44.0-k
I. ,I ktA.4 / kv4.44_ tro-1, 3 444.4.Aw
I . C..h-v-e/tay. e t, aA4-4A-trowl 4, hdt4, x $811vv :--.48
2.. gxptil:/fritorit -Weill clAfirAi4a. .
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.
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Evaluation (how/when) -1.41461 /7111.4t4-1r loth inkotrrt.tr cb..;a444.) fxrepe.,i4)
Objective #3 ,X ontrrtAtev .2:444 AAA -if 44 /
Activities Time Needed Resources Needed
1. Kap ffa.tt e4.AX, froir tZt4(.i. AloT.c. kxamptc4, 66 PetaLtA:44-'
a Ria4t- 1421 °()P4e1-1-/ il 8444'7'1
/At) c1.4.4.4A-4-rwt,
2 0.--PP141i,eri-ixt-b-j-- ? kvt.4 . r..J-CA.L.
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prt, 61,4444./4-14.411 141.24a441.14)
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125
Blueprint for Action 115
Sample Form #1
Individual Profile
Name 'Pat Age 38
Education/training 0.4. ekay, g.142.c.4.Z.-erx)} itia/udta, it) icttil Ina.01(4
Teaching experience Lza..zt te4.411.,A)- 3 944 } azothceratt 7 y1.4
VO-CLIAttalt) I40 14LIAtt- Urer 6 6i1-4
Professional orientation
fui-eAtt:d (J44-1.4..b& alie/yik ar-iyaknaa.); pk) NA-EYG aqaz ri-k9 ; itdo /mad& pr&i,rintliew.d vt It.tAd eittazA,04,2,,,t4/ ffuty.9
Special interestS/skills/talents A&t,tiA-6 ,aupprat attp ivy aiLopit pay° au-LA.6A) aux c e/rtert mo1vgraplag.
L....A/ 4 W I GI
Relevant personal history ihw lufre oftilkdvx ,a,t Janne/ 1ati4i fivng, a.at..i.Ab ptchGt eosp 14.1.p1iit...o04). 4tni (Jazz, idtp3:4.; bypeAtim. ca, 1kt Lü4j 144t rdat)
Concomitant roles 'WV& gm..,:t into/kw; etztZti-ci frterx.%) P4-1 ,avu,te4}
torAti, 't (it#v Aztte,u 444.4C, cernmu.vnity emtai et.4v12.0 .
Stage of adult development/ego development
pevitta, v-Littr" a4t4t- aWnztá 44/ Jrre-ea); 4h1u-41 4u/ten-at-AI/ y4i) Pitinie.4/ at4 a4 try
Career stage
L-4
zbil-22-t -At tittcatttnidL pyptAnc.z,. . / / &AL !AA. e. 4ve
116 Blueprint for Action
1 2
Personal traits and characteristics
Energy level mai/Lab) putdi ai /mi.° kg. welled /Ltd. 12.4a * monkey help 1.1yez.nta,
Level of abstract thinking leeefre-cro 7. 414 ,14 ce-notheew inbny ztorbreca
i2i5.14Sran ///
Temperament/psychological type Els/FT Outgall dh.) emaotk a/79C C011arld)
Learning style
1/4.4.7 ilia onr.t.doio-t e . 1111?We4119= oidl°419644414"10
General dispositions eire/n 71e/m/31/124 ntuil-twIA1 1
inav atztd)
Self-confidence/self-efficacy h401-1)) k42.45'w-c1)41U/4;0 Cd-7'n4nA:Cri-,4 4414- id) &4,zt 44-4-cit-
Degree of flexibility/openness to change 4A_ ..e./
orn) jo nizo.) p etzAi.2) tuut.in.,44.) isittet.A.)
Commitment/motivation
LZ-
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Expectations/needs ett4.4Z Addlild 11A.4, pirt:p0141,1?..t * lwt, Wain& * k/rpoid 01.4.t.1 . /
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127
Blueprint for Action 117
Observations
Name Pax
Date: /0 /5- 90 . P ND*1 44411'4
Pat diocusdzi., wi titi mt, a e.414/e/amet, aitv
Sample Form #2
144
11.44.- HA/ "n26/1U/1.
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,tupt 1uA),L4".7.44), vex prrvidt, dirmt /cy
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Date: // 5- 90 virt.) Ott- C2A441A 41- 7vt Pat- k) 4Let-4;1ia/ an') Mt, flo-o-L) A;)t.) it Ozek, etiLtet., ,
Viz au:at/4u had- .e=aLtt a iu /low- Pat kizie/rietrA, Ozra- ./d _ ZIA
cLZ4'1 ol,ra- dItiv tero ,
Date: //- -90
ko-d.4) poikt4 1 e-ut, 4-011-e e-6 Wu, p43-3.44)
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118 Blueprint for Action
128
Sample Form #4
Goals Blueprint
Teacher's name PlLt Date Airy- /99D - 1-11. /99 /
Strengths as a teacher
1. &cab:41Z a-b-day -iv Ii7469/rel 44UL-1-)
2. Xti.,2-4.Mt ,41121.4) Av-it-k) clu-614-tiu dAti pevtattz,
3. 14/a6-ffr'/ / /- --4AdLatf rits42.-/". Eft LLfl ust
Areas in need of improvement/growth
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2. di,1et42i/ppeceL4Aita*V ./t) !kit!
3. Ala44, Offnhi4u4.1.e.) 1t J9,)(plolLe_YAL Aterutizia. CA-4-4ilarv-vC kit/ 7Le-eatt.) cLpiu.
Goal 4cit.1.10-e) riztti4) i/e.na.t. e_fc.di,nc.z. evn4
/ A 60112.111,44414.2 fi X[14,1,C1:W 71Z) A.14.41,2
IN//itellitte-/Lii
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Objectives
1.
2. -12) (24v 44,tc.c,1_,Li
3. -/-0 /r1C41.4.4.& cotikdbric& ienalez4.1, ?-2.z/Ji4-74-za-r,e7t4)
12;) Blueprint for Action 119
Sample Form #5
Staff Development Action Plan
Name 19aZ Date No-v-1910- Plety PM/
Activities Time Needed Resources Needed
1. oiLkt, 647,4A42. a...t 1442 Aim.A.4.iir, 071,
Aupe./1-4// 5,:irn.) (WI 44414.141.4 afl d. ttckutt itattnt.fi -1.111.4-/ (Sp-1.411
long.- "at)
2. 4-14AAt 44- n-ru,s4te-v -to Ahtitar -nti.a., ,wii..11./ hw 4.4"-e.t...141.48.
I. 1 LA,o/tok e2444)4:fryht, 4 1,A4/ wiz sxt,441,41
Z. I liv.ItAfrk es-b4t/waffani
1 Ivs-i wit eArvt514.1171-41eki
i. J50 (...A.4.444-.
Z . c./4.44/ktryvl CArveA4-1..e.
1 AAA. pf.4,-tv.caL
Evaluation (how/when) itku.e.A, LU CAj tILLA:PfZi-u viet) ex,r14. P17 4L44)
Objective #2 ao a/yx.,
Activities Time Needed Resources Needed
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2' 4-6a-mit * Dt;nte4uitArn4)/
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ALA.4.40-tiv. 7.4;,-,40
2 . 2- ktAA. IlAkit-r4.4. itr w-Lat, UAW t" 1-6-444-L4J 4-40
1, $25 tov tr:trn a/r..4., Fro ce.44v711, to-L.,
pitzip-a ek6 b-Govit_.
13-44'd"
2., t4.44.... C.1".t.i44 CirrnputZtvg all-Le eix..44.4.1 Pitt- g Thetia-y-
Evaluation (how/when) C.A,Ixt
Objective #3 2o A C.f. AA .4
Activities Time Needed Resources Needed
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120 Blueprint for Action
130
l Chapter 7
Linking Staff Development to Performance Appraisal and
a Career Ladder
One of the principles repeatedly emphasized in this book has been that in order to achieve effective and lasting change in one compo- nent of the system. it must be reinforced by
change in other ccmponents of the system. The staff development process clearly reinforces the importance of this principle. The change in teachers' knowledge, skills, and attitudes we hope will occur as a result of implementing an individual-
ized model of staff development will have a far better chance of succeeding if they are supported by changes in other organizational structures and processes. The individualized staff development processes a center has implemented will not become permanent fixtures of center functioning without supporting struc.ures.
There are two center structures that are impor- tant in this regard the center's performance appraisal system and a career ladder for profes- sional advancement. Most centers already have in place some form of a performance appraisal system, but few tie that system to their staff develop- ment processes. This chapter will provide recommendations on how that might be done. Likewise, few centers have implemented a career ladder for professional advancement. As we will see later in this chapter, a career ladder for early child- hood professionals makes emine 'j good sense. Career ladders have helped professionalize the field of education at the elementary and secondary level,
and there is no reason why the same principles can't
be applied to staff working with younger children.
Linking Staff Development to Performance Appraisal
Performance appraisal is a natural extension of the individualized staff development cycle we described in Chapter VI. It lays the foundation for ongoing planning and the charting of new goals and objectives for individual performance. So often we think of evaluation only as a way to judge performance, as a way to provide evidence on whether or not to renew a teacher's contract. But the performance evaluation process should serve as an effective tool for supporting change in individuals. Reviewing progress against previ- ously set goals gives the evaluator and the teacher a yardstick by which to measure growth. This growth (or lack of growth) is the basis for change
change in knowledge, skills, and attitudes. Performance appraisal is a pivotal activity
around which good directors manage their programs for staff development. When done right, it makes teachers aware of those areas of teaching performance in which they excel and those areas in need of improvement. In good programs, evaluation
of staff is a continuous and ongoing process, one that focuses on change and improvement as well as
reinforcing areas of strength. Figure 7.1 provides a visual display of the role of performance appraisal in the personnel management process. This process, of course, includes staff development.
"People don't care what
you know until they
know that you care."
-- Anonymous
1 3
Blueprint for Action 121
Figure 7.1
The Role of Performance Appraisal in the Personnel Management Process
compensation
selection
dismissal job analysis
staff development
promotion
career planning
orientation
Adapted from Schwind, H. (1991, January). Bases for effective human resource management. Paper presented at the Child Care Connections Conference, Halifax, Nova Scotia.
If performance appraisal plays such a vital role in organizational effectiveness, why is it that many directors dread the responsibility and see it as time-
consuming and burdensome? Employees, as well, seem to share this ambivalence and often complain that the process is arbitrary and sometimes humili- ating. This section will provide a rationale for viewing the performance appraisal processes of a center as a central vehicle for achieving center-wide
change. It will look at the principles underlying effective performance appraisal and present some guidelines for implementing such a performance appraisal system in your center.
Principles Underlying Effective Performance Appraisal
Effective performance appraisal depends on the following variables: the teacher, the evaluator, and the context of the situation. For example, the
122 Blueprint for Action
background of the teacher with respect to educa- tional level and degree of experience will dictate the kinds of information used in the performance appraisal process. As evaluator, your values and attitudes (your evaluation philosophy) will certainly affect how you interpret that information. And, the context of the situation in which you work will impact how that information is put to use. By understanding how these variables are defined differently in each situation, we can also under- stand why it is so important to individualize the performance appraisal process.
A number of excellent resources exist that identify effective performance appraisal processes (Albrecht, 1985; Bernardin & Beatty, 1984; Duke & Stiggins, 1986; Johnston, 1988; McGreal, 1983; Scallan & Kalinowski, 1990; Schwind, 1987). Using these resources as a guide, we can develop a
132
comprehensive system to evaluate the staff in our early childhood programs. The following principles help us better understand how to make the evalua- tion process a productive one one that is both individualized and individually guided.
Performance appraisal must be thorough. Time is
such a scarce commodity in our administrative role as directors. Taking the time to do thorough evalu- ations of staff is perceived by many directors as a luxury. But when viewed through the lens of program effectiveness, the time we allocate to evaluating our staff pays tremendous dividends later on. Better teaching performance, higher morale, and lower turnover are but a few of the payoffs that come with reallocating our time and energy to providing feedback to staff through performance appraisal. Oddly enough, this is the one area that the teachers themselves feel so adamant about. The following scenario is not atyp- ical of teachers' reactions to much of what passes for performance appraisal.
Mary, a Head Start teacher, was observed with her class at lunchtime on three different occasions during the year. Her yearly review stated that she showed poise, good manners, and self control. On the basis of this assess- ment, her teaching was regarded as excellent. To the director's surprise, Mary was unhappy with this evaluation of her perfor- mance. She felt the evaluation was very cursory, that the director's limited observation during lunch time could not possibly give her a representative sample of Mary's true perfor- mance. Even though the ratings were quite positive, Mary felt short-changed. She had worked hard preparing her lessons and providing an enriching classroom experience for the children. She really wanted to be vali- dated for all her hard work.
Performance appraisal must be fair. One of the quirks of human nature is our tendency to let our personal biases cloud our judgments. In most situ- ations, the consequences of this are fairly innocuous. In evaluating a staff's performance,
however, this tendency can be both damaging and
counterproductive. The personal biases we bring to the evaluation task often serve to make the process unfair and viewed as arbitrary from the staff's perspective (Jensen, 1979). The following example serves to illustrate this point.
Before Ramona became a director, she had been a kindergarten teacher for 15 years. Ramona included poetry as an integral part of her teaching and felt that other teachers of young children should do the same. As a director, Ramona had provided her staff with many poetry collections in the professional library and often used poetry as a part of the staff bulletin board. Ramona clearly valued poetry. Bob, the experienced teacher in the four-year-old room, did not share this same enthusiasm for poetry. Ramona often would suggest appropriate poems for use in his classroom. The suggestions were ignored. Bob believed that the children's own writing should be the foundation of literacy. He felt strongly that he should exhibit books and songs the children had created. On Bob's performance appraisal form, he was rated "seldom" in promoting literacy. Bob felt the rating was unfair, that Ramona was using her high value of poetry as the basis for this judg- ment. He felt strongly that he provided a literacy-rich environment just not the kind of literacy that Ramona preferred.
Staff should be actively involved in developing evaluation standards. Just as people and programs are fluid, so, too, should be performance appraisal. If evaluation methods accurately measure knowl- edge, skills, and attitudes of the staff, then teachers need to have an integral role in determining how their performance can bes. be evaluated.
The teachers of the public school prekinder- garten program were amazed to find "dresses appropriately" on the performance appraisal form to be used to assess their teaching perfor-
mance. After a team meeting, it was decided to ask for a conference with the school principal
133
Blueprint for Action 123
who would be serving as their evaluator. She met with the teachers and listened to them explain why an informal mode of dress was appropriate for teachers at the preschool level. They wanted more clarity in how "dresses appropriately" would be defined. The principal asked two of the prekindergarten teachers to serve on the district-wide committee to review the school's evaluation form. They eagerly agreed. The result was that a description was added to the criteria that acknowledged the special needs of prekindergarten teachers to wear comfortable, informal attire on the job.
Performance appraisal should build on the compe-
tencies of the individual. The perceptions of the performance appraisal process held by both the director and the staff member are important. It goes without saying that mutual trust between the evalu- ator and the staff member is necessary for effective performance appraisal. Evaluation must be viewed as a helping process, a time for building on old skills
and acquiring new knowledge, rather than as a puni-
tive measure. Besides, trying to remediate deficits is
an uphill struggle: it is bound to fail. Feedback is most helpful if it focuses on strengths rather than weakness. Strengths change the focus of the interac-
tion to one of talking about potential. In the end, this is what moves individuals to higher levels of perfor- mance and a stronger sense of self-efficacy and confidence. This principle of effective evaluation, of course, implies a sense of mutual trust and respect between the director and the teacher. If this quality is
missing, the process is bound to be unproductive.
After observing Shawna struggle with the organization and management of her class- room block area, Stewart, the education coordinator of the center, shared the problems he had faced in his own classroom years before. "NAEYC has a great publication, the Block Book, that you may want to take a look at, Shawna," he said. "I found lots of good ideas and suggestions that helped me. Would you like me to find the center's copy for you?" When Shawna expressed an interest in the publication, Stewart was prompt in placing the
124 Blueprint for Action
book in her hands the next morning. The following week he observed again, and noticing new strategies in the block area, complimented Shawna specifically on the techniques he had observed. By using class- room observations as a vehicle to initiate change, Stewart was able to accent the posi- tive and help Shawna become a better teacher. Shawna was empowered by seeing that her decisions and actions within the classroom made a difference.
Performance appraisal should focus on behavior
and results rather than on personal traits. When we try
to evaluate traits such as cooperativeness, loyalty, sociability, trustworthiness, initiative, creativity, or thoroughness, we find that it is next to impossible to pinpoint exactly what those qualities mean. What we are left with is a subjective judgment based on the evaluator's interpretation of just what these traits
mean. Consequently, what typically happens is that the evaluator ends up making an overall judgment of the person and rates the specific trait items consistent with the judgment.
Jessica had worked as the infant caregiver for
four years. She always smiled the parents loved her. Often Bonnie, the program adminis- trator, noticed that Jessica was less than careful
about washing her hands when caring for the children. In fact, over the past six months, Bonnie had detected a trend of colds passing from one child to another in Jessica's classroom.
Bonnie reminded Jessica of the importance of careful health habits, checked supplies to be sure soap and towels were always available, and modeled good health habits when she visited the room. But there seemed to be no change in Jessica's behavior and the illnesses continued to spread. On her annual perfor- mance appraisal form which only focused on personality traits such as "is pleasant," and "displays positive attitude," Bonnie rated Jessica
as an excellent caregiver. This appraisal was unfortunate because Jessica's behavior in the area of providing an healthful environment clearly needed to be improved.
Traits are qualities thai individuals bring to the job. They should not be the basis for performance appraisal because (hey are too abstract. Instead, our attention should focus on behaviors, those crit- ical incidents that can be noted and assessed in terms of how frequently they occur. In defining behaviors, we have to be mindful that the specific criteria are r=ufficiently precise so as to provide a useful benchmark for performance. For example, "communicates with parents," as a criterion for judging performance is too vague to measure. Does this mean a "hello" and "goodbye" as parents drop off their child each day or does it mean weekly progress notes home. a monthly newsletter, and two parent conferences a year? Without more specific behavioral descriptors added to the criteria, the director and teacher may have conflicting expectations of just what "commu- nicates with parents" really means
Results relating to teaching effectiveness such as the degree to which children are actively involved, the gains children achieve on compe- tence measures, or the degree to which parents are satistied with the program, are important and useful ways to assess performance. But one must be cautious when interpreting certain outcome measures Many programmatic outcomes in early childhood education are difficult to measure, others rm be misleading. Take the case oi Christine at the Children's Corner
Case Study: The Children's Corner
Christine was a new teacher whom Martha had just hired. Martha had seen Christine in action at her previous preschool. She was a wonderful teacher, very much in touch with the needs of the young chil- dren. Her classroom was a child-centered learning environment rich in opportunities for free exploration and discovery learning. In a nutshell, Christine repre- sented Martha's ray of hope for converting the other teachers to implementing more developmentally appropriate practices. Much to Martha's surprise, the parents were not happy with Christine's perfor- mance. They complained to Martha that Christine was not getting their children "ready for school." They wanted to know why Christine was not sending home school work like some of the other teachers.
Martha's experience shows us that results (in this case the parent's level of satisfaction with Christine's performance) can be misleading The problem here is clearly not the teacher's perfor- mance, but rather the center's lack of
communication to parents about how the philosophy
and educational objectives of a developmentally appropriate program are translated into practice.
Multiple sources of evidence improve the relia- bility of performance appraisal. As professionals, we
know the value of using multiple sources of infor- mation for assessing the progress of young children. When it comes to adults, however, we tend to rely on single instruments as the totality of our evaluation process. Particularly in child care centers where it is difficult to separate evaluation from supervision, it is imperative that a director use
multiple sources of evidence to evaluate the performance of staff.
The kinds of evidence drawn into the perfor- mance appraisal process will be both formal and informal. Certainly: the director's and teacher's assessment of how well the goals on the Goals Blueprint have been met will serve as one source of evaluation information. But there are many other sources of evidence that can be gathered to provide
a holistic view of a teacher's performance. McGreal (1983) and others provide a menu of suggestions:
Standardized performance appraisal forms rating
overall performance: Once a year it is wise to use at least one standardized evaluation instrument rating staff on their overall perfor- mance This instrument should include some form of classroom observation as well as the evaluator's ratings on different preestablished criteria. Later on in this section we will describe how job descriptions can be used as the basis for constructing such an instrument.
Feedback from parents: Feedback from the parents of students provides a rich source of evidence of the teacher's performance. You might want to send out a short questionnaire once a year (see Assessment Tool #11 for an example) or have the teacher gather together
135 Blueprint for Aclion 125
samples of parent notes and other correspon- dence that document parents level of satisfaction.
Feedback from fellow teachers: Feedback from colleagues is another important source of data about a teacher's performance. This feedback can be in the form of informal anec- dotal notes that have been kept during the year or more formal peer observations that have been conducted. You may find Sample Form #6 useful for this purpose. Certainly, the master teacher serving in a mentoring role to teachers and assistant teachers should be provided an opportunity to give formal feed- back on the individual's performance at least once a year.
Self assessment: If we truly want to make the performance appraisal process meaningful, we must begin to help teachers realistically assess
their own growth and performance. Journal reflections written on a regular basis may be one way for the teacher to gather this data during the year. At least once a year, teachers should do a self appraisal.
Videotaped segments of classroom instruction: The wonders of technology can certainly help in our efforts to evaluate teaching perfor- mance. Why not have the teacher puli together a collection of highlights of different classroom activities conducted during the year? This videotape will not only serve as an excellent source of evidence regarding the teacher's performance, but it will also be trea- sured in years to come as the teacher looks back on her teaching career.
Examples of professional activities: Teachers can keep copies of the programs from confer- ences they attend during the year as well as their notes from inservice workshops. They may also have certificates for specialized training they received outside the center. These and other artifacts provide evidence of teachers' professional growth during the year.
126 Blueprint for Action
Effective performance appraisal depends on clear
Job descriptions. A clear and concise lob description
provides the foundation for fair and accurate evalu- ation. When job descriptions are clearly written and discussed at the initial hiring interview, the staff member has a better understanding of exactly what is expected in everyday performance. When job expectations are clearly understood right from the start, later evaluation is also easier and less biased; the whole process becomes a more effec- tive tool for helping the employee be successful. A clear job description can provide baseline data for the level of expected performance because job descriptions, when done right, provide a concise picture of the competencies the employee needs.
The Child Development Associate (CDA) competency standards (CECPR, 1990) detailing six competency goals in early childhood settings can serve as a useful guide for constructing job descriptions for the teaching staff at your center. Table 7.1 illustrates how these categories have been used to construct a job description. This job description details the tasks for a teacher of preschool-aged children. The precise responsibili- ties indicated under each of these categories would need to be modified depending on the age level of children the teacher was working with. Thus
job descriptions for teachers of infants, toddlers, or school-aged children would all be slightly different.
A good job description includes the following components: job title; a brief description high- lighting key elements of the job; accountability to whom the individual holding the position reports; minimum qualifications for the position; and key tasks and responsibilities required of the position. Writing job descriptions is tricky because you will want sufficient detail to give the individual guidance about what and how the job is to be carried out, but
you also want it concise enough so as to be useful. Job descriptions that are too vague and brief or too detailed and wordy tend to get filed away and ignored. If a job description is to be useful, it must be able to fit the individual holding the position. That means your center will have some generic job descriptions for each category of jobs, in addition to specific detailed ones that reflect the scope of an
1 3
individual position held by a specific person. There are several excellent resources that you may want to refer to when writing the job descriptions for your program (Sciarra & Dorsey, 1990; Storm, 1985; Travis & Perreault, 1981).
Concise, well-written job descriptions are essential because theycan serve as a template for designing a performance appraisal form for each role. The appendix provides a blank performance appraisal form (Sample Form #7) for the position of Teacher. You can use this form as an example when
constructing your own. This section includes sample peer observation and performance appraisal forms completed for Shelly at the Children's Corner.
Note how the performance appraisal form focuses on the frequency of behavior (from seldom to always) and on specific results the individual has achieved rather than providing a subjective evaluation (poor to excellent) of vague traits or behavior. This is purposeful. If you really believe that the primary goal of evaluation is to help your teachers improve, then your subjective judgments of their performance become less important. Your role should not be one of conferring judgment, but rather one of providing clear and honest feedback about behavior. The most useful part of this perfor- mance appraisal form will be the anecdotal notes you write in the comments section. It is here that you will provide a summary of the informal and formal observational data you have accumulated during the year as well as other data that has been collected which pertains to the specific criterion being evaluated.
Conducting the Performance Appraisal Conference
At least once a year you will want to schedule a formal performance appraisal conference. This session will include a discussion about the progress made on staff development action plans throughout the year. The scope of this conference is larger, however, than merely evaluating the progress of the teacher's action plan; it includes an appraisal of the teacher's overall performance during the previous year.
Teachers should be asked to complete a performance appraisal themselves and bring it to
the conference with whatever documentation they wish. Particularly teachers at the consolidation, renewal, and maturity stages of their careers should be encouraged to develop portfolios as a means of compiling and tracking their activities and improvements during the previous year. This shift of
responsibility is purposeful. It changes the nature of the teacher's role in the performance appraisal process from a passive one to an active one. The point is that the director should not be the only one held responsible for reviewing performance. Performance appraisal is a joint responsibility between the teacher and director and should be promoted as such.
If performance appraisal is perceived as an ongoing process throughout the year that culminates
at the annual performance appraisal conference, then there should be no surprises for the employee. In other words, because the individual has had regular informal feedback through the year and has
played an active role in documenting level of perfor- mance and areas in need of improvement, the director's role is dramatically altered from one of conferring judgment and assigning blame to one of nurturing reflection and problem solving. Certainly, the director and teacher will want to discuss those areas where there may be discrepant perceptions about thE teacher's level of performance, but usually
these are minor if a trusting, open relationship has existed throughout the year.
Albrecht (1989) underscores the importance of separating competency and compensation issues in
a center's performance appraisal system. Performance appraisal that focuses on competency must be perceived by teachers as ongoing, involving informal feedback about the achievement of goals on the staff development action plan and more formal discussions such as the performance appraisal conference where overall performance is reviewed. Compensation, on the other hand, is discussed upon hiring and then again on a semi- annual or annual basis, with the outcome of the review being the determination of salary or wage change. Albrecht believes this allows the director to tie compensation to the larger context of the center. She states, "Whereas competency discussions
1 3 7 Blueprint for Action 127
Ta He 7.1
Job Description - Preschool Teacher
Description:
The Teacher is responsible for the care and education of a group of children as part of a teaching team and functions as a team leader or co-leader. The Teacher plans and implements the curriculum and, with active participation of other members of the teaching team, works with parents and assesses the needs of individual children.
Accountability:
The Teacher reports to the Education Coordinator.
Minimum Qualifications:
Successful completion of an associate degree from a program conforming to NAEYC's Guidelines for Early Childhood Education Programs in Associate Degree Granting Institutions (1985b) or successful completion of an associate degree in a related field plus 30 semester hours of professional studies in child development or early childhood education including 300 hours of supervised teaching experi- ence in an early childhood program.
Responsibilities:
To establish and maintain a sate and healthy environment
1. Designs appropriate room arrangement to support the goals of the classroom 2. Plans and implements a nutritious snack program 3. Promotes healthy eating practices 4. Maintains a safe environment
5. Posts necessary information to ensure the safety and well-being of the children 6. Maintains an orderly learning environment
To advance physical and intellectual competence
1. Provides a balance between child-initiated and teacher-initiated activities 2. Provides a balance between quiet and active learning activities 3. Uses equipment and materials for indoor and outdoor play that promote children's physical
development 4. Involves children in planning and implementing learning activities 5. Provides an integrated curricuIum that meets the needs of individual children 6. Plans and implements experiences that promote language and literacy development 7. Plans and implements activities that promote the acquisition of number concepts
128 Blueprint for Action
1 33
To support social and emotional development and provide positive guidance
1 . Plans and implements hands-on activities that develop positive self-esteem
2. Plans and implements hands-on activities that develop social skills
3. Plans and implements culturally diverse experiences
4. Uses and promotes positive guidance techniques 5. Provides a wide variety of creative and expressive activities
6. Establishes routines with smooth transition periods 7. Communicates with children at their developmental level
8. Encourages children to be independent
To establish positive and productive relationships with families
1. Relates assessment information to parents and offers support for dealing with children at
different developmental stages 2. Plans and conducts home visits
3. Promotes communication with parents through weekly progress notes, a monthly newsletter,
and semi-annual parent conferences 4. Provides a variety of ways that families can participate in the program
5. Encourages parents to participate in the program
To ensure a well-run, purposeful program responsive to participant needs
1 . Assesses program supplies and materials needed prior to implementing activities
2. Coordinates and helps supervise aides, assistants, and voiunteers working in the classroom
3. Maintains written plans on a weekly basis
4. Assesses children's needs and developmental progress on an ongoing basis
5. Uses the results of assessment to plan activities
To maintain a commitment to professionalism
1. Promotes the center's philosophy and educational objectives
2. Supports the center's code of ethical conduct
3. Engages in ongoing staff development to improve personal a, id professional skills
4. Supports the professional growth and development of colleagues by sharing materials and information and providing helpful feedback and encouragement
5. Attends staff meetings, workshops, and inservice training provided by the center
Blueprint for Action 129
139
Sample Form #6
Peer Observation
Name of colleague observed *WA/ Date 1/- 23- 91
As you observe, please note comments about the following aspects of the classroom environ- ment: interactions between the teacher and children; interactions between the teacher and other co-teachers or volunteers; interactions between the teacher and parents; the physical arrangement of space; the curriculum; and health, nutrition, and safety aspects of the program.
Aspects of this classroom I was impressed with include ...
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focus on an individual's teaching skills, compensa- tion discussions focus on the individual's connection
with and contribution to the center as a whole" (p. 38). Albrecht goes on to say that compensation vari-
ables include regularity of attendance, initiative, progress toward completion of additional education and training, possession of special skills, special contributions to the management of the program, special training or certificates, and assignment of hours, in addition to overall teaching performance.
The performance appraisal conference should focus on the future. If a teacher needs improve- ment, it makes little sense to dwell on the past. Concentrating on the past seldom motivates people to improve their performance. Concentrating on the future, however, gives the teacher a blueprint for achieving change.
Perhaps most important to keep in mind is that your performance appraisal of each employee is a legal document. As such, it should chronicle performance and provide a time frame for needed improvements. This information may become crit- ical should it become necessary to terminate an employee at some future date.
Common Errors in Conducting Performance Appraisal
Research conducted in business and industry abcut potential pitfalls of perforrriance appraisal (Bernardin & Beatty, 1984; Schwind, 1987) is also relevant to the field of early childhood education. The following are several potential shortcomings of
performance appraisal that the director must keep in mind if the process is to be a productive one.
Irrelevant or meaningless criterion. It seems so obvious that the criteria that form the basis for performance appraisal must be relevant and mean- ingful, yet many performance appraisal instrumerts fall short in this area. "Promotes an understanding
of number concepts" may be a valid criterion for a preschool teacher, but is inappropriate as a crite- rion for an infant teacher. The best way to ensure that the performance appraisal criteria are relevant is to make sure they are derived from the job description a job description that the employee has had input in refining.
134 Blueprint for Action
Inappropriate scale anchors. The scale anchors used to assess performance (e.g. poor to outstanding or sometimes to always) must be appropriate for the specific criterion. Most behaviors
are best assessed using a frequency scale (never,
somet'mes, frequently, always). Using a scale such as "poor to outstanding" is not wise because it implies a qualitative judgment that is more difficult to define. In other words, what constitutes "out- standing" when we're measuring a behavior like "promotes an understanding of number concepts"? Using such scale anchors can lead to misinterpreta- tion about expectations for behavior.
Leniency. No one likes to play the role of the bad guy. Particularly in early childhood education, we pride ourselves on being empathetic and nurturing. But directors' desire to "be liked" by their employees can get in the way of effective performance appraisal. While candid, honest feed- back is often difficult to give, successful directors understand it is necessary if staff are to improve.
Undersampling. Perhaps the most frequent complaint voiced by teachers is that their supervi- sors base their evaluations on too little evidence. "She observed me the morning that Michael decided to have a temper tantrum right in the middle
of circle time!" "Wouldn't you know, it was raining, the gym was being painted and was off limits, so there I was trapped in the classroom with these hyper kids all day when my supervisor came to eval-
uate me." No doubt these frustrations surface when
teachers feel their directors base their decisions about performance on an insufficient sampling of behavior. An annual performance appraisal that is based on just a couple of days of observation cannot possibly provide a full and accurate picture of a teacher's performance. As we have mentioned earlier, multiple sources of evidence wthered over an extended period of time are the best protection for ensuring that undersampling doesn't occur.
The halo effect. Another pitfall of performance appraisal is our tendency as evaluators to let one dominant or salient characteristic of a teacher cloud our judgment about behavior in other areas.
147
Bonnie's appraisal of Jessica's performance in the vignette shared earlier was in part due to the halo effect. Jessica's enthusiastic teaching style with the children led Bonnie to overlook her shortcomings in the area of maintaining a healthful environment. Just being conscious of this tendency can help you diminish the possibility of having the halo effect impact your judgment. Precise criteria also help.
The 'recent event' effect. Given the complexity of the director's job and the couttess number of interactions every day, it is quite understandable that we can forget events that transpired a week, a month, or a year ago. Consequently, there is a tendency on our part to remember more recent critical events in staff's performance. This could be a problem if the recent events are not representa- tive of overall performance for the year. If a parent has just complained to you about a teacher, for example, you are more likely to weight that piece of evidence more heavily than earlier assessments of this teacher's performance. Anecdotal notes and frequent recorded observations can serve to provide a more accurate profile of a teacher's overall performance throughout the year. Such records also help us see patterns in behavior rather than focusing on single recent incidents.
Refining Your Present Performance Appraisal System McGreal (1983) reminds us that teachers
change their behavior in the classroom only when
they want to do so. They must perceive themselves as partners in the system. The best way to establish and/or change your methods of performance appraisal is to ask for help from your teachers. If the staff is large, recruit a representative group. Try to get a variety of teachers at different career stages. A good place to begin is to ask what components of the present performance appraisal system they like,
what parts they don't, and why not? A necessary part of this review should be the
critical examination of current job descriptions and performance appraisal forms. The examples pro- vided in the appendix will provide a template for you
and your staff to refine those that you already have in place. By starting with an analysis of each job, the
teacher is intimately involved in structuring the support system to guarantee higher levels of perfor- mance in the future. In addition, the cooperative endeavor will set a precedent for future collaborative improvement projects that you will consider.
Linking Staff Development to a Professional Career Ladder
Staff development and performance appraisal practices cannot exist in a vacuum. There needs to be an organizational framework to support them. A career ladder is such a framework. Establishing a career ladder for personnel in the early childhood setting is a logical step for a program wishing to implement a comprehensive model of professional development. A professional career ladder provides the organizational frame- work to support good staff development and performance appraisal practices. The differenti- ated staffing patterns that comprise a career ladder occur when job roles are clearly defined and delineated. Each level in the ladder has certain expectations and specific responsibilities, indicating a minimum level of education. The experience necessary for the position is also indi- cated. Job title, salary, benefits, and rewards are defined by the level of job within the career ladder.
Career ladders, by definition, place the employee with the lowest amount of education and experience at the base of the vertical scale. Job responsibilities, salary, rewards, and benefits would also be at the lowest level. As the education, experi-
ence, and responsibilities of the employee increase, the worker progresses up the career ladder. Salary,
benefits, and duties increase accordingly. A career ladder clearly establishes the guide-
lines for advancement within the profession and, in this way, supports the personal and professional development of the individual. The value of a career ladder model for a child care center is that each individual, in consultation with the director or supervisor, is allowed to move at his/her own pace, setting personal priorities and goals that are consistent with the overall goals of the center. The model supports equfty and fairness in pay and
1 4 8
Blueprint for Action 135
opportunities for promotion. Further, by tracking the upward career movement of staff, the director can better anticipate steffing needs. This allows the director to better plan staffing patterns and anticipate hiring of needed staff.
While the model proposed in this chapter appears hierarchical on paper, it still embodies what Dresden and Myers (1989) call a "career path." From a career path perspective, an indi- vidual may move not necessarily from a position of lesser authority to one of greater authority, but from
a position that emphasizes one set of skills to a position that offers different kinds of challenges for additional learning and growth. This perspective underscores the number of options available in the field, not just "the next step on the ladder."
Assumptions about Career Ladders
Although career ladders are relatively new in the field of early childhood (Morgan, 1991: NAEYC, 1990b), a substantial amount of research has been conducted regarding career ladders in public school programs at the elementary and secondary level (ATE, 1985; Burden, 1987; Christensen, 1989; Cornett, 1985). From this research, several reasons emerge as a rationale for implementing a professional career ladder in the field of early childhood education.
A career ladder strengthens and unifies the structure and organization of a school and improves the teaching/learning process by providing clear job responsibilities. When workers know what is expected of them, they are
able to do a better job. This, in turn, empowers teachers and helps them be more effective.
A career ladder results in a more effective use of teachers' talents and abilities. A hierarchy of roles and responsibilities rewards teachers who are good and provides incentive for those who need improvement. Identifying the most capable teachers on a staff allows administrators to use these teachers as models for others. For example, a teacher who encourages children to develop gross motor skills by using equipment in a variety of
138 Blueprint for Action
innovative ways should be encouraged (and rewarded) for sharing this ability with others.
P. A career ladder provides incentives for staff at different career stages. Currently, the teaching profession is "front-loaded" that is, most rewards are given to teachers within the first five years of service. This practice discour- ages longevity in the field. Promotion within the ranks of teaching results in a stronger commitment to the profession and a greater retention of competent teachers.
A career ladder encourages a better pattern of initial teacher preparation, improves induction into teaching, and gives focus to on-the-job development. By firmly establishing a system of
master teachers who serve as mentors to younger, less experienced staff, the beginning teacher is automatically provided with a support
system to aid and encourage development.
Mertens and Yarger (1988) view the differenti- ation of staffing as a way to make teaching more professional and a more attractive career. They concur with of'ler educational leaders that "career ladders provide ways staff members can rise to positions of importance with more responsibility, leadership, and status within a setting" (p. 33). In sum, a considerable amount of evidence points to the conclusion that career ladders provide a way to empower teachers and encourage them to stay in the field of early childhood education.
Developing a Career Ladder for Your Center
Because each child care center is unique in its philosophy, goals, and needs, each center must develop its own distinctive version of a career ladder. By reviewing the roles and responsibilities of
staff, budget limitations, and the professional goals of the center, a director can design a career ladder that is responsive to the center's unique character.
A good career ladder provides a hierarchy based on differing roles for personnel within the center. Education and experience needed for each role must be clearly defined as are the corre- sponding salaries and benefits. The five-step
14E1
progression of professional categories presented in Table 7.2 provides a useful model from which to develop a career ladder for your center. The struc- ture of this model is consistent with the professional categories proposed by the National Association for the Education of Young Children (1990b).
Table 7.2 begins with a preprofessional level. This level represents a precredential teacher's aide position within the center. While the NAEYC model notes that this position is essentially one filled by an untrained individual enrolled in a program of study, individual state standards may require this entry- level worker to have higher requisite qualifications.
While a few individuals will be hired with the minimal qualifications required of this position, most
employees will enter the organization with higher qualifications. At the time of initial hiring, an assess- ment of overall qualifications can be made and a decision regarding the appropriate level of entry. For example, a teacher having just completed a baccalaureate degree in early childhood education
with no formal experience would probably qualify to begin work at Level Ill, Step I. Then as the teacher increased her qualifications with added experience and education, an advancement to the
next step or level would be appropriate. While this model is broad and intended to
encompass a wide range of positions in the field, it
can be tailored to meet the specific demands of your
early childhood program. Each step requires the professional to achieve the needed education and experience before applying for the next level within the organization. A variety of roles are available at
each of the five professional levels, leaving options for those career professionals at the higher levels who choose to stay in the classroom yet want to diversify their service within the early childhood field.
Step 1. Identity roles. Earlier in this chapter when discussing the performance appraisal process, we defined the responsibilities for a
typical preschool teacher in a center-based program. Table 7.3 provides a brief description of
the other roles that may exist in a program along with requisite qualifications. The different roles any
particular center has will vary, of course,
depending on the size of the program and the needs of the center. A small program may not necessitate a Social Service Coordinator or a Parent Education Coordinator. Likewise, in a small program, the director may serve as both Education
Coordinator and Program Administrator. One of the strongest benefits resulting from an
established set of professional categories such as those proposed by NAEYC is a consistency in the nomenclature used in child care programs around the country. As Hostetler and Klugman (1982) pointed out almost a decade ago, the lack of consistency in job titles in the field of early child- hood education is one of the principal roadblocks to achieving professional status. Currently, there still exists much confusion from program to program about job titles and requisite qualifica- tions. When fully implemented, a comprehensive career ladder for the field that uses agreed-upon professional categories with corresponding roles and job titles should help eliminate this confusion. In fact, when fully implemented, the very job title that we have used consistently throughout this book, "director," may well become obsolete.
Step 2. Set salaries. Using an index scale, salaries can be included as part of your center's career ladder. With 1.00 as the baseline for the professional employee at Level I, Step I, the index allows the center administrator to set a prorated system that increases salaries as the staff member
moves up the ladder during his/her career. For example, if the salary index of 1.00 is equal to $10,000 per year, the index of 1.25 would be equal
to $12,500. A salary of 1.50 would be equal to $15,000; 2.00 is equal to $20,000 per year. By using an index as a basis for salary increases, fair and equitable advancements can be incorporated into the center's organizational structure. Budget planning becomes easier as the present and projected salary needs become clear.
Because advancement to the next professional
category largely depends on the attainment of addi- tional education and training, a center may also want to include a parallel system of small incre- ments within each step that are based on years of
150 Blueprint for Action 137
Professional Categories
Table 7.2
Level Step Index Education Experience Roles*
V 1 3.75 Ph.D or Ed.D. in early childhood education or related discipline
3 or more years Program administrator Education coordinator
IV 3 3.50 Step 2 plus an additionall5 s.h.
2 or more years Program administrator Education coordinator Master teacher
2 3.25 Step 1 plus 15 s.h. 1 or more years Program administrator Education coordinator Teacher, Master teacher
1 3.00 MA in early childhood education or related discipline**
Program administrator Education coordinator Teacher, Master teacher
HI 3 2.75 Step 2 plus an additional 2 or more years Program administrator 15 s.h. Education coordinator
Teacher, Master teacher
2 2.50 Step 1 plus 15 s.h. 1 or more years Program administrator Education coordinator Teacher, Master teacher
1 2.25 BA in ece or BA in related field with 45 s.h. in cd/ece**
Teacher
II 3 2.00 Step 2 plus an additional 2 or more years Teacher"' 15 s.h. Assistant teacher
2 1.75 Step 1 plus 15 s.h. 1 or more years Teacher*** Assistant teacher
1 1.50 AA in ece or general AA and 30 s.h. in cd/ece
Teacher*** Assistant teacher
2 1.25 CDA plus 30 s.h. in child dev or early childhood educ
1 or more years Teacher*** Assistant teacher
1 1 00 CDA Assistant teacher
Preprofessional .75 High school diploma or GED Teacher aide
The specialty roles of Early Childhood Special Educator. Early Childhood Subject Area Teacher. Parent Education Coordinator, and Social Service Coordinator are not included on this table The roles of Education Coordinator and Program Administrator require three years of successful teaching experience and specialized course work (see Table 7 3).
Including supervised field experience (150 hours at primary level and 150 hours at preschool or infant/toddler level)
Teacher at this level is under the supervision of a Master Teacher.
138 Blueprint for Action
151
Table 7.3
Differentiated Staffing Roles for a Center-Based Program
PREPROFESSIONAL ROLE
Teacher Aide
Description:The Teacher Aide assists in the implementation of program activities under the direct supervision of members of the early childhood teaching team. The Aide performs the daily, routine tasks that establish the basic foundation for a healthy and safe environment. The Aide works under the direct supervision of a Teacher or Master Teacher.
Minimum Qualifications: The Teacher Aide position is a precredential position that requires no formal training in early childhood education or child development. The Teacher Aide must be 18 years of age and enrolled in a course of study leading to acquisition of requisite knowledge and
abilities for professional entry into the early childhood career ladder.
PROFESSIONAL ROLES
Assistant Teacher
Description: The Assistant Teacher is responsible for implementing program activities as part of a teaching team, providing help to the Teacher in all areas of the classtoom program. This includes, but is not limited to, implementing curriculum, supervising children, communicating with parents, and providing a healthy and safe environment for children. The Assistant Teacher works under the direct supervision of a Teacher or Master Teacher.
Minimum Qualifications: Successful completion of a program conforming to the Model CDA Curriculum of the Council for Early Childhood Professional Recognition (CECPR, 1990) or successful completion of a systematic, comprehensive training program that prepares an indi- vidual to successfully acquire the CDA Credential through direct assessment.
Teacher
Description:The Teacher is responsible for the care and education of a group of children as part
of a teaching team and functions as a team leader or co-leader. The Teacher plans and imple- ments the curriculum and with active participation of other members of the teaching team, works
with parents, and assesses the needs of individual children.
Minimum Qualifications: Successful completion of an associate degree from a program confor, ning to NAEYC's Guidelines for Early Childhood Programs in Associate Degree Granting Institutions (1985b) or successful completion of an associate degree in a related fieid plus 30 semester hours of professional studies in child development/early childhood education including 300 hours of supervised teaching experience in an early childhood program.
Blueprint for Action 139
152
PROFESSIONAL ROLES (cont'd)
Master Teacher
Description:The Master Teacher provides a model classroom environment, articulates good early childhood practices, mentors and helps supervise other Aides, Assistant Teachers, and Teachers, develops and initiates new curriculum, and provides leadership to the teaching staff.
Minimum Qualifications:
Successful corripletion of a baccalaureate degree from a program conforming to NAEYC's Early Childhood Teacher Education Guidelines: Basic and Advanced (1990a) or successful completion of a baccalaureate degree in a related field with 45 semester hours in child development and early childhood education including a minimum of 150 hours of super- vised teaching experience at the primary grades and a minimum of 150 hours with either infants and toddlers or 3- to 5-year olds.
15 semester hours of post baccalaureate course work in any of the following areas: group dynamics; child, family, and community; adult development theory; curriculum develop- ment; child assessment; supervision and staff development.
One year of successful teaching experience.
SPECIALTY ROLES
Early Childhood Special Educator
Description:The Special Educator is responsible for the care and education of a group of chil- dren which may include children with special needs or working with other Teachers to support the mainstreaming of children with special needs into their classrooms.
Minimum Qualifications: Successful completion of a baccalaureate degree in early childhood education or special education which includes a minimum of 30 semester hours of specialized course work in early childhood special education.
Early Childhood Subject Area Teacher
Description: Responsible for planning and implementing a curriculum in a specialty area such as art, music, physical education, or foreign language. May work directly with children or as part of a teaching team.
Minimum Qualifications: Successful completion of a baccalaureate degree in child development/ early childhood education with a subject area specialization or a comparable degree in a specialty field with at least 30 semester hours of course work in child development/early child- hood education.
140 Blueprint for Action
153
SPECIALTY ROLES (cont'd)
Parent Education Coordinator
Description: The Parent Education Coordinator is responsible for the planning and implementa-
tion of a parent involvement/parent education program.
Minimum Qualifications:
. Successful completion of a baccalaureate degree from a program conforming to NAEYC's Early Childhood Teacher Education Guidelines: Basic and Advanced (1990a) or successful
completion of a baccalaureate degree in a related field with 45 semester hours in child devel-
opment and early childhood education and 300 hours supervised field work with families.
. 15 semester hours of post baccalaureate course work in any of the following areas: family systems theory; family support; or parent education.
. One year of successful experience working with families.
Social Service Coordinator
Description:The Social Service Coordinator is responsible for the coordination of child and family
services for a program or agency offering early childhood services, including nutrition, health,
counseling, and special needs.
Minimum Qualifications:
. Successful completion of a baccalaureate degree from a program conforming to NAEYC's Early Childhood Teacher Education Guidelines: Basic and Advanced (1990a) or completion of
a baccalaureate degree in a related field with 45 semester hours in child development or early
childhood education and 300 hours supervised social service field work.
. 15 semester hours of post baccalaureate course work in any of the following areas: family systems theory; family support; social work; or human services.
. One year of successful experience working in the provision of social services.
Blueprint for Action 141
154
SPECIALTY ROLES (cont'd)
Education Coordinator
Description: Responsible for implementing The educational goals and objectives of the center. The Education Coordinator supervises, traini, and evaluates staff; designs and monitors curriculum planning; and oversees the implementation of the curriculum by the teaching teams.
Minimum Qualifications:
Successful completion of a baccalaureate degree from a program conforming to NAEYC's Early Childhood Teacher Education Guidelines: Basic and Advanced (1990a) or successful completion of a baccalaureate degree in a related field with 45 semester hours in child development or early childhood education including a minimum of 150 hours of supervised teaching experience at the primary grades and a minimum of 150 hours with either infants and toddlers or 3- to 5-year olds.
15 semester hours of post baccalaureate course work in any of the following areas: group dynamics; child, family, and community; curriculum development; curriculum evaluation; supervision and staff development; or program evaluation.
Three years of successful teaching experience.
Program Administrator
Description: The Program Administrator monitors the administrative systems of the center including: the fiscal management of the program; recruiting and hiring personnel; facility management; board relations; and marketing and public relations. The Program Administrator also serves as a liaison with professional associations and regulatory agencies.
Minimum Qualifications:
Successful completion of a baccalaureate degree from a program conforming to NAEYC's Early Childhood Teacher Education Guidelines: Basic and Advanced (1990a) or successful completion of a baccalaureate degree in a related field with 45 semester hours in child development or early childhood education including a minimum of 150 hours of supervised teaching experience at the primary grades and a minimum of 150 hours with either infants and toddlers or 3- to 5-year olds.
15 semester hours of post baccalaureate course work in any of the following areas: human resource management; legal issues, licensing, and regulations; program evaluation; finan- cial management; proposal writing; public policy and child advocacy; or organization and administration of early childhood programs.
Three years of successful teaching experience.
142 Blueprint for Action
15.5
working experience at the center. It is important that
such a system not undermine the intent of the career ladder to encourage individuals to increase their level of education and training.
Unfortunately, implementing a career ladder doesn't automatically solve the perennial issue facing directors of how to increase the total pool of money allocated for salaries; it only allows one, as
Jensen (1979) noted, to "distribute dissatisfaction more equitably." The issue of increasing funding is beyond the scope of this book, but there are a number of excellent resources that will help you find creative ways to raise salaries (Boyer, Gerst, &
Eastwood, 1990; CCEP, 1990; Whitebook, Pemberton, Lombardi, & Galinsky, 1990).
Step 3. Establish a menu of benefits. Providing ample employee benefits is problematic for most small businesses in this country (Perreault, 1990). Centers that are part of a large agency network or those sponsored by a parent corporation are fortu- nate in that they may already have in place a comprehensive benefits plan for their employees. But even small centers can work to increase the amount and variety of benefits offered to staff. Some benefits like paid preparation time or free lunches can be provided to all employees. Other benefits, however, can be tied to longevity at the center and the individual's position on the center's career ladder. One way to accomplish this is to establish an indexed menu of benefits.
An index of benefits operates in much the same
way as a salary index. Two categories of benefits, professional and personal, can be offered to employees. Professional benefits could include such
things as membership in professional organizations,
paid days to visit other programs, reimbursement for college classes, subscriptions to professional jour- nals, and paid conference registrations. Personal benefits could include such things as health insur- ance, dental insurance, retirement/pension, child care tuition, paid vacation days, and sick days. Table 7.4 provides a list of the possible personal and professional benefits and an example of how the distribution of benefits would be awarded according
to the employee's index level.
How such a benefit system is actually put into practice would out of necessity vary from center to center. For example, it might be decided that an employee at the 1.00 index level could choose one benefit from each of the personal and professional categories. At the 1.25 index level, another benefit choice could be added; and still another at 1.50. Under such a system, each employee would have the opportunity to choose from the menu of profes- sional and personal benefits. From year to year, choices may change as the needs of the employee change. For example, an employee with a young child may be more interested in health insurance and partial payment of child care tuition. An older employee may choose dental insurance and reimbursement for conference fees. The attractiveness of such a plan is that it is not only equitable, but it also accommodates the changing needs of the individuals working at the center.
While the record keeping involved may be viewed as cumbersome, offering a menu of benefits is clearly advantageous to the employer. Increasing
the type and variety of benefits offered to employees can have a direct impact on their level of commitment to the center. By assessing the kinds of benefits employees select from year to year, the center administrator can plan a budget for benefits that meets the changing needs of the staff. A center
with a staff of young teachers who are using child care tuition as a major benefit each year would be able to plan for the lost revenue on child care slots within the center. A center with a staff of older employees who are interested in extended vaca- tions or release time to visit other facilities would be
able to budget for the hiring of substitutes. Accommodating staffs' changing needs in this fashion can't help but increase employee satisfac- tion and result in less staff turnover.
Step 4. Determine how individuals advance within
the center. The final step in developing a career ladder for your center is to decide on the configu- ration and progression of steps for advancement. Table 7.5 provides an example of a career ladder configuration for a center. (This ladder does not include the preprofessional role of Teacher Aide or
15 i
Blueprint for Action 143
Table 7.4
Personal and Professional Benefits
Each of these items constitutes one UNIT of benefit.
Personal Professional
25% health insurance
25% dental insurance
25% life insurance
25% retirement/pension plan
25% child care tuition
5 vacation/personal days
5 sick days
membership to a professional association
1 day released time to visit another center
1/4 tuition reimbursement for a college class
subscription to a professional journal
conference/workshop registration
Benefit Index
An employee may choose according to his/her individual needs using the following guidelines.
Index Level
0.75 1 personal unit 1.00 1 personal unit and 1 professional unit 1.25 1 personal unit and 2 professional units 1.50 2 personal units and 2 professional units 1.75 2 personal units and 3 professional units 2.00 3 personal units and 3 professional units 2.25 3 personal units and 4 professional units 2.50 4 personal units and 4 professional units 2.75 4 personal units and 5 professional units 3.00 5 personal units and 5 professional units 3.25 5 personal units and 6 professional units 3.50 6 personal units and 6 professional units 3.75 6 personal units and 7 professional units
For example, an employee at the 2.50 index level may choose to use 4 personal units for health insurance (50% paid) plus 10 sick days and 4 professional units for 2 paid days to observe another school plus 1/2 tuition reimbursement for a college class.
144 Blueprint for Action
5 7
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several of the specialty roles.) By plotting where each teacher is on the career ladder, you can plan staffing configurations and budget salaries and benefits. For example, Table 7.6 shows the staffing pattern of a full-day program with 140 preschool children divided into 7 classrooms of 20 children each. In this center, the Education Coordinator also assumes the role of Parent Education Coordinator. In a smaller center, individuals may have additional overlapping roles. For example, the Education Coordinator and the Program Administrator could be the same person.
The professional categories listed earlier in Table 7.2 designate a natural progression to be followed as an employee advances Within the center. By obtaining education and/or job experi- ence, the employee becomes eligible to assume new roles and responsibilities. Because salaries and benefits are indexed according to each of the steps within the career levels, the incentive to advance is clearly seen by the employee and can be used in charting new staff development goals.
At the time when progress toward achieving staff development goals is assessed, short-term and long-term professional opportunities for the staff member should be discussed. Helping an employee reach new professional goals is the responsibility of both the employer and the employee. Together a plan can be implemented to aid the professional advancement of each staff member. In this way, a center shows a commit- ment to staff and a willingness to retain and improve the quality of work life for its employees.
A Final Word
In this chapter we have seen how perfor- mance appraisal procedures and a career ladder for professional growth can serve as the organiza- tional framework to support staff development. These two aspects of center functioning will play an integral role in ensuring that goals for individual change become a reality.
The performance appraisal processes detailed in this chapter rest on the premise that all employees,
regardless of how outstanding their current teaching
performance, can stretch and grow. The constructive
feedback gleaned from the performance appraisal conference process provides the rationale for different areas that need to be addressed in a teacher's staff development action plan. The entire nature of the experience is thus changed from an adversarial one to a helpful and supportive one. The
performance appraisal process thus serves a dual purpose; it acknowledges and rewards teachers' strengths while helping to expand their field of vision of what they could become.
If individualized staff development and perfor- mance appraisal processes are tied into a career ladder for professional advancement, then true lasting individual change has a chance to take hold. By clearly setting the standards and rewards for advancement, a career ladder helps individuals make decisions based on personal needs and goals. In essence, staff are helped to take control over their own career development. When imple- mented, these organizational structures and processes will serve as the supporting framework to energize employees to higher levels of perfor- mance and fulfillment.
G
Blueprint for Action 148
Table 7.6
Sample Staffing Pattern for Center with 140 Students
TEACHING STAFF
claw= Staff Career Ladder Level
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
SPECIALTY ROLES
Teacher Level Ill, Step 2 Assn't Teacher Level II, Step 3 Teacher Aide
Master Teacher Level IV, Step 2 Assn't Teacher Level I, Step 1 Teacher Aide
Teacher Level III, Step 1
Assn't Teacher Level II, Step 2 Assn't Teacher Level I, Step 1
Master Teacher Level III, Step 3 Teacher Level II, Step 2
Teacher Aide
Teacher Level III, Step 2 Assn't Teacher Level I, Step 2 Assn't Teacher Level I, Step 1
Teacher Level IV, Step 1
Assn't Teacher Level I, Step 1 Assn't Teacher Level I, Step 1
Master Teacher Level IV, Step 1
Teacher Level I, Step 2 Assn't Teacher Level II, Step 1
Education Coordinator/Parent Education Coordinator Program Administrator Music Teacher (1/2 time) Early Childhood Special Educator (1/2 time)
SUPPORT STAFF
Secretary/receptionist Cook
Level IV, Step 2
Level IV, Step 1
Level III, Step 1
Level III, Step 3
Blueprint for Action 147
161
Chapter E3
Meshing Organizational and Individual Needs
As we have seen in preceding chapters, the development of individuals within a center and the development of the center itself are *nterrelated. Understan& `'-ie center as an
integrated whole composed of many intercon- nected parts helps a director see the "big picture" of how the center's problems relate to individual problems experienced by staff. The director, as change agent, creates a collaborative work environ- ment based on individualized staff development. This kind of staff development is ongoing, and focuses on enabling teachers to understand their own professional growth needs. The result is
change, both individual and organizational. Figure 8.1 visually captures this dynamic relationship.
Meaningful growth and change, then, is accom-
plished through an understanding that the people who work at a center must be empowered and supported in their efforts to grow professionally. The
role of the director is to act as a catalyst in identifying
problem areas and helping teachers analyze the situation to find workable solutions. Strategies for achieving change flow out of the shared responsi- bility experienced by the director and staff.
How does this meshing of organizational and individual needs happen? This chapter will explore
Figure t3.1
Linking Individual Change to Center Change
individual
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center
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Blueprint for Action 149
162
the issue from two directions. First it will look at how
directors can reduce resistance to change; then it will explore how they can establish a collaborative environment. To set the stage for this discussion, let us return to our case study, the Children's Corner, as an example of the change process in action.
Case Study: The Children's Corner
Martha was pleased. Her decision to keep anec- dotal notes and develop an individual profile on each teacher helped her to get to know each of them better and understand why they were resisting change. She felt her interest in finding out about her teachers' personal lives, their previous teaching experience, career patterns, and special interests was beginning to break down the norms of isolation and competition that had permeated her center. It was also beginning to dissipate the dominant coali- tions that had existed previously. Martha was particularly pleased with her decision to have Shelly observe in Georgia's classroom. This really bolstered Georgia's confidence and seemed to reduce some of her resistance to new ideas.
At her goal setting conference with each teacher in the fall, Martha asked the teachers to assess their own strengths and weaknesses. Together they talked about teaching goals that emphasized the teacher's strengths and ways to improve weaknesses. Martha felt that there were still problems to solve and she understood that change would not come swiftly. But she also knew she couldn't rush the process. She was hopeful that if she could win her teachers' trust on a one-to-one basis, she could then get them to begin to work more cooperatively as a group.
Overcoming Resistance to Change
Just as child care centers are dynamic systems which move toward-organizational change
in complex ways, so too do individual relationships within a center reflect complexity. The way individ- uals get along together, trust one another, feel loyalty toward the center, respond to authority, and take initiative are measures of how organizational processes support their personal and professional needs. As we have seen, understanding the indi- vidual within the child care setting is an essential ingredient affecting organizational change. This is particularly true when individuals resist change.
150 Blueprint tor Action
Resistance to change occurs for a variety of reasons, but most often resistant behaviors are rooted in fears of loss of autonomy and self-esteem or fear that one might fail in the midst of the change process. Dealing with resistance involves not only an understanding of the change process, but also an awareness of what the change represents to individuals on a personal level. Administrators who work objectively to depersorkdize resistance try to build rapport with teachers and support staff with an empathic point of view (Saxl, 1989).
The Psychological Element
It is not uncommon to think of change in schools as an impersonal event rather than a highly personal process. However, it is people who change. Each individual in a center is different and responds to change in unique ways. How a director is attuned to the psychological states of teachers involved in the change process deter- mines one of the conditions for successful change. Directors set the stage for change when they cue into teachers' levels of concern, the problems they perceive as inherent in the change process, and the resistances teachers exhibit.
Hopkins (1990) studied school climate and the psychological state of individual teachers. He assessed how teachers with different psychological
states who worked in different school climates utilized educational ideas. Hopkins describes teachers' psychological states in terms of teachers' level of confidence, their overall interest in growth, the intensity of their interest in seeking out new expe-
riences, and their sense of collegiality and belonging
to the group. He found that those teachers who performed at a higher level of self-fulfillment and who were situated in schools which valued collabo-
ration and collegiality were more likely to make use of new educational ideas. Hopkins concluded that wl len a school is committed to a more democratic work climate in which collegiality, collaboration, and communication are prevalent forms of school management, individual teachers adapt more readily
to school changes. What is perhaps most relevant from Hopkins'
research to our present discussion of change in
183
child care centers is his analysis of how teachers change in their psychological states. Hopkins analyzed four categories of teachers with respect to their psychological states. Teachers at the lowest self-actualizing level expressed a lack of self-confi- dence. Their main concern was focused on protecting themselves from losing control of their class. Hopkins found that these teachers were far less able to implement new ideas in practice than more confident teachers who had a strong self- concept and whose energy was focused on growth. Hopkins stresses that for teachers demonstrating a
low-level of self-actualization, it is important to intro- duce change slowly and in small doses.
The connection between center climate and the teacher's psychological state cannot be overemphasized. The role of the director is crucial in establishing a positive, open atmosphere which actively supports teachers growth. Dogmatic directors, as well as those who give only passive support, inhibit teachers from embracing change and achieving their goals. Unquestionably, teachers' degree of receptiveness to change is significantly affected by their perception of their administrator's support. It follows, then, that expanding opportunitie.; for staff to formally discuss, help plan, and implement new curriculum and educational ideas provides the climate of administrative support for change to take hold.
Risk of Failure
One of the most common reasons that center staff find change difficult is that they view a specific change as representing a personal risk of failure. For many individuals, center change becomes a leap into the unknown. New begin- nings, no matter how simple, are experienced by teachers as both fearful and hopeful (Wallenberg, 1980). It is this unknown, fearful aspect of change, attached to feelings of failure, which can become overwhelming for the teacher. "I just can't do this." "I'm too old to learn something new." "I have always done it this way. Why should I do it a different way?" These phrases indicate that teachers are opposed to changes because change raises the specter of failure in a highly
personal way. Teachers themselves, however, may not ne.cessarily be aware of why they feel intimi- dated, angry, or opposed to specific changes.
Carol, a talented veteran teacher, was given a new age group of children to teach. She had difficulty adjusting since she had to adapt most of her tried and true activities for younger children. Patricia, her supervisor, visited Carol's class for the purpose of evaluating the curriculum. She expected to see the compe- tent, experienced teacher she knew. Instead, she saw a chaotic room and a teacher suffering from low self-esteem. Patricia resolved to visit more often. Carol saw these visits as intrusive and not supportive. She began to dread her supervisor's observations and just couldn't seem to do anything right when Patricia was there. She became more angry, uncooperative, and resistant. Patricia felt rejected by Carol and annoyed at what appeared to be Carol's negative reaction to her new class. She began to think that Carol wasn't such a good teacher after all.
What can be done to remedy this situation? The supervisor is caught up in her own subjective point of view and thus is unable to help Carol view her situation objectively. The new class represents personal failure for Carol. Even expe- rienced teachers like Carol begin to doubt themselves when faced with new situations in which they are not immediately successful. New situa- tions can psychologically remove teachers from areas in which they feel very successful to areas of unfa- miliarity and in which they feel unsuccessful, even out of control. Consequently, oppositional behavior such as passive and active withdrawal of support for proposed changes, limiting resources of time and energy, blocking, stalling, and procrastinating may be exhibited. These behaviors serve the func- tion of preventing teachers from viewing themselves as failures (Saxl, 1989). Let's return now to our vignette about Carol and her supervisor
"Habits can't be thrown
out the upstairs window.
They have to be coaxed
down the stairs one
step at a time."
Mark Twain
164 Blueprint for Action 151
to see how their situation might be handled in proactive, positive way.
Patricia was woiried about the difficult rela- tionship she had with Carol and she was determined to turn this potentially explosive situation around and make it a positive growth experience. She knew Carol was a teacher with extensive background and a great deal of experience. Ordinarily she demonstrated independence and autonomy.. Because of Carol's need to adjust to a new age group of children, Patricia decided, for the time being, that Carol needed additional superviscry support. She initiated another conversation with Carol in which she acknowledged how difficult it must be for Carol to make.the transi- tion to a new age group. Patricia asked Carol what strategies might be implemented to assist her in building her confidence level. Carol stated that she had felt so physically exhausted lately that she had not had time to track down some of the books and curriculum aids she wanted to used with the children. Patricia felt she could offer direct help in this area. She then asked Carol if she would like to
exchange visits to observe another teacher at the center. When Carol enthusiastically agreed, Patricia said she thought she could arrange for subs to take both classes once in a while so the two teachers could share infor- mation and plan together
a loss of what was formerly done becomes person- ally intimidating. "I have never done group time like that!" "Your idea for a math curriculum will never work here." "We've tried a substitute system like tnat before, and it didn't work at all."
Change can be perceived as a loyalty conflict where individuals feel that by embracing new approaches, they must reject the old. Unlearning old behaviors is a difficult process, one which involves the feelings and personal concerns of individuals. It is a wise director who understands the link between center change and personal change and views resistance as a means for the individual .o preserve autonomy and a feeling that one's work 3 worthwhile and successful. Resistance is another way for teachers to say, "Your changes threaten my sense of security." Resistance, then, is a form of protection for teachers who worry that not only their work but their ideas, philosophy, and personal beliefs, are threatened by the proposed changes.
Change as Loss
Change often represents a personal loss for individuals. It may be as simple as a change in secretarial support or a change in the way a class-
room is staffed. These seemingly uneventful changes may be experienced as a temporary loss of security until familiarity in the new situation is established. Change requires adjustment adjust-
ment in new relationships or adjustment in unlearning or modifying old behaviors. When change is introduced, individuals often feel that their former work was not worthwhile in the eyes of administrators or that it was not appreciated. The
152 Blueprint for Action
Not Everyone Sees Things the Same Way
We've shared several vignettes in this book that provide colorful examples of how individuals view the same situation in vastly different ways. Differing perceptions of reality occur because indi- viduals come to any situation with varied experiences, diverse values and beliefs, and different expectations. Individuals holding different positions in the center are also privy to different types of information. This in itself can contribute to different perceptions of events. Because not everyone sees things the same way, the likelihood for resistance to change is increased.
McGreal (1983) asserts that a major hindrance to change in teacher performance is related to the incongruence between organizational expectations and what teachers are in fact required to do. For example, supervisors may expect teachers to improve classroom performance by conducting complicated screening procedures for children and keeping detailed records. Teachers may also be expected to perform these record-keeping proce- dures during class time when children are present, thus effectively hindering change in classroom
performance. Resistance to change may simply be the teachers' only means of protesting unrealistic center expectations.
Establishing a Collaborative Environment
Collaboration is the vehicle for linking individual
change to organizational change. Saxl (1989) defines collaboration as creating relationships in which influence is mutually shared. Establishing a collaborative work environment involves structuring specific workplace conditions that support coopera- tive relationships. The process is achieved by developing goal consensus and supporting oppor- tunities for shared decision making. These elements enable teachers to reduce resistance and see the change process as their own.
Working Toward a Common Vision
Achieving Goal Consensus
Achieving lasting 0: ganizational change occurs only when individuals in a center feel a sense of commitment and connection to the center. In other words, they share a common vision
of what the center should be. But before a staff can achieve a common vision, they need to achieve some degree of consensus as to just how a center's philosophy is put into practice through its goals and educational objectives. Having a clear, agreed-upon set of purposes directly affects the center's ability to carry out its mission. If a center's goals are ambiguous, then teachers will feel uncertain about their own teaching practices (Arbuckle & Murray, 1989; Smith & Scott, 1990).
Educational goals and objectives really center on priorities those things we want children to do, to be, or to have as a result of their early childhood experience. But because staff have different values, their educational priorities may be different.
Goal consensus, in many ways, reflects both a consensus of value orientations and the ability of individuals to compromise and toler:i4e differences of opinion. When teachers share goals in work settings, it is an indication that a harmony of purpose exists among the individuals in the center.
A good place to begin in establishing goal
consensus among staff is with the center's stated philosophy. This statement can serve as a starting point to help discern differences in interpretation. This is more difficult than it may appear on the surface. Most philosophical statements are written in
vague, abstract language. They are filled with cliches like "child-centered," "developmentally appropriate, and "individualized instruction." These are important concepts, but if true goal consensus is
to be achieved, staff need to be able to articulate in behavioral terms just what they mean.
Involving Staff in Decision Making
Directors who are intent on building a collabo- rative work environment need to see shared decision making as a priority by setting aside time for teachers to meet concerning different aspects of tl le program. It is the interaction itself, more than the
invitation, which leads to collaboration. Involvement in decision making can take a variety of forms. Joint
planning, problem solving, and evaluating are but a few of the ways that staff can work together.
Rosenholtz (1989) notes some of the ways teachers benefit from shared decision making. She states that when teachers have the opportunity to debate issues, they clarify and broaden their own point of view when confronted with their colleagues' varied perspectives. When staff can reason through
problems together, it reinforces the notion that a mutual exchange of ideas is the best way to improve everyone's teaching practice. The most valuable benefit derived from shared decision making, however, is that teachers find out that their colleagues have competencies and special skills which complement their own. The process can help
teachers identify with and take pleasure in the work of their colleagues. This cannot help but strengthen
their own connection to others in the center.
Setting Conditions for Collaboration
Collaborative work environments don't just happen. Learning to work cooperatively takes skill
skill that may not be in a teacher's repertoire of behaviors. Some teachers may be products of previous work environments that fostered competi-
tion rather than cooperation, where alienation and
166
Blueprint for Action 153
Case Study: The Children's Corner Martha planned several in-depth staff meetings for
the sole purpose of "dissecting our philosophy_to arrive at a shared understanding of why we do what we do with children in our classrooms." She felt the first meeting was an unmitigated disaster. Every teacher seemed to be on the defensive. This was particularly true of some of the old-timers who seemed to assume this was a forum for espousing their point of view. Martha felt no one was really listening to one another. At the second meeting, however, things improved. Martha asked Bea to facili- tate the discussion. All of a sudden, what had been a defensive, self-righteous posture on her behalf now became one of support and encouragement. Martha was heartened. She really felt some progress was being made in the group dynamics of the teachers.
.. At the third meeting, the teachers really began to open up. The discussion now focused on how they as individual teachers translated the center's philosophy into specific curricular practices. As the discussion unfolded, some concerns began to surface. Margaret, one of the younger teachers, admitted that she felt intimidated by the parents most of whom, she felt, had unrealistic expectations for their children. "They equate learning with worksheetsl I just don't know how to respond when they expect that I should be giving their four-year-olds direct instruction in reading," she confessed. Margaret's comment opened a floodgate of similar concerns. Several other teachers stated that they felt "developmentally appro- priate" was a fuzzy term and weren't really sure what it meant precisely.
Martha suggested that since the staff had identified a problem, maybe it was time to collect some data to find out some possible solutions. Teachers agreed to
isolation, the "everyone for himself," attitude prevailed. Without experience in collaborative decision making, teachers may not know how to adjust their own point of view in order to support group planning. Learning to work cooperatively also takes time. It is not uncommon for teachers first introduced to cooperative group experiences to become frustrated with the slowness of the process. It takes time to nurture reciprocity, trust, and supportive relationships. This means that directors must structure multiple opportunities for staff to make decisions together. to solve staff problems together, and to work together in the
154 Blueprint for Action
fill out questionnaires on their values and beliefs as well as their perceptions about the center's degree of goal consensus. They also suggested that Martha do a formal observation of teaching practices in each classroom to see how the staff_ differed in their approaches. Without exception, the teachers expressed an interest in learning more about develop- mentally appropriate teaching practices.
In a subsequent meeting when some of the data were shared, Martha couldn't believe the growth in self analysis that was taking place. Teachers began to connect general philosophical terms such as "child- initiated" and "individualized instruction" to specific teaching practices. They analyzed their behavior in how they scheduled children's time, how they arranged their classroom space and materials, and how they interacted with children.
Previously, the teachers had stated that their problem was "parents who had unrealistic expecta- tions for their kids." Now the problem was being recast. Instead of assigning blame to the parents, the teachers were beginning to see that the problem was their own inability to articulate and defend "develop- mentally appropriate" practices. Collectively they decided that the best place to start figuring out appro- priate teaching' practices might be to involve themselves in NAEYC's center accreditation process. Martha agreed that the self-study phase of accredita- tion was an excellent place to start. She was confident that as the teachers increased their own awareness of developmentally appropriate practices, their level of confidence would also increase. This in turn would change the adversarial relationship they were experi- encing with parents into one where they could perceive themselves as helping to educate parents as partners in the education of their children.
mutual exchange of instructional ideas and mate- rials that will help improve program practices.
Rosenholtz (1989) explains why some teachers do not readily collaborate with their colleagues. Most individuals avoid situations which threaten to give away or highlight their instructional uncertainty. She says, "Indeed, under conditions of high uncertainty, colleagues are most apt to inter- pret requests for help as clear evidence of performance inadequacy" (p. 43). Teachers may or
may not be willing to seek help from one another or from the director if the result is embarrassing or threatening to the individual. This is probably why
in the previous vignette. Carol resisted the initial attempts of her supervisor to help her.
One way to help teachers work collaboratively is to acquaint them with current research on coop- erative learning (Johnson & Johnson, 1987; Johnson, Johnson, & Holubec, 1986; Slavin, 1990). Staff development programs on cooperative learning encourage staff to learn and model coop- erative behaviors as they develop strategies to use with their children. As they learn about different cooperative learning strategies for children, a conscious parallel is drawn between their actions and children's behavior. Collaboration emphasizes highlighting staff's commun goals and arranging tasks so that goals can only be achieved by pooling the collective talent of individuals.
Another way that cooperation and collabora- tion can be enhanced is to acquaint teachers with the research on learning styles. In Chapter V, we provided some background information on learning styles and temperaments. Sharing this information with staff and allowing them opportuni- ties to assess their own learning styles and temperaments can increase their appreciation for differences among people. Without this broader perspective of human behavior, we are apt to think of ourselves as the "norm" and anyone not like us as the aberration. Appreciating individual differ- ences is the first step to building the sense of cohesion that binds people together in a coopera- tive spirit. It was for this reason that Martha included a staff inservice on the topic of learning styles as one of her objectives on the action plan that you read at the end of Chapter IV.
Team teaching and mentoring are also powerful
tools for increasing helping behaviors among teachers. Individuals who team teach, equally sharing classroom responsibilities, have built-in, ongoing opportunities to talk about what they do in the classroom. In contrast to teachers in isolated settings, team teachers communicate more, are more experienced in decision making, and work more closely with their supervisors regarding deci- sions. Rosenholtz (1989) also believes that team teaching results in a substantial increase in the teachers' ability to give and take advice.
Mentoring has also been shown to be particu- larly effective in reducing teacher isolation and increasing staff cohesiveness (Loucks-Horsley, 1987). The supportive role that the mentor plays in guiding the professional development of a less- experienced teacher has the ancillary effect of reducing some of the supervisory responsibility of directors. Driscoll, Peterson, and Kauchak (1985) state, "What separates new teachers from experi- enced professionals is not only years of experience, but also the knowledge and skills that have developed over those years. Mentoring systems provide a process for passing on this knowledge to beginning teachers in a systematic rather than haphazard way" (p. 108).
In their research, Driscoll and her colleagues found that mentoring programs not only increase teachers' productivity, but also their commitment to the profession, thus preventing teacher attrition. This is important because the foundation for colle- gial, cooperative relationships rests in large part on the sense of staff stability at a center. Centers that experience high turnover will have more diffi- culty in both initiating and sustaining collaboration.
What Have We Learned From the Children's Corner?
Let's review the case study we've shared in this book and see what lessons we can learn from Martha's experience. We've followed her progress over her first year as director of the Children's Corner. Clearly, the most important lesson Martha learned was that change takes time. In September, Martha was confronted with the challenge of changing the discrepancy between the stated philosophy of the center's structure and the every day teaching practices that were in place. She was also confronted with some staff members that were uncooperative and sometimes hostile. But Martha was patient and determined.
Martha began with a top-down model of change in order to modify the center norms of isolation and resistance. She hoped her efforts would create a more collaborative climate for teachers. Her goal was to build a unified team out
168 Blueprint for Action 155
C. kW Tho MOW' Comr Martha did not want to lose the momentum
generated at the last few staff meetings. She feared that if summer vacation came without a well- thought-out plan of action committed to paper, the enthusiasm and cooperation she had seen during the previous month might be lost. She sent a memo to the staff suggesting a half-day retreat on a Saturday in mid-May. Initially, Bea and Mary indi- cated that they had conflicting plans, but when Georgia and the rest of the staff enthusiastically supported the idea, even Bea and Mary rearranged their schedules to be free.
At the retreat. Martha and the teachers spent some time deciding how much it would cost and how to arrange the time that would be needed to conduct the accreditation self study. They looked at the possibility of purchasing new equipment and how to allocate dollarsin the following year's budget for this purpose. They also decided to begin a peer mentoring program based on Shelly's and Pat's experience. Finally, several younger staff members made a case for getting substitute teachers so that staff could visit other centers. They felt these visits would give a basis of comparison with their own program. They agreed that the whole accreditation process would take about eighteen months. The teachers met on two more occasions to develop a center action plan so that work could be divided equitably. Indivickial goal-setting conferences were planned. The indMdual and organizational change process was underway.
of her staff. She began by making some changes in her own administrative behavior that would model the cooperative, trusting behavior she hoped to nurture in her staff.
As the year progressed, Martha and her staff implemented individuJ action plans that furthered the goal of achieving a collaborative environment for the center as a whole. Teachers began sharing resources, observing each other's rooms, and working together to try out new ideas. Staff meet- ings evolved from a top-down directed approach to one where teachers took a more active role in deter-
mining the agenda and facilitating the discussion. It was not until spring that teachers internalized
a collective sense of responsibility for center change
and improvement. When it happened, though, the
156 Blueprint for Action
effect was powerful. Martha was amazed at how the
teachers zeroed in on a very fundamental problem in
the center the lack of a shared vision of what "developmentally appropriate" practice really meant in action. Martha facilitated the problem clarification discussion, helped the teachers articulate a goal, and assisted them in deciding where they wanted to
put their energies the following year. Martha felt their
action plan was a bit too ambitious, but she also knew good action pians are not engraved in stone. This one could be modified as activities were initi- ated the following September. In the meantime, Martha was busy meeting with individual teachers to
develop their goals blueprints and staff development action plans for the following year. At their orientation
meeting in late August, she would then be prepared to show them how their individual goals meshed with
the center's aoals (Sample Form #8). We've included
copies of Martha's working papers to show you how she did this.
All in all, Martha's experience was a positive one. She had grown professionally in learning how to practice the collaborative skills she embraced philosophically. She looked forward to her second year on the job with a sense of pride and anticipa- tion. She knew there was still a lot to do, but she felt ready and eager to handle the challenges ahead.
A Final Word
In collaborative child care work environments, organizational change is a shared goal between director and teachers. Teachers view one another as
mutual facilitators in achieving individual professional
goals and those goals of the center. Collaboration offers many benefits to a center-based program. Positive interpersonal relationships increase teachers'
self esteem and encourage them to support the work
of colleagues. Acceptance and instructional sharing,
in turn, lead to a shared vision, greater productivity, and cohesion as a staff. Center-based change is achieved when individuals develop a commitment to
make the goals of the tenter their own.
In this book we have seen that an important part in creating the climate for change depends on how events are planned and how effectively time is
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Center Goal
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158 Blueprint for Action
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used during the change process. Teachers and directors need enough time to identify the problem, gather data, develop an action plan, implement it, and evaluate progress. Not allocating sufficient time for any one of these steps in the change process can jeopardize the entire process.
Individuals also need time to get to know one another, share ideas and information, and to learn how to work together. If teachers are eager to work on implementing a new curriculum but meetings are sporadic and twenty minutes long, then it will be diffi-
cult for them to feel they can successfully complete their work. Time is all too often a neglected resource. Ensuring a realistic time line for the change process
is a necessary condition for successful change. Before embarking on a course of change, it is
important to consider whether the center can provide the resources needed to accomplish its intended goals. Financial resources are necessary for materials and equipment, for hiring substitutes, for evaluation materials, and a host of other related expenses. Providing necessary resources also includes resources of energy and expertise. And we can't neglect the human element. It is a tremendously important energy resource to give teachers undivided attention to listen to their concerns. Allowing time to develop relationships with staff and support their needs is a precondition for successful change. Information and expertise may also be seen as resources. Building a network of consultants and links to the community through parents, professionals, and professional associa- tions who can provide expertise is a necessary element in the change process.
Successful change, as we have seen, is dependent on concrete, individual and center action plans. The action plans must begin with a clear statement of the proposed goal so that staff members will have a common vision of what the changes will be. Explicitly delineating objectives, the activities, and who will carry out the activities is essential to the smooth implementation of the change process. In addition, carefully planning evaluation procedures helps participants see that progress is being made. Disorganized and haphazard action plans make it difficult to avoid ambiguity, role confusion, and conflict.
Finally, in order to improve our centers, we must
make changes in the structures and processes of the
center that will support change in individuals. This book has shown that the professional development of
staff is the vehicle for achieving center-based change.
A holistic view of change that meshes individual needs and goals with center needs and goals is tied
to an understanding that a program is an integrated whole made up of different, though interrelated parts.
Such a systems view can help directors better under-
stand why people resist change and the conditions necessary for successfully accomplishing the change
process. Lasting center change will only occur when
the participants build a shared vision linking organiza-
tional needs to the needs of individual people. Collaboration, shared decision making, and building a
cohesive sense of purpose are all elements that will
help ensure this happens.
173 Blueprint for Action 159
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0. Appendix A
Assessment Tools
he assessment tools included in this appendix are available for purchase from the publisher as a separate packet. The masters included in the packet may be freely repro-
duced for professional development activities at your center. Permission for systematic large-scale reproduction for other training and research purposes or for the inclusion in other publications must be obtained from the copyright holder. The authors would appreciate any feedback from indi- viduals using the assessment tools included in this
book. This appendix includes the following assessment tools:
1. Reacting to Change
2. Concerns About an Innovation
3. Organizational Climate
4. Leadership Style
5. Goal Consensus and Communication
6. Collegiality and Collaboration
7. Decision-making Processes
8. Supervision and Evaluation Processes
9. Organizational Norms
10. Group Meeting Processes
11. Parent Satisfaction
12. Teaching Practices: Interactions Among Staff and Children
13. Teaching Practices: Curriculum
14. Teaching Practices: Health, Safety, and Nutrition
15. Teaching Practices: Physical Environment
16. Learning Style
17. Temperament/Psychological Type
18. Beliefs and Values
19. Job Satisfaction
20. Professional Orientation
21. Role Clarity
22. Role Clarity (new staff)
23. Organizational Commitment
24. Perceived Problems
25. Flexibility/Openness to Chanae
26. Supervisory Beliefc
27. Goal-Setting Motivation
182 Blueprint tor Action 169
Assessment Tool #1
Reacting to Change
Rationale:
Assessing employee reactions to a proposed organizational change is the first step in iden- tifying those initial concerns staff might have about the change. This is important because organizational change implies altering established ways of thinking about one's job. The infor- mation gleaned from such an assessment can help directors tap into staff's feelings, assumptions, fears, and concerns about a proposed change. Assessment Tool #1 is an informal measure of how individuals anticipate a proposed change will impact their work, their self perception, and their relationship with others. This instrument was adapted from the work of W. J. Reddin (1970).
Directions:
Distribute the "Change-Reaction Checklist" and a blank envelope to all staff who will be affected by a proposed change. Place a box labeled "Questionnaire Return Box" in your center's office or staff room and ask respondents to deposit their completed surveys in this box. Ensure staff of the confidentiality of their responses.
Scoring:
This instrument can be scored in two ways.
1. To generate an average positive impact (+), negative impact (-), and no impact (n/i) score for the center, combine individual staff scores at the bottom of the page for each of these three categories and divide by the total number of respondents who completed surveys.
2. To do an item analysis, tally the number of times staff indicated a positive (+). negative (-), and no impact (n/i) for each item. Those items with the highest negative impact scores are those areas where staff express the deepest concern about the proposed change. The results of this informal assessment can be used as a springboard for discussion at a staff meeting about the proposed organizational change.
170 Blueprint for Action
183
Change-Reaction Checklist
Proposed change:
In the space provided after each statement, indicate if you anticipate the proposed change will have a positive (+) impact, a negative (-) impact, or no impact (n/i) with respect to your work, yourself, and your relationship with others.
Work
1. How will the amount of work I do change? 2. How will my interest in my work change? 3. How will the importance of my work change? 4. How will the challenge of my work change? 5. How will the work pressures change? 6. How will the skill demands on me change? 7. How will my physical surroundings change? 8. How will my hours of work change?
Self
9. How will my advancement possibilities change? 10. How will my salary change? 11. How will my future with this center change? 12. How will my view of myself change? 13. How will my formal authority change? 14. How will my informal influence change? 15. How will my view of my prior values change? 16. How will my ability to predict the future change? 17. How will my status change?
Others
18. How will my relationship with my co-workers change? 19. How will my relationship with my supervisor change? 20. How will what my family thinks of me change?
total +
total total n/i
Adapted from Reddin. W J (1970) Manage'ial effectiveness. New York McGraw-Hill. p 163. Reprinted with permission
from McGraw-Hiii. Inc
Blueprint for Action 171
11, Assessment Tool #2
Concerns About an Innovation
Rationale:
Because change is experienced differently by every individual, the concerns associated with implementing any proposed organizational change will also vary from one individual to another. Hall and Loucks (1978) have identified seven stages of concern about implementing educational innovations. These concerns move from self, to task, to the innovation's impact (see Table 3.1).
Assessment Tool #2 is an abbreviated version of the concerns questionnaire developed by Hall and Loucks (as cited in Hord, Rutherford, Huling-Austin, & Hall, 1987). This shortened version uses the High/Scope curriculum as an example of an early childhood innovation. This instrument will provide a quick assessment of an individual's most intense concerns about a proposed innovation. To generate a more extensive profile of teachers' stages of concern, it is recommended that directors use the questionnaire described in Taking Charge of Change by Hord, Rutherford, Huling-Austin, and Hall (1987).
Directions:
The "Concerns Questionnaire" will need to be adapted for the specific innovation you are planning to implement. In each instance where "High/Scope curriculum" is noted, the name or type of innovation being considered can be substituted. Distribute the "Concerns Questionnaire" and a blank envelope to all staff who will be involved in implementing the proposed change or innovation. Place a box labeled "Questionnaire Return Box" in your center's office or staff room and request that respondents place their completed questionnaires in this box.
Scoring:
On the scoring sheet provided, put the total number of points the individual assigned next to the corresponding number of the questioonaire item. Then total the points for each column. This score will represent the individual's total score for that type (stage) of concern. Scores for each type of concern will vary from 0 to 15. Note the two or three areas where the individual scored highest. Below the scoring section are some suggestions for facilitating change for individuals who have strong concerns in each of these seven areas. Since facilitating change should be handled on an individual basis, it is not recommended that scores be collapsed to generate a combined staff profile. A center-wide average on this instrument can mask the enormous variation that can exist in the type of concerns that individuals will experience.
172 Blueprint for Action
r-
Concerns Questionnaire
Name
The purpose of this questionnaire is to determine how you feel about using the Kgh/Scope curriculum. Please respond to the items in terms of your present concerns, or how you feel about your involvement or potential involvement with High/Scope. Some of the items on this questionnaire may have little relevance to you at this time. For the completely irrelevant items, please circle "0" on the scale. Other items will represent
those concerns you do have, in varying degrees of intensity, and should be marked higher on the scale.
krileroot oof fruo somerhat fro, of moo mow of so tow
0 1 2 3 4
wry Ws of of no mow
5
1. I am concerned about how the students will react to the High/Scope curriculum. 0 1 2 3 4 5
2. I know of some other curriculum approaches that might work better than High/Scope. 0 1 2 3 4 5
3. I don't even know what the High/Scope curriculum is. 0 1 2 3 4 5
4. I am concerned about not having enough time to organize myself to implement this curriculum. 0 1 2 3 4 5
5. I would like to help the other teachers in their use of the High/Scope curriculum. 0 1 2 3 4 5
6. I am concerned about how I can carry out all my responsi- bilities with respect to the High/Scope curriculum. 0 1. 2 3 4 5
7. I would like to know who will make decisions regarding the
High/Scope curriculum. 0 1 2 3 4 5
8. I would like to explore the possibility of using the High/Scope curricular approach. 0 1 2 3 4 5
9. I would like to know what resources are available to imple-
inent the High/Scope curriculum. 0 1 2 3 4 5
10. I am concerned about my inability to manage all that the High/Scope curriculum requires. 0 1 2 3 4 5
Blueprint for Action 173
11. I am concerned about evaluating my impact on students' learning with respect to High/Scope.
12. am too occupied with other things right now to consider imple- menting High/Scope.
13. I would like to modify and revise the High/Scope curriculum.
14. I would like to coordinate my efforts with other staff to maxi- mize High/Scope's effect.
15. I would like to have more information on the time and energy commitment required to implement the High/Scope curricu- lum.
16. I would like to know what other staff are doing with respect to implementing High/Scope.
17. At this time, I am not really interested in learning about the High/Scope curriculum.
18. I would like to determine how to supplement and enhance the High/Scope curriculum in this center.
19. I. am interested in getting feedback from the students to improve the way I implement the High/Scope curriculum.
20. I would like to know how my role will change if I implement the High/Scope curriculum.
21. I would like to know how the High/Scope curriculum is better than what we have now.
When I think of tl High/Scope curriculum, my primary concern is...
0 1 2 3 4 5
0 1 2 3 4 5
0 1 2 3 4 5
0 1 2 3 4 5
0 1 2 3 4 5
0 1 2 3 4 5
0 1 2 3 4 5
0 1 2 3 4 5
0 1 2 3 4 5
0 1 2 3 4 5
0 1 2 3 4 5
Adapted from Hord, S., Rutherford, W., Hu ling-Austin, L., & Hall, G. (1987). Taking charge of change. Alexandria, VA: ASCD, pp. 47-49. Reprinted with permission.
174 Blueprint for Action
167
Concerns Questionnaire Scoring Sheet
Stage 0 Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4 Stage 5 Stage 6 Awareness Informational Personal Management Consequence Collaboration Refocusing Concerns Concerns Concerns Concerns Concerns Concerns Concerir
3 8 7 4 1 5 2
12 9 15 6 11 14 13
17 21 20 10 19 16 18
total total total total total total total
Faciating Change for Individuals at Different Stages of Concern*
Stage 0 Awareness Concerns
Involve teachers in discussions and decisions about the innovation and its implementation.
Share enough information to arouse interest, but not so much that it overwhelms. Acknowledge that a lack of awareness is expected and reasonable, and that no questions about the
innovation are foolish. Encourage unaware persons to talk with colleagues who know about the innovation. Take steps to minimize gossip and inaccurate sharing of information about the innovation.
Stage 1 Informational Concerns
Provide clear and accurate information about the innovation. Use a variety of ways to share information verbally, in writing, and through any available media. Communicate with individuals and with small and large groups. Have individuals who have used the innovation in other settings visit with your teachers. Visits to other
centers could also be arranged. Help teachers see how the innovation relates to their current practices, both in regard to similarities
and differences. Be enthusiastic and enhance the visibility of others who are excited.
Blueprint for Action 175
Stage 2 Personal Concerns
Legitimize the existence and expression of personal concerns. Knowing these concerns are common and that others have them can be comforting. Use personal notes and conversations to provide encouragement and reinforce personal adequacy. Connect these teachers with others whose personal concerns have diminished and who will be supportive. Show how the innovation can be implemented sequentially rather than in one big leap. It is important to establish expectations that are attainable. D6 not push innovation use, but encourage and support it while maintaining expectations.
Stage 3 Management Concerns
I. larify the steps and components of the innovation. Information from innovation configurations will be helpful here.
Provide answers that address the small specific "how-to" issues that are so often the cause of management concerns. Demonstrate exact and practical solutions to the logistical problems that contribute to these concerns.
Help teachers sequence specific activities and set timelines for their accomplishment. Attend to immediate demands of the innovation, not what will be or could be in the future.
Stage 4 Consequence Concerns
Provide these individuals with opportunities to visit other settings where the innovation is in use and to attend conferences on the topic. Don't overlook these individuals. Give them positive feedback and needed support. Find opportunities for these individuals to share their skills with others. Share with these persons information pertaining to the innovation.
Stage 5 Collaboration Concerns
10 Provide these individuals with opportunities to develop those skills necessary for working collaboratively. Bring together those persons, both within and outside the center, who are interested in collaboration. Help the collaborators establish reasonable expectations and guidelines for the collaborative effort. Use these people to provide technical assistance to others who need assistance. Encourage the collaborators, but don't attempt to force collaboration on those who are not interested.
Stage 6 Refocusing Concerns
Respect and encourage the interest these individuals have for finding a better way. Help these individuals channel their ideas and energies in ways that will be productive rather than counterproductive. Encourage these individuals to act on their concerns for program improvement. Help these persons access the resources they may need to refine their ideas and put them into practice. Accept the fact that these persons may replace or significantly modify the innovation.
Adapted from Hord, S . Rutherford, W., Huling-Austin, L., & Hall, G. (1987). Taking charge of change. Alexandria. VA: ASCD, pp 44-46. Reprinted with permission.
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Assessment Tool #3
Organizational Climate
Rationale:
Organizational climate describes the collective perceptions of staff regarding the overall quality of work life at the center. Assessment Tool #3 is the short form of the Early Childhood Work Environment Survey (Jorde-Bloom, 1988a, 1989a). It was designed to measure staff's perceptions about ten different dimensions of organizational climate: co-worker relations; opportunities for professional growth; supervisor support; clarity; reward system; decision-making structure; goal consensus; task orientation; physical environment; and innovativeness. The attached table provides a fuller description of these ten dimensions. The instrument is short and can be admin- istered to staff annually to take a quick pulse of organizational functioning. Centers wishing to have a fuller profile of staff's perceptions regarding the dimensions of organizational life tapped by this assessment may want to administer the longer version of this instrument. It may be obtained from the Early Childhood Professional Development Project at National-Louis University.
Directions:
Distribute the short form of the Early Childhood Work Environment Survey to all staff whr work a minimum of ten hours per week at the center. In addition to your teaching staff, this will probably include some support staff (for example, secretary, nutritionist, or social worker). Each individual should also be given a blank envelope. Designate one person on your staff to be responsible for collecting all the completed surveys. Before distributing the survey to your staff, decide who will be tabulating the results and summarizing the data. The staff should be informed who this person will be.
Scoring:
The organizational climate scores on this survey will range from 0 100. Tabulate individual scores by simply adding up the numerals next to each statement. To determine the average organizational climate score, total all the individual organizational climate scores and divide by the total number of individuals completing the survey.
This instrument is most useful when used as a pre and post assessment of staff's percep- tions of the quality of work life. If the center is engaged in any kind of center improvement effort, the information gleaned from comparing ; Ire and post scores on this assessment will provide helpful information as to the success of the center improvement efforts.
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The Ten Dimensions of Organizational Climate
Dimension Definition
Collegiality
Professional Growth
Supervisor Support
Clarity
Reward System
Decision Making
Goal Consensus
Task Orientation
Physical Setting
Innovativeness
Extent to which staff are friendly, supportive, and trust one another. The peer cohesion and esprit de corps of the group.
The d7-iree of emphasis placed on personal and professional growth.
The degree of facilitative leadership that provides encourage ment, support, and clear expectations.
The extent to which policies, procedures, and responsibilities are clearly defined and communicated.
The degree of fairness and equity in the distribution of pay, fringe benefits, and opportunities for advancement.
The degree of autonomy given to the staff and the extent to which they are involved in center-wide decisions.
The degree to which staff agree on the goals and objectives of the center.
The emphasis placed on good planning, efficiency, and getting the job done.
The extent to which the spatial arrangement of the center helps or hinders staff in carrying out their responsibilities.
The extent to which the organization adapts to change and encourages staff to find creative ways to solve problems.
From Jorde-Bloom, P. (1989). Measuring work attitudes in the early childhood setting. Brandon, VT: Psychology Press.
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Early Childhood Work Environment Survey
(Short Form)
/his survey is designed to find out how you feel about this early childhood center as a place to work. The success of this survey depends on your candid and honest responses. Please know that your answers are completely confidential. When you have completed the questionnaire, put it in the attached plain envelope, seal it, and give it to your staff representative. Indicate in the space provided the numeral (0 5) which most accurately describes how you feel about each statement.
somewhat never seldom sometimes regularly frequently always
0 1 2 3 4 5
Staff are friendly and trust one another. Morale is high. There is a good team spirit. Staff are encouraged to learn new skills and competencies. The center provides guidance for professional advancement. Supervisor(s) are knowledgeable and competent. Supervisor(s) provide helpful feedback. Communication regarding policies and procedures is clear. Job responsibilities are well-defined. Salaries and fringe benefits are distributed equitably. Promotions are handled fairly. Teachers help make decisions about things that directly affect them. People feel free to express their opinions. Staff agree on school philosophy and educational objectives. Staff share a common vision of what the center should be like. The program is well planned and efficiently run. Meetings are productive. Time is not wasted. The work environment is attractive and well-organized. There are sufficient supplies and equipment for staff to do their jobs. Staff are encouraged to be creative and innovative in their work. The center implements changes as needed.
What three words describe the climate of this center as a place to work?
What do you perceive to be the greatest strengths of this center?
What areas do you feel could use some improvement?
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A5sesstlletlt Tool #4 1
Leadership Style
Rationale:
The leadership style of the director of a child care center is perhaps the most potent factor influencing organizational effectiveness. The director must create an environment based on mutual respect in which individuals work together to accomplish collective goals. The success of this endeavor rests in large part on the director's ability to balance organizational needs with individual needs. The research in this area suggests that leaders who head the most effective organizations tend to be those that apply a transactional leadership style an ability to adjust their style to the demands of each situation so that both organizational needs and individual needs are met.
Part I of this assessment tool was adapted from the work of Blake and Mouton (1969), Getzels and Guba (1957), Giammatteo (1975), Hersey and Blanchard (1982), and Reddin (1970). It assesses three different leadership styles: the task-oriented style emphasizing organi- zational needs; the people-oriented style focusing on people and their individual needs; and the transactional style stressing an appropriate emphPsis on both the center's needs and the indi- vidual worker's needs depending on the situation 'art II of Assessment Tool #4 was developed by Exchange Press (Neugebauer, 1990). It provides staff with an opportunity to evaluate the director's overall administrative/management style.
Directions:
Distribute the five-page "My Director..." questionnaire and a blank envelope to each indi- vidual who works at the center more than ten hours per week. (If the director is a male, some of the questions will need to be changed first to reflect masculine pronouns.) For more accurate results, it is advisable to distribute questionnaires to both teaching staff and support staff. Place a box labeled "Questionnaire Return Box" in your center's office or staff room and ask respondents to deposit their completed surveys in this box. Ensure staff of the confidentiality of their responses. It is suggested that the director also complete a survey of his/her perceived style. The results of this self-assessment may then be compared to the collective perceptions of the staff.
Scoring:
The composite results of Part I summarize the staff's perceptions of the director's dominant leadership style. The following scoring sheet includes a brief description of the three leadership styles assessed by this questionnaire.
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To score Part I, tally the responses by noting with a mark each time staff checked a particular response:
1. 9. 17.
2. 10, 18.
3. 11. 19.
4. 12. 20.
5. 13. 21.
6. 14. 22.
7. 15. 23.
8. 16. 24.
Now total the marks for the following responses:
Task-oriented: 1, 6, 8, 10, 14, 17, 19, 22 Total
Achieving center goals is most important in this leadership style. Strong concern for high performance and accomplishing tasks. Emphasis is on planning, directing, following proce- dures, and applying uniform standards and expectations for all. This director may be viewed as too structured, bureaucratic, and inflexible.
People-oriented: 2, 4, 7, 11, 15, 18, 20, 24 Total
Achieving harmonious group relations is foremost in this leadership style. Strong emphasis on maintaining comfortable, friendly, and satisfying working conditions. Allows staff to exer- cise control and be self-directed with minimal intrusion of center-wide policies and procedures. Staff working in centers with this style of leadership may complain about the lack of order and coordination.
Transactional: 3, 5, 9, 12, 13, 16, 21, 23 Total
Achieving both center goals and maintaining high morale is important in this leadership style. This director is flexible and fair, recognizing that different situations may require a different emphasis on center-wide needs or individual needs.
For a fuller description of each style, refer to Chapter Ill.
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For Part II, add up the total score for each respondent. (Scores will range from 25 to 125.) Add together all respondents scores and divide by the number of individuals returning ques- tionnaires. This will yield an average score regarding the staff's evaluation of the director's performance in a wide range of administrative and supervisory behaviors.
On any assessment such as this where perceptions may vary considerably, it is important to note the range of scores (the lowest score and the highest score). Also, it is helpful to do an item analysis to discern those two or three items that staff rated the director lowest and those two or three items where the director consistently scored highest. This will provide the director specific feedback about those perceived areas where staff may feel he or she has the greatest skill and those areas in need of improvernent,
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"My Director..."
Dear Staff:
One of the hallmarks of an early childhood professional is the ability to reflect on one's performance. Your feedback about my leadership style is important in helping me improve and grow professionally. Please take a few minutes to complete this questionnaire. When you are finished, insert it in the attached plain envelope and put it in the "Questionnaire Return Box" in the office. There is no need for you to put your name on the questionnaire.
Thank you
PART I. Place a check (J) in front of the statement that most nearly reflects your director's lead- ership style in different situations. (Check only one response in each group).
With respect to planning, my director...
1. does most of the planning herself by setting goals, objectives, and work schedules for staff to follow. She then works out procedures and responsibilities for staff to follow.
2. does very little planning, either by herself or with the staff. She tells the staff she has confidence in them to carry out their jobs in a responsible way.
3. gets staff members together to assess center-wide problems and discuss ideas and *strategies for improvement. Together they set up goals and objectives and establish individual responsibilities.
With respect to work assignments and the day-to-day operation of the center, my director...
4. checks with staff regularly to see if they are content and if they have the things they need. She does not see the necessity of precise job descriptions, preferring instead to let the staff determine the scope and nature of their jobs.
5. is flexible in adapting job descriptions and changing work assignments as needed. Updates center polices and procedures depending on the needs of the staff, parents, children, and board.
6. tends to go by the book. Expects staff to adhere to written job descriptions. Follows policies and procedures precisely.
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With respect to leadership philosophy, my director...
7. tends to emphasize people's well-being, believing that happy workers will be productive
workers.
8. tends to emphasize hard work and a job well done. We are a results-oriented program.
9. tends to emphasize both what we do.and what we need as people.
During meetings, my director...
10. keeps focused on the agenda and the tcpics that need te be covered.
11. focuses on each individual's feelings and helps people express their emotional reactions to an issue.
12 focuses on differing positions people take and how they deal with each other.
The primary goal of my director is...
13. to meet the needs of parents and children while providing a healthy work climate for staff.
14. to keep the center running efficiently.
15. to help staff find fulfillment.
In evaluating the staff's performance, my director...
16. attempts to assess how each individual's performance has contributed to center- wide achievement of goals.
17. makes an assessment of each person's performance and effectiveness according to predetermined established criteria that are applied equally to all staff.
18. allows people to set their own goals and determine performance standards.
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My director believes the best way to motivate someone who is nM performing up to his/her ability is to...
19. point out to the individual the importance or the job to be done.
20. try to get to know the individual better in an attempt to understand why the person is not realizing his/her potential.
21. work with the individual to redefine job responsibilities to more effectively contribute to centerwide goals.
My director believes it is her role to...
22. make sure that staff members have a solid foundation of knowledge and skill that will help them accomplish center goals.
23. help people learn to work effectively in groups to accomplish group goals.
24. help individuals become responsible for their own education and effectiveness, and take the first step toward realizing their potential.
What three words or phrases most accurately describe the leadership style of your director:
198 Blueprint for Action 185
PART 0. Circle the numeral that most nearly represents your assessment of your director in each of the
areas described.
My director is...
...knowledgeable. She knows what is going on in the program for staff, children, parents, board, and administrators.
...in control. She has a handle on things and is actively and effectively in charge of the center's programs and operations.
... dedicated. She demonstrates interest in learning more about her job from peers, professional groups, and reading material.
confident. She has a sense of mission and a clear vision for the center.
... enthusiastic. She has the energy to cope with the daily demands of her job.
...an effective communicator. She keeps us well informed about policies, procedures, activities, and schedules.
...responsive. When adults or children need her attention, she is
able to focus on their needs.
...available to parents. She knows the families and encourages them to participate in the program.
...open. She encourages employees to participate in decision- making and welcomes their suggestions.
...fair. She investigates all sides of an issue and distributes crit- icism and praise with grace and equity.
...predictable. Expectations are clearly defined, and policies are routinely followed.
...a trainer. She encourages my professional growth by providing opportunities for on-going training and development.
...a delegator. She uses authority with fairness and according to the staff's talents and time.
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strongly disagree
strongly agree
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
...prepared. She has a sense of priority about the center and the requirements of her role.
...respectful. She understands people as individuals and shapes her expectations of them accordingly.
...understanding. She realizes that each of us has different interests, abilities, attitudes, and personalities.
...available. I am comfortable bringing my concerns, criti- cisms, problems, and successes to her.
...efficient. She handles the day-to-day routines of the center promptly and skillfully.
...supportive. She looks for opportunities to give feedback and offer praise.
...a motivator. She encourages each of us to give our best effort.
...realistic. She has a sense of humor and is able to keep things in perspective.
...an influence in the community. She is an advocate for chil- dren and quality care.
...genuine. She greets me warmly and demonstrates interest and concern. I know where I stand with her.
...flexible. She encourages creative problem solving, facili- tates personal growth, and keeps things interesting.
...resourceful. She knows where to go and what to do to get things done. She makes good use of community resources.
strongly disagree
strongly WEI
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
Part II from Neugebauer, B. (1990, August). Evaluation of director by staff. Child Care Information Exchange, pp. 20- 21. Reprinted with permission.
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Assesornerit Tool #5
Goal Consensus and Communication
Rationale:
The hallmark of any successful organization is a shared sense among its members about what they are trying to accomplish. Agreed-upon goals and ways to attain them provide the foundation Tor rational planning and action, One cannot assume, however, that just because a center's goals and objectives are committed to paper that there will be uniform agreement among staff about their importance, Assessment Tool #5 assesses staff's rankings of various educational goals and objectives. From this information, you will be able to determine the degree of goal consensus that exists among your staff. The six educational objectives included on this questionnaire are common educational objectives for most early childhood programs. Feel free to reword them to make them more appropriate for your program.
Goal consensus rests in large measure on the effectiveness of communication in the center. Communication of information takes many forms in child care centers; it can be written or oral, formal or informal, and personal or impersonal. Communication networks also vary in centers. They may be vertical (from supervisor to teacher) or horizontal (between teachers). Assessment Tool #5 also assesses staff's perceptions of the effectiveness of communication at the center. The questions on this assessment tool were adapted from the work of Bean and Clemes (1978), Jorde-Bloom (1989a), and Rosenholtz (1989).
Directions:
Distribute the "Goal Consensus and Communications Questionnaire" and a blank envelope to all teaching staff who work at the center more than ten hours per week. Place a box labeled "Questionnaire Return Box" in your center's office or staff room and as' staff to put their completed
questionnaires in this box.
Scoring:
Tally the results of Part I by noting the number of individuals who ranked each educational objective as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. When you have completed, you will have a profile of the distribution of staff's perceptions of the importance of different educational objectives. If there is strong goal consensus among your staff, the responses should cluster. In other words, you should see a strong agreement among staff about which one or two educational objectives are most important and which objective is least important. Even in centers where there is strong goal consensus, it is rare to see strong agreement among the third, fourth and fifth rankings. Remember, the larger your staff, the more difficult it is to achieve goal consensus. Thus large programs (with more than 20 staff completing the questionnaire) should expect to see a wider distribution of responses.
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For Part II of the questionnaire, merely tally the number of individuals who checked the statement as being an accurate reflection of center practices. Divide this number by the total number of respondents to get a percentage of staff who agreed with the statement.
For Part Ill of the questionnaire, total the individual scores of respondents. They will range from 10 - 50. Then sum all respondents' scores and divide by the number of staff completing the questionnaire. This will yield an average score. Scores between 40 50 indicate that staff perceive the communication processes of the center to be quite positive. Scores between 10 - 20 indicate staff feel this is an area that may need some improvement.
Blueprint for Action 1 sa
Goal Consensus and Communication Questionnaire
This questionnaire has three parts. Part I assesses your perceptions of the priority of different goals and educational objectives in our center. Part II asks you to indicate all those statements that accurately reflect how you feel about goal consensus at our center. Finally, Part III assesses your atti-
tudes about the effectiveness of different communication processes in our center. Your honest and candid responses to these questions are appreciated. When you have completed your question- naire, please put it in the envelope you have received and place it in the "Questionnaire Return Box" in the office. There is no need to include your name,
PART I. Rank order the following program objectives according to how importa lt you feel they are at this center. Put a "1" by the most important, a "2" by the next most important and so on until you get to "6" for the least important. Each objective must only have one number next to it.
to help children develop language and problem solving skills
to help children build strong friendships and learn to share
to help children master concepts needed for reading and arithmetic
to help children develop skill and independence in caring for themselves
to help children develop physical coordination
to help children develop a healthy self-esteem and positive self-concept
PART H. Please check all those statements that accurately describe how you feel.
At this center, we agree on the objectives we're trying to achieve with students.
The director's values and philosophy of education are similar to my own.
Most teachers at this center have values and philosophies of education similar to my own.
There are explicit guidelines at this center about the things teachers are to emphasize in their teaching.
Discussion about school goals and means of achieving them is a regular part of our staff meetings.
Before teachers are hired at this center, they are asked about their philosophy of teaching.
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PART III. Circle from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) how you feel about the following statements:
strongly disagree
strongly agrao
Written communication at this center is clear 1 2 3 4 5
Staff seem well-informed most of the time 1 2 3 4 5
The information I receive is usually accurate 1 2 3 4 5
Parents seem well-informed about issues and events 1 2 3 4 5
Communication between teachers is open and direct 1 2 3 4 5
Communication between the director and staff is open 1 2 3 4 5
Expressing my feelings is valued and easy to do here 1 2 3 4 5
People feel comfortable to disagree with one another 1 2 3 4 5
The director makes an effort to solicit feedback 1 2 3 4 5
Policy manuals and written procedures are clear 1 2 3 4 5
What suggestions do you have for improving communication processes at this center?
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Assessment Tool #6 41
Collegiality and Collaboration
Rationale:
Collegiality is the glue that holds a center together. It is that esprit de corps, that feeling of sharing and caring for one another that is so essential to a team effort in improving center func- tioning. Assessment Tool #6 assesses the staff's perceptions regarding their overall co-worker relations, specifically, the extent to which they feel teaching at the center is a team effort directed toward the collaborative goal of improving center effectiveness. Rosenholtz (1989) states that "collaborative norms undergird achievement-oriented groups, they bring new ideas, fresh ways of looking at things, and a stock of collective knowledge that is more fruitful than any one person's work alone" (p. 41). Whether or not teachers work mutually depends in large part on the harmony of their interests within the center the degree to which they share similar goals and objectives. It should not be surprising, then, if the results of this assessment are similar to those of the goal consensus (Assessment Tool #5). The questions on this assessment tool were adapted from the work of Rosenholtz (1989).
Directions:
Distribute the "Collaboration Index" and a blank envelope to all teaching and support staff who work at the center more than ten hours per week. Place a box labeled "Questionnaire Return Box" in your center's office or staff room and ask staff to put their completed question- naires in this box.
Scoring:
Since many of the questions on this instrument deal with sensitive social relationship issues, it is wise to have an outside person tabulate the results and summarize the responses to the open-ended question. The scores for this instrument will range from 0 to 10. To determine your center's collaboration index:
a. Tally the number of checks next to items #1, 3, 5, 6, 9,
b. Tally the number of checks next to items #2, 4, 7, 8, 10
c. Individual total score equals (a) (b) + 5 = (c)
Total (a)
Total (b)
d. Sum all the individual scores and divide by the total number of staff completing the ques tionnaire to determine your center's collaboration index, A score of 7 to 10 indicates that your staff has quite positive feelings about teamwork at your center. A score lower than 4 would indicate that there is room for improving the climate of collaboration.
192 Blueprint for Action
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Collaboration Index
This questionnaire assesses your perceptions of the degree to which this staff functions as a team.
Your h, nest and candid responses to these questions are appreciated. When you have completed your
qUestionnaire, please put it in the envelope provided and place it in the "Questionnaire Return Box" in the
office. It is not necessary for you to include your name on this questionnaire.
Put a check (i) next to those items which accurately reflect how you feel.
1. Other teachers at this center regularly seek my advice about professional issues and problems.
2. I don't offer advice to other teachers about their teaching unless they ask me for it.
3. I regularly share teaching ideas, materials, and resources with other teachers at this center.
4. I believe that good teaching is a gift; it isn't something you can really learn from anyone else.
5. If teachers at this center feel that another teacher is not doing a good job, they will exert some
pressure on him/her to improve.
6. The director encourages teachers to plan together and collaborate on instructional units, field
trips, and classroom activities.
7. Substitutes at this center often do not know what is expected of them.
8. Most of the time the other teachers at this center don't know what I do in my classroom with
my group of children.
9. I see myself as part of a team and share responsibility for our center's successes and short
comings.
10. I can go for days at this center without talking to anyone about my teaching.
Select the three words that most accurately describe other staff at this center.
cooperative friendly i3olated cautious
competitive trusting guarded helpful
caring cliquish open mistrustful
What suggestions do you have that might increase opportunities for collaboration and teamwork at our center (for example, modifying work schedules, changing the layout of space, etc.)?
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Assessment Tool #7
Decision-Making Processes
Rationale:
The opportunity to participate in center-wide decision making is an important factor in the morale of teachers. It is also an essential ingredient in achieving a collaborative model of center improvement. Since every center is unique, however, the nature of decision making processes will also be unique. Thus, the roles that teachers and director play in decision making will vary according to the nature of the issue being considered and the background and interests of the parties affected. Not all teaching staff want the same degree of decision-making influence in all areas of program functioning.
Assessment Tool #7 was designed to assess staff's perceptions of their current and desired levels of decision-making influence in five areas. The purpose of this assessment is to measure the discrepancy between perceived levels of current and desired decision-making influence. Assessment Tool #7 also includes questions about how staff perceive the decision-making processes of the center. The information gleaned from this instrument will give you a clearer picture of the areas in which staff desire a greater role in decision making. The questions on this assessment tool were adapted from the decision-making subscale of the Early Childhood Work Environment Survey (Jorde-Bloom, 1989a).
Directions:
Distribute the "Decision-Making Influence Questionnaire" and a blank envelope to all teaching staff who work at the center more than ten hours per week. Place a box labeled "Questionnaire Return Box" in your center's office or staff room and ask staff to put their completed questionnaires in this box.
Scoring:
Tally the results of Part I by assigning the following point value: very little influence = 0, some influence = 5, considerable influence = 10. To determine a discrepancy score between current and desired levels of decision-making influence, make the following calculations:
a. Total the amount of current decision-making influence for each person (scores will range from 0 to 50).
b. Total the amount of desired decision-making influence for each person (scores will range from 0 to 50).
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c. Add together all the staff's current decision-making influence scores and divide by the total number of staff to get an average current decision-making influence score. Do the same thing for the desired decision-making influence to get an average desired decision-
making influence score.
d. Subtract the average current decision-making influence score from the average desireddecision-making influence score to determine the discrepancy between current and desired levels of decision-making influence. If the desired decision-making influ- ence score is larger than the current decision-making influence score, this discrepancy score will range from 0 to 50. Most often staff will express that they desire more deci- sion-m-,king influence than they currently have. The strength of this discrepancy will help you understand how strongly staff feel about wanting greater input into the deci- sion-making processes at the center. A discrepancy score of greater than 25 would indicate that there are strong feelings about their perceived current and desired levels of influence. Occasionally teachers will voice concern that they desire less decision- making influence than they currently have. In this case the desired decision-making influence score will be lower than the current decision-making influence score.
e. To discern the areas where there is the greatest discrepancy between current and desired levels, follow the same procedure for each of the five decision-making areas listed. In this calculation, the scores will range from 0 to 10 for both the current and desired scales.
For Part II, tally the number of checks for each item and divide by the total number of ques- tionnaires completed. This will yield a percentage of staff who feel that the statement characterizes decision-making processes at the center.
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Decision-Making Influence Questionnaire
This questionnaire has two parts. Part I assesses your perceptions about your current and desired levels of decision-making influence. Part II assesses your perceptions about the way decisions are made at this center. Your honest and candid responses to these questions are appreciated. When you have completed your questionnaire, please put it in the envelope provided and place it in the "Questionnaire Return Box" in the office. There is no need to include your name.
PART L Listed below are some common organizational decisions and actions. How much influence do you currently have in each of the areas below?
Ordering materials/supplies Interviewing/hiring new staff Determining program objectives Training new aides/teachers Planning daily schedule of activities
very little comigeorehie lallemme leflemme Memo
How much influence would you like to have in each of these areas?
Ordering materials/supplies Interviewing/hiring new staff Determining program objectives Training new aides/teachers Planning daily schedule of activities
very little Weems
some coeskirobie Inflows hitimeese
PART II. Check (l) all that describe how decisions are made at this center/school most of the time:
teachers are asked their opinions on important issues the director/principal likes to make most of the decisions people don't feel free to express their opinions everyone provides input on the content of staff meetings people provide input, but decisions have already been made teachers make decisions about things that directly affect them decisions are made by those who know most about the problem or issue
What suggestions do you have for promoting shared decision making at this center/school?
Blueprint for Action
Assessmen Tool #8
Supervision and Evaluation Processes
Rationale:
It is customary in child care work settings for staff to be evaluated by their supervisors. Seldom, however, are teachers and support staff provided the opportunity to give feedback to their supervisors about the quality of the supervision and evaluation they receive. This is unfortu- nate, because a teacher's ability, interest, and desire to improve often rests on the quality of the relationship that the teacher has established with his/her supervisor. Without solid supervisory and evaluation processes in place, individual and collective change simply cannot take place.
Assessment Tool #8 measures staff's perceptions of the extent to which the supervisory and evaluation processes of the center pose restraints or opportunities for professional growth. This assessment focuses on the individual employee's relationship with his/her immediate supervisor. This could be a head teacher, master teacher, or assistant director. It could also be the director if he/she has immediate supervisory responsibility for the employees. It is important to remember that this assessment measures perceptions and these perceptions may or may not mirror "objective reality." Objective reality is not as important, however, as how people perceive any given situation or working relationship because it is their perception of reality that guides their behavior. The questions on this instrument were adapted from the work of Bean and Clemes (1978), Jorde-Bloom (1989a), and Neugebauer (1990).
Directions:
Distribute the two-page "Supervisory Behavior Questionnaire" and a blank envelope to each individual who works at the center more than ten hours per week. For non-teaching staff, it may be necessary to revise sections of this questionnaire to accurately reflect the nature of the different jobs. Before distributing the survey, indicate the name of the supervisor you want the employee to evaluate. This may be the head teacher of a single classroom or a teacher who supervises several classrooms. In centers where the director is the primary supervisor of staff, the same name will appear on all surveys. To get accurate feedback from the staff, you should stress the importance of providing rionest, candid responses to all questions on this assess- ment. Assure them of the confidential nature of their responses.
Scoring:
Since the nature of this evaluation is very sensitive, the director may want to designate an outside person to tabulate the results and summarize the findings. This summary can then be given to the individual supervisors and the director. The results of this assessment will need to be coded separately for each supervisor involved.
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2 10
To score Part I, merely add up the total number of items checked on each completed survey. The scores will range from 0 to 25. Sum all scores for each supervisor and divide by the number of respondents. This will yield an average supervisory behavior score for each individual. Scores over 20 indicate that the respondents have very positive attitudes about the opportunities for professional growth that are available, the fairness of evaluation procedures used at the center, and the support and helpful encouragement they receive from their supervisor. Scores lower than 10 would indicate that respondents have generally unfavorable perceptions about the supervi- sory and eva'uation processes employed at the center.
It may be helpful to do an item analysis for this section of the instrument. This can be done by simply tallying the total number of individuals who checked each item. This number can be divided by the total number of respondents to get a percentage of those who responded affirma- tively to the statement.
Part II of this assessment tool focuses on the supervisor's listening behavior. To derive a supervisory listening quotient, score each questionnaire in the following manner.
a. Add the number of checks next to items #1, 4, 7, 8, 11, 12, 13, 15, 19, 20
total (a)
b. Add the number of checks for items #2, 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, 14, 16, 17, 18
total (b)
c. The supervisor's listening quotient on each survey (c) equals (a) (b) + 10
total (c) (scores will range from 0 to 20)
d. Sum all the individual respondents' (c) scores for each supervisor and divide by the total number of respondents to yield an average listening quotient for the supervisor.
Scores between 15 and 20 indicate that respondents feel their supervisor is attentive, genuinely interested, and supportive when engaged in conversation. Scores lowei than 5 would signal the need for supervisors to build stronger listening and communication skills. This same instrument could be used as a posttest measure at a later date to determine if the staff's percep- tions of the supervisor's listening skills had improved.
198 Blueprint for Action
Supervisory Behavior Questionnaire
The purpose of this questionnaire is to give you an opportunity to provide feedback about the super- visory and evaluation processes at this center. In answering the questions that refer to a specific person, please provide feedback regarding the individuai noted at the beginning of the section. When you have completed all three parts of this questionnaire, please put it in the envelope provided and give it to your staff representative. The results of this survey will be tabulated and a written summary will be given to your
supervisor and center director.
Name of supervisor
PART I. Check (V) all those statements with which you agree.
At this center, I have many opportunities to learn new things.
Evaluation of my teaching is used to help me improve.
The standards by which my teaching is evaluated are clear and well specified.
The methods used in evaluating my teaching are objective and fair.
I know what I'm being evaluated on at this center.
My supervisor... provides suggestions to help me become the best possible teacher.
encourages me to try out new ideas.
encourages me to be independent and self-reliant.
spends enough time in my classroom observing my teaching.
sets high but realistic expectations.
takes a strong interest in my professional development.
displays a strong interest in improving the quality of our program.
helps me understand the sources of important problems I face.
provides the resources I need to help me improve my performance.
provides constructive suggestions that help me deal with problems I encounter.
uses praise appropriately.
communicates effectively.
is dependable and reliable.
is friendly and sociable.
is ethical, honest, and trustworthy.
is patient and supportive.
is knowledgeable about early childhood education.
uses time wisely.
is available when I need him/her.
stays calm in difficult situations.
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PART I. Check (l) the following statements that reflect your appraisal of your supervisor's listening behavior.
When you and I are talking together...
1. you make me feel as if this is the most important thing you could be doing right now.
2. your attention is often divided; you interrupt cjr conversation by answering the phone or addressing the needs of others.
3. you sometimes begin shaking your head or saying "no" before I finish my thought.
4. you refer to our previous conversations; there is a history to our communication.
5. you fidget and squirm and look at the clock as though you can't wait to get on to other more important projects and conversations.
6. you begin asking questions before I finish my message.
7. you look me in the eye and really focus attention on me.
8. you ask thoughtful questions that let me know you were really listening.
9. you finish my sentences for me as though nothing I have to say could be new to you.
10. you change the agenda by taking over and changing the content of the conversation.
11. you follow up on what we discussed and keep me posted on what is happening.
12. you are sensitive to the tone of what I have to say and respond respectfully.
13, you give me credit for ideas and projects that grow out of our communications.
14. you try to speed things up and leap ahead with conclusions as though we're in a rush.
15. you smile at me and make me feel comfortable and valued.
16. you make jokes about things that are serious to me and thereby belittle my concerns.
17. you get defer.?ive and argue before I can fully explain my point.
18. you often make me feel I have nothing worthwhile to say.
19. you ask questions which demonstrate your efforts to understand what I have to say.
20. whether or not you agree with me, you make me feel my opinions and feelings are respected.
Part II adapted from Neugebauer, B. (1990, September/October). Are you listening? Child Care Information Exchange, p. 62. Reprinted with permission.
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Assessment, Tool #9 44
Organizational Norms
Rationale:
Norms are standards or codes of expected behavior shared assumptions about the way
things are done at the center. Most norms are seldom verbalized or made explicit in writing, yet
they still serve as powerful regulators of behavior. When an individual violates a norm, others in
the group will probably respond with some kind of sanction or subtle reminder that the behavior
is out of bounds. Such enforcement can be in the form of joking or kidding, ignoring the indi-
vidual, or taking the person aside to give a cautionary warning. Some norms are useful; they
provide staff with implicit guidelines about what to do in different situations. Other norms, though, may be counterproductive, obsolete, irrelevant, or actually prevent the center from
achieving its stated goals.
Periodically assessing staff's perceptions of the dominant norms that exist can provide useful data about the degree to which certain norms are shared by members of the staff. Such
an inventory also helps staff ident4 those norms that may need to be altered if center improve-
ment efforts are to take hold. Assessment Tool #9 was adapted from the work of Fox and Schmuck (1973), Jorde-Bloom (1986a), and Schmuck and Runkel (1985).
Directions:
Distribute a blank envelope and the two-page assessment "The Way Things Are Done Around Here..." to all teaching and support staff who work at the center more than ten hours per
week. Place a box labeled "Questionnaire Return Box" in the center's office or staff room and
ask staff to place their completed surveys in the box. Let the staff know that although they will be
handwriting their responses, their anonymity will be maintained because an outside third party
will be summarizing the data.
Scoring:
Because of the potentially sensitive nature of some of the responses to this assessment, it is
advisable that an outside third party summarize the data. Summarizing the responses is a fairly
straightforward process. Create a separate summary page for each of the seven categories included on the assessment. On each page, list all the norms that were mentioned by respon-
dents along with the corresponding +, -, or o. If a norm is mentioned by more than one individual, do not list it twice, merely indicate an additional +, -, or o next to the norm already
listed. Those norms that are mentioned by several people indicate they are fairly established,
shared norms. Those mentioned by only one person may indicate a misperception by that indi-
vidual of center expectations.
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Tha director will need to decide how to use the data generated from the results of this assessment. If a climate of trust has been established at the center, the summarized results can serve as a wonderful springboard for a discussion at a staff meeting. Sharing the results of this assessment can serve to free individuals to examine those norms that are bcneficial and those that may need to be changed.
While acknowledging that the director has a significant role in both creating and sustaining norms, changing some norms will need the collaborative support of the whole staff. The entire group must have a shared perception of the value of change; otherwise, the effort to change will be fruitless. Changing a norm usually means changing the way people behave. This means consensus not only about what the new behavior will be but also how that new behavior will be reinforced. The value of doing this extends beyond the specific norm being changed; for in the process the staff will become conscious of their own group dynamic and grow togetner in struc- turing collaborative change.
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215
"The Way Things are Done Around Here..."
When individuals work together in a work setting, implicit agreement develops about the way in which things
are supposed to be done. Over time. these shared patterns of behavior become standard and define the appro-
priate range of acceptable behavior in a wide range of situations. The term "norm" is used to describe these shared assumptions and expectations. Norms include things we are expected to do and things we shouid not
do. Every center varies in the kinds of norms it has and in the intensity in which they are felt.
This assessment asks you to think about some of the do's and don'ts of your center. It is divided into seven different areas. Under each category, think of some of the norms (the do's and don'ts) that you feel
are shared expectations,
Everyday Demeanor (Includes expectations about appropri.ite dress, whether or not smoking is allowed, the amount of noise iJlerated , and the degree of formality in everyday manners)
Use of Space and Materials (Includes such things as expectations for sharing of supplies, who cleans up
and how often, and the amount of clutter tolerated)
Time and Task Orientation (Includes such things as assumptions about workload, expectations for prompt-
ness in beginning meetings, and the degree of participation expected)
Professional Conduct with Children and Parents (Expectations about the kind of discipline used with chil-
dren, the teacher's classroom behavior, and the degree of parental involvement)
216
Blueprint for Action 203
Collegiality (Includes assumptions that govern social interaction among staff such as the degree to which staff are open or reserved in displaying emotions, the extent to which people talk about their personal lives, or how new teachers and substitutes are treated)
Communication and Decision Making (Includes expectations about the kinds of topics that staff feel free to discuss, taboo subjects, how much griping is allowed, how decisions are made, and the degree to which people are frank, open, and free to disagree with one another)
Change and Experimentation (Includes expectations for individual and group improvement, the degree of risktaking tolerated, and openness to new ideas and ways of doing things)
Now go back through each category of noims and in front of each norm you have written, indicate whether or not you think this is a useful norm. In other words, does it support the goals of the school and enhance the staff's ability to carry out its work? If you feel it is a positive norm, indicate so by putting a + in front of the norm. If you feel the norm detracts in any way from the center achieving its goals, indicate so by putting a in front of the norm. If the norm is neutral, neither positive nor negative, put an o in front of the norm.
When you have completed this assessment, put your survey in the blank envelope provided and place it in the "Questionnaire Return Box" in the office.
Thank you
204 Blueprint for Action
Assessment Tool #10
Group Meeting Processes
Rations :
Because staff meetings are the primary vehicle for decision making and problem solving in our child care centers, it is imperative that we regularly assess staff perceptions about their effectiveness. Assessment Tool #10 assesses staff's perceptions about the organization, content, and flow of a staff meeting. It also asks for feedback about the roles that individuals played during the meeting. While the ostensible purpose of This assessment is to elicit informa- tion that will help you plan and conduct future meetings more effectively, it is also a useful staff development tool in helping staff begin to understand the important role they play as part of a group in ensuring successful meetings. Included with this assessment is a handout that can be distributed to staff. This handout, "The Roles People Play" will help staff tune into the many facil- itating and blocking roles that individuals assume in group meetings. This assessment tool was adapted from the work of Jorde-Bloom (1982), and Schmuck and Runkel (1985).
Directions:
It is probably sufficient to do this assessment twice a year. The day following a typical staff meeting, distribute a blank envelope and the two-page "Checklist for Effective Staff Meetings" to all staff who attended the meeting. Place a box labeled "Questionnaire Return Box" in the office or staff room and ask all staff to place the envelopes containing their completed surveys in the box.
Scoring:
Tabulate the results of Part I by simply adding the total number of checks in the "yes" column, Scores will range from 0 to 20. Add together all respondents' scores and divide by the number of individuals returning surveys. This will yield an average staff score. A score higher than 15 indicates that staff were generally quite pleased with the organization, content, and flow of the meeting. Scores lower than 10 indicate there are some areas in the planning and conducting of the meeting that could be improved. It is important on this type of assessment to
also note the range of scores (the highest and lowest score).
It is possible that the group average will mask a strong variation in responses. In other words, it is possible that a number of people were extremely happy with the meeting, while a number of others were quite dissatisfied. It would also be helpful to do an item analysis noting the two or three items that consistently achieved a "yes" rating by staff and those that were consistently rated "no." This will help you know what areas need improvement in the future.
Part II will provide some insights into the staff's perceptions of the different roles that people played during the meeting. This section is perhaps most useful as a check against your own perceptions of how supportive individuals were in guiding the flow of the meeting in a positive way.
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213
Checklist for Effective Staff Meetings
PART I Check (J) yes or no to indicate your reaction to the following questions:
1. Were all participants informed ahead of time with an agenda?
2. Did the meeting start on time?
3. Did the meeting begin on a positive note?
4. Was the room arranged to facilitate good interaction between staff?
5. Was the content of the meeting relevant to all participants?
6. Did the group have enough background, information, and expertise to make necessary decisions?
7. Did all participants have a chance to express their opinions and offer suggestions if they wanted to?
8. Was the facilitator successful in keeping the discussion focused and on track?
9. Did the facilitator restate and summarize issues when necessary?
10. Was an understanding or consensus achieved cn one 'ssue before moving on to the next issue?
11. Was there sufficient time allotted for each item scheduled?
12. Did the facilitator allow enough room and flexibility to adapt the agenda to the needs of the group?
13. Was the facilitator able to guide discussion so that it did not get bogged down in trivia or turn to petty gossip?
14. Did most participants listen carefully to each other?
15. Did most participants express themselves openly, honestly, and directly?
16. Were differences of opinion on issues openly explored and constructively managed?
17. When a decision was made, was it clear who would carry it out and when?
18. Did the meeting end on a positive note?
19. Did the meeting end on time?
20. Overall, did you feel your time was well spent at this meeting?
206 Blueprint for Action
2
PART II. In your judgment, which members of our staff contributed most to meeting effectiveness by: (list names)
Helping to get the meeting started on time?
Sticking to the agenda?
Performing acts of encouragement, warmth, friendly interest, and support?
Bringing in ideas, information, and suggestions?
Helping us stay on track, summarizing, and checking to make sure we understood one another?
What suggestions do you have for improving our staff meetings in the future?
Part I adapted from Jorde-Bloom, P. (1982). Avoiding burnout. Lake Forest, IL: New Horizons, p. 273. Part II adapted from Schmuck, R, & Runkel, P. (1985). The handbook of organizational development in schools. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland, p. 170. Reprinted with permission.
Blueprint for Action 207
22t.
The Roles People Play in Meetings and Groups
Group Building Roles
The Initiator
The Opinion Giver
The Elaborator
The Clarifier
The Tester
The Summarizer
Group Maintenance Roles
The Compromiser
The Tension Reliever
The Harmonizer
The Encourager
The Gatekeeper
Group Blocking Roles
The Aggressor
The Blocker
The Withdrawer
The Recognition Seeker
The Topic Jumper
The Dominator
Special Interest Pleader
Playboy/Playgirl
The Self-Confessor
The Devil's Advocate
Begins the discussion and suggests new or different ideas for discussion
States pertinent opinions and beliefs in discussion
Builds on the suggestions of others
Provides examples, offers rationales, probes for meaning and understanding
Raises questions to test out ideas; sees if group is ready to make a decision
Reviews the discussion and pulls it all together
Willing to yield when necessary for progress
Uses humor appropriately; calls for breaks when necessary to re-energize
Mediates differences and reconciles points of view
Praises, supports others, and is friendly and encouraging
Pays attention to the clock, is task-oriented, keeps communication flowing, and encourages participation
Criticizes; deflates status and suggestions of others; disagrees aggressively
Rejects others' points of view; stubbornly disagrees; returns to previous topics
Won't participate; often converses privately
Boastful and engages in excessive talking; conscious of status
Continually changes the subject and detours discussion
Tries to take over; will manipulate and assert authority
Uses the group's time to plead his/her own case
Show-off and story teller; is nonchalant and cynical
Talks irrelevantly about his/her own feelings
More devil than advocate
* Adapted from Wedgwood. H.C. (1967, July-August) Where committees go wrong. Personnel, p. 64-65. Reprinted with permission of the publisher, American Management Association, New York. All rights reserved.
208 Blueprint for Action
22i
Assessment Tool #11
Parent Satisfaction
Rationale:
Parents are an integral part of the overall organization of a center. How the parental role is understood and accepted by the director and staff is related to how well the center functions. Open, trusting relationships with parents are built on respecting parents' positive and negative views of the center's program and including parents in assessment. Assessment Tool #11 was designed to provide a vehicle for parents to provide feedback about center policies, proce- dures, and the overall quality of program services,
Directions:
To ensure that the questionnaire does not get lost among the soggy art work and miscella- neous treasures that make their way home in every child's tote bag, it is probably best to mail it directly to each child's home. A stamped return envelope addressed to the center should be included. You may want to even include a separate cover letter letting parents know the impor- tance of providing accurate, candid feedback to the center and the date by which you would like the questionnaire returned. It is advisable to send out this kind of questionnaire annually. More often than that can create a burden for parents and unnecessary paperwork for you. Most directors find that late spring is a good time to conduct this kind of assessment.
Scoring:
You will probably find it useful to do an item analysis and note the percentage of parents that either strongly agree or strongly disagree with each individual item. The results of this summary (both positive and negative) should be shared with the parents in your center's newsletter. In the summary you provide, you needn't overwhelm parents with too many details, but be sure and note the total percentage of parents returning questionnaires and those three or four items that had a noteworthy percentage of parents that either strongly agreed or strongly disagreed.
Without revealing the identity of respondents, it is also good to include a few quotes in your summary about how their children have benefitted from the program and areas in need of improve- ment. Such a published summary will convey a strong message to parents about your earnest interest in their feedback, both positive and negative. Such information can only help enhance your center's overall reputation.
To determine how parent perceptions of your program improve over time, you may want to derive a total mean score for the assessment. The numerical scores will range from a low of 8 to a high of 40, with a high score indicating positive perceptions. Add together the parents' total scores and divide by the number of respondents to yield a mean score.
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222
Parent Feedback Survey
Dear Parents,
This questionnaire is designed to find out how we are meeting the needs of families in our program. Your candid and honest responses will enable us to improve communication and services for you and your child. It is not necessary to put your name on this form. Circle the numeral from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) that best represents your feelings regarding each of the statements below.
1. I have received adequate information about program
strongly disagmo
strongly agree
policies and procedures. 1 2 3 4 5
2. My child received a warm introduction into the program. 1 2 3 4 5
3. Teachers encourage me to be actively involved in my child's learnirig. 1 2 3 4 5
4. I am regularly informed about my child's development. 1 2 3 4 5
5. Classroom newsletters and teachers' written notes keep me well informed. 1 2 3 4 5
6. I have had sufficient opportunity for informal conversa- tions with the teaching and administrative staff. 1 2 3 4 5
7. My parent-teacher conferences have provided me with useful insights about my child. 1 2 3 4 5
8. I have been invited to participate in classroom activities and field trips. 1 2 3 4 5
How has your child benefitted from his/her experience at this center?
In what ways could we improve the program to better meet your child's needs?
210 Blueprint for Action 223
Assessment Tool #12
Teaching Practices Interactions Among Staff and Children
Rationale:
Optimal development of a child in all areas social, emotional, cognitive, and physical depends on positive, supportive, and individualized relationships with adults. Young children also develop socially and intellectually through peer interaction (NAEYC, 1984). Taking the time to periodically observe classroom interactions among staff and children is one way to monitor the quality of program services. Assessment Tool #12 was adapted from the center accreditation guidelines developed by tho National Association for the Education of Young Children. For a more detailed description of specific behaviors that are indicative of the items included on this scale, see Accreditation Criteria and Procedures (NAEYC, 1984, pp. 8-10) and Guide to Accreditation (NAEYC, 1985a, pp. 23-25).
Directions:
Separate forms should be used for each classroom observed. The director or supervisor completing the observation will probably want to observe these items over three or four days and at different times during the day. This is important because any slice of a day's activities will probably not accurately reflect all the teaching practices included on these forms. After observing each item noted on the following observation scale, indicate your rating by circling the appropriate numeral from 1 (little evidence) to 5 (a great deal of evidence).
Scoring:
After completing the observation, tally your total score for this scale at the bottom of the obser- vation sheet. The range of scores on this observation tool will vary from a low of 15 to a high of 75. The results of this observation will be useful in identifying those teaching practices related to inter- actions in the classroom in which a particular teacher or group of teachers may need improvement. This information should prove useful in modifying supervisory practices to support more positive teacher-child and child-child interactions.
This instrument is particularly useful as a pre and post measure of change in teaching prac- tices as they relate to classroom interactions among staff and children. The observed score on the first observation can serve as baseline data from which to measure change in the way an individual or group of individuals teach. If the instrument is used in this way, it will be important that both the pre and post assessments be conducted by the same observer.
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Classroom Observations Teaching Practices
Interactions Among Staff and Children
1. Staff interact frequently with children showing affection
Me evitisact
wrist Mime
a gust *al of widens
and respect. 1 2 3 4 5
2. Staff are available and responsive to children. 1 2 3 4 5
3. Staff speak with children in a friendly, courteous manner. Tone of voice is pleasant. 1 2 3 4 5
4. Staff talk with individual children, and encourage children of all ages to use language. 1 2 3 4 5
5. Staff treat children of all races, religions, and cultures equally with respect and consideration. 1 2 3 4 5
6. Staff provide children of both sexes with equal opportunity
to take part in all activities. 1 2 3 4 5
7. Staff encourage independence in children as they are ready. 1 2 3 4 5
8. Staff use positive approaches to help children behave constructively. 1 2 3 4 5
9. Staff do not use physical punishment or negative forms of
discipline. 1 2 3 4 5
10. Overall sound of the group is pleasant most of the time. 1 2 3 4 5
11. Children are generally comfortable, relaxed, and happy. 1 2 3 4 5
12. Staff help children deal with anger, sadness, and frustration. 1 2 3 4 5
13. Staff encourage prosocial behaviors in children such as cooperating, helping, and taking turns. 1 2 3 4 5
14. Staff expectations of children's social behavior are devel-
opmentally appropriate. 1 2 3 4 5
15. Children are encouraged to talk about feelings instead of solving problems with force. 1 2 3 4 5
Comments:
Total score
Adapted from NAEYC. (1984) Accreditation criteria and procedures. Washington. D.C.. pp. 8-10. Reprinted with permission.
212 Blueprint for Action
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Assesorrient Tool #13
Teaching Practices Curriculum
Rationale:
The curriculum of an early childhood program consists of the program goals, the daily schedule of planned activities, the availability and use of materials, transitions between activities, and the way in which routine tasks of classroom life are implemented. The curriculum should support the knowl- edge that young children learn through active manipulation of the environment and concrete experiences which contribute to the development of important concepts (NAEYC, 1984). Assessment Tool #13 was adapted from the center accreditation guidelines developed by the National Association for the Education of Young Children. For a more detailed description of specific behaviors that are indicative of the items included on this scale, see Accreditation Criteria and Procedures (NAEYC, 1984, pp. 11-14) and Guide to Accreditation (NAEYC, 1985a, pp. 26-33, 48).
Directions:
Separate forms should be used for each classroom observed. In completing the observation you will probably want to observe these items over several days and at different times during the day. This is important because any slice of a day's activities will probably not accurately reflect all the teaching practices included on this form. After observing each item noted on the following observation scale, indicate your rating by circling the appropriate numeral from 1 (little evidence) to 5 (a great deal of evidence).
Scoring:
After completing the observation, tally the total score for this scale at the bottom of the observation sheet. The range of scores on this observation tool will vary from a low of 20 to a high of 100. The results of this observation should prove useful in identifying those areas of the curriculum where a particular teacher or group of teachers may need improvement. This infor- mation can then be used to structure staff development opportunities that will support more developmentally appropriate curricular practices.
This instrument is particularly useful as a pre and post measure of change in teaching prac- tices as they relate to the classroom curriculum. The score on the first observation can serve as baseline data from which to measure change in the way an individual or group of individuals teach. If the instrument is used in this way, it will be important that both the pre and post assess- ments be conducted by the same observer.
Blueprint for Action 213
22G
Classroom Observation Teaching Practices
The Curriculum little
evidence
some
evidence
a great deal
of evidence
1. There is a balance of activities indoors and outdoors. 1 2 3 4 5
2. There is a balance of quiet and active activities. 1 2 3 4 5
3. There is a balance of individual/small group/large group activities. 1 2 3 4 5
4. There is a balance of large muscle and small muscle activities. 1 2 3 4 5
5. There is a balance of child-initiated and staff-initiated activities. 1 2 3 4 5
6. Multiracial, nonsexist, nonstereotypic pictures, dolls, books, and materials are available. 1 2 3 4 5
7. Developmentally appropriate materials and equipment are avail- able for this age group of children. 1 2 3 4 5
8. Staff provide developmentally appropriate hands-on activities that foster a positive self-concept in children. 1 2 3 4 5
9. Staff provide hands-on activities that develop social skills. 1 2 3 4 5
10. Staff provide developmentally appropriate hands-on activities that encourage children to think, reason, question, and experiment. 1 2 3 4 5
11. Staff provide activities that encourage language development. 1 2 3 4 5
12. Staff provide activities that enhance physical development. 1 2 3 4 5
13. Staff provide developmentally appropriate hands-on activities that demonstrate sound health, safety, and nutritional practices. 1 2 3 4 5
14. Staff provide developmentally appropriate hands-on activities that encourage creative expression and appreciation of the arts. 1 2 3 4 5
15. Staff provide hands-on activities that respect cultural diversity. 1 2 3 4 5
16. Staff provide materials and time for children to select their own activities during the day. 1 2 3 4 5
17. Staff conduct smooth, unregimented transitions between activities. 1 2 3 4 5
18. Staff are flexible enough to change planned or routine activities. 1 2 3 4 5
19 Routine tasks such as diapering, toileting, eating, dressing, and sleeping are handled in a relaxed and individual manner. 1 2 3 4 5
20. The staff's curriculum plan details goals for children that are based on assessment of individual needs and interests. 1 2 3 4 5
Comments:
Total score
Adapted from. NAEYC. (1984) Accreditation criteria mnd procedures. Washington, D.C. pp. 11-14 Reprinted with permission
214 Blueprint for Action
Assessment Tool #14
Teaching Practices Health, Safety, and Nutrition
Rationale:
A safe and healthy environment is essential in the provision of quality early childhood program- ming. High quality programs act to prevent illness and accidents, are prepared to deal with emergencies as they occur, meet the nutritional needs of children with appetizing and healthful foods, and educate children concerning safe and healthy practices (NAEYC, 1984). Assessment Tool #14 is adapted from the center accreditation criteria developed by the National Association for .the Education of Young Children. While many of the items on this assessment are beyond the indi- vidual teacher's control, they will alert center personnel about health, safety, and nutritional areas of the program that may need to be improved. For a more detailed description of what to look for with respect to the items included on this scale, see Accreditation Criteria and Procedures (NAEYC, 1984, pp. 28-36) and Guide to Accreditation (NAEYC, 1985a, pp. 36-40, 89-91).
Directions:
Separate forms should be used for each classroom observed. You will probably want to observe these items over three or four days and at different times during the day. After observing each item noted on the observation scale, indicate your rating by circling the appropriate numeral from 1 (little evidence) to 5 (a great deal of evidence).
Scoring:
After completing the observation, tally the ratings of individual items to generate a total score for this scale at the bottom of the observation sheet, The range of scores on this observa- tion tool will vary from a low of 20 to a high of 100. The results of this observation may be useful in identifying those health, safety, and nutritional practices in a classroom in which a particular teacher or group of teachers may need help improving. This information can then be used to structure staff development opportunities that will support more desired practices.
This instrument is particularly useful as a pre and post measure of change in teaching prac- tices as they relate to health, safety, and nutritional issues. The observed score on the first observation can serve as baseline data from which to measure change in the way an individual or group of individuals teach. If the instrument is used in this way, it will be important that both the pre and post assessments be conducted by the same observer.
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Classroom Observation Teaching Practices
Health, Safety, and Nutrition little
evidence some
evidence a great deal of evidence
1. Children are under adult supervision at all times. 1 2 3 4 5
2. Children are dressed appropriately for indoor and outdoor play. 1 2 3 4 5
3. Staff and children keep areas reasonably clean. 1 2 3 4 5
4. Toileting and diapering areas are sanitary. 1 2 3 4 5
5. Staff wash their hands with soap and water before feeding, preparing or serving food, and after assisting children with toileting. 1 2 3 4 5
6. A sink with running hot and cold water is very close to the diapering and toileting areas. 1 2 3 4 5
7. The building, play yard, and all equipment are maintained in safe, clean condition and in good repair. 1 2 3 4 5
8. Equipment/materials are safe for the age of children (e.g. infants' toys are large enough to prevent swallowing or choking). 1 2 3 4 5
9. Toilets, drinking water, and handwashing facilities are safe and easily accessible to children. 1 2 3 4 5
10. Soap and disposable towels are provided. 1 2 3 4 5
11. Children wash hands after toileting and before meals. 1 2 3 4 5
12. Areas used by children are well-lighted, ventilated, and kept at a comfortable temperature. 1 2 3 4 5
13. Electrical outlets are covered with protective caps. 1 2 3 4 5
14. Adequate first-aid supplies are readily available. 1 2 3 4 5
15. Floor coverings are attached to the floor or backed with non-slip materials. 1 2 3 4 5
16. Cushioning materials such as mats, wood chips, or sand are used under climbing equipment, slides and swings. 1 2 3 4 5
17. Climbing equipment, swings, and large pieces of furniture are secure. 1 2 3 4 5
18. All chemicals and potentially dangerous products such as medicines or cleaning supplies are stored out of the reach of children. 1 2 3 4 5
19. Mealtime is a pleasant social and learning experience for children. 1 2 3 4 5
20. Mealtimes encourage independence in children. 1 2 3 4 5
Comments.
Total score
Adapted from NAEYC (1984). Accreditation criteria and procedures. Washington. D. C. pp. 28-36. Reprinted with permission.
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Assessment Tool #15
Teaching Practices Physical Environment
Rationale:
Considerable research exists documenting that the physical environment of child care centers affects the attitudes and behavior of both children and adults. The quality of the arrangement of the physical space and the adequacy of equipment and materials affects the level of involvement of the children and the quality of interactions between adults and children. Given the importance of the physical environment, the amount, arrangement, and use of space should be evaluated on a regular basis.
The items that comprise Assessment Tool #15 were drawn from Accreditation Criteria and Procedures (NAEYC, 1984, pp. 25-27). While several items on this instrument may be beyond the immediate control of individual classroom teachers, the results of the observation will provide center personnel with information on how the physical environment might be improved. This assessment can be supplemented by the use of other instruments such as The High/Scope Curriculum: Room Arrangement Checklist available from the High/Scope Educational Research Foundation.
Directions:
Separate forms should be used for each classroom observed. After observing each item noted on the observation scale, indicate your rating by circling the appropriate numeral from 1 (little evidence) to 5 ( a great deal of evidence).
Scoring:
After completing the observation, tally the individual items to generate a total score for this scale at the bottom of the observation sheet. The range of scores on this observation tool will vary from a low of 15 to a high of 75. The results of this observation will be useful in identifying those aspects of the physical environment that may need improvement. It is also a useful obser- vation to use as a pretest and posttest measure to discern differences in the quality of the physical environment after staff development.
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Classroom Observation Teaching Practices
Physical Environment
1. There is enough usable space indoors so children are not crowded.
2. There is enough usable space for outdoor play for each age group.
3. Space is arranged to accommodate individual children, small groups, and large groups.
4. A variety of age-appropriate materials and equipment are available for children indoors and outdoors.
5. Individual space is provided for each child's belongings.
6. Private areas where children can play or work alone or with a friend are available indoors and outdoors.
7. The environment includes soft elements.
8. Sound-absorbing materials such as ceiling tile and rugs are used to cut down noise.
9. A variety of activities can go on outdoors throughout the year.
10. The outdoor play area is protected from access to streets and other dangers.
11. There is a sense of order and organization to the environment.
12. Overall, the classroom is aesthetically pleasing.
13. There is a place where staff can get away from the children.
14. There is an adult-sized bathroom conveniently located for staff.
15. There is a workspace for staff to store their belongings and prepare materials and teaching aids.
Comments:
little vIdoncs
MN *dance
a groat deal
of widow
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
Total score
Adapted from NAEYC. (1984). Accreditation criteria and procedures. Washington, D. C. pp. 25-27. Reprinted with permission.
218 Blueprint for Action
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Asseesment Tool #16
Learning Style Rationale:
Styles of thinking and approaches to learning vary among any group of individuals. These differences determine why some learning experiences are so stimulating and interesting to some people while downright boring to others. Understanding differences in learning styles is important for the director who is concerned about tailoring modes of presentation and staff development activ- ities to the needs of the individuals on the staff. Assessment Tool #16 draws on the work of several researchers whose approach to assessing learning styles has been particularly useful in educa- tional settings. Part I of this assessment tool looks at styles of thinking from a right brain/left brain perspective. This portion of the instrument was adapted from the work of Wonder and Donovan (1984), McCarthy (1980), and Torrance (1979). Part II of Assessment Tool #16 looks at the environ- mental, emotional, sociological, and physical elements of one's preferred learning style. This portion of the assessment was adapted from the work of Dunn and Dunn (1978).
Directions:
This learning styles assessment tool is particularly useful to administer to new employees as you prepare their staff development profile for the first time. Since learning style is a fairly stable construct (it doesn't change from day to day), it will not be necessary to administer the assess- ment tool again for two or three years. The individual should be allowed to take the assessment tool home and spend as much time to complete it as necessary. The directions preceding Part I and Part II are self-explanatory.
Scoring:
It is suggested you do the scoring of this assessment together with the individual teacher. This will provide a good opportunity for the two of you to talk about the meaning of different learning styles as they relate to your work setting. For Part I, count the number of times the indi- vidual circled an (a) response to a question. These answers are associated with left-brain thinking. The (b) responses are associated with a right-brain orientation. More than a 10-point difference between the (a) and (b) totals would indicate that the individual probably has a strong preference for that orientation. If the results of the scoring show a balance between both orien- tations, the individual has an integrated style. Use the summary chart in the section labeled "Interpreting Part l" to review the characteristics of left-brain and right-brain dominance.
There are no specific scoring directions for Part II. This section provides a wealth of data, however, that will provide a comprehensive picture of an individual teacher's preferred learning style. This can be particularly useful as you design and implement staff development opportuni- ties for that person. You may want to make some of the references noted earlier available to staff who express an interest in learning more about their learning style. Also recommended is an article by Patricia Scallan that appeared in October, 1988 issue of Child Care Information Exchange.
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Appreciating Individual Differences
The purpose of this assessment is to help you gain greater insight into your style of thinking and your preferred learning style. This assessment will take about 30 minutes to complete. Set aside some quiet time for yourself where you won't be interrupted or distracted. For Part I, answer the questions quickly; don't try to over-analyze yourself. Simply circle the answer (a or b) that seems to characterize the way you approach different situations. There are no right or wrong answers. In Part II, take your time and write down your answers to each of the questions in as much detail as possible.
Part I. Styles of Thinking
1. In a problem situation do you... a. write down and consider all alternatives, and then pick the best? b. wait to see if the situation will right itself?
2. Do you think daydreaming is... a. a waste of time? b. a viable tool for planning your future?
3. In making decisions, are you more apt to... a. rely on facts, information, and logic? b. gut feelings and intuition?
4. In planning a typical day, do you... a. make a list ot all the things you need to do? b. just let it happen?
5. With respect to organizat.on, do you... a. have a place for everything and a system to keep things organized? b. feel comfortable with clutter organization can stifle spontaneity?
6. Do you learn new sports and athletic skills by... a. learning the sequence and repeating the steps mentally? b. imitating, getting the feel of the sport?
7 Do you express yourself well verbally? a. yes b. no
8. Are you goal-oriented?
a. yes b. no
9. When you want to remember directions, a name, or a news item, do you?
a. write down notes to help you remember? b. visualize the information?
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10. Do you remember faces easily? a. no b. yes
11. In attending meetings and keeping appointments, are you...
a. on time? b. often late?
12. In an argument, do you tend to... a. find an authority to support your point?
b. become animated, talk louder, even pound the table?
13. Do you have a sense of how much time has passed without looking at your watch?
a. yes b. no
14. Do you gesture to... a. make a point? b. express your feelings?
15. In preparing yourself for a new or difficult task, do you...
a. prepare notes and gather data regarding the task?
b. visualize yourself accomplishing the task effectively?
16. Which handwriting position do you prefer?
a. right handed b. left handed
17. When you sit and clasp your hands comfortably in your lap, which thumb is on top?
a. left
b. right
18. With respect to mood shifts, do you... a. experience almost no rn,.)od changes?
b. experience frequent mood changes?
19. In a conversation with another person, do you...
a. focus on what people say?
b. interpret their body language?
20. Do you enjoy taking risks? a. no b. yes
Part I adapted from Wonder, J., & Donovan, P. (1984). Whole brain thinking. New York: W. W. Morrow & Co., pp. 31-39.
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Interpreting Pad I.
This assessment provides a profile of your cognitive style or brain dominance. We sometimes refer to this as left-brain or right-brain thinking. To determine your orientation, count the number of times you circled the (a) response to a question. These answers are associated with left-brain thinking. The (b) responses are associated with a right-brain orientation. If you had a 10 point difference between your (a) and (b) totals, you probably have a strong preference for that orientation. If you have a balance between both orientations, you have an integrated style. This means that your orientation draws on both the left-brain and right-brain in terms of your preference in cognitive style. Below is a summary of the characteristics of left- brain and right-brain dominance,*
LEFT (analytic) RIGHT (global)
* trusts logic * remembers names * responds to verbal instructions
and explanations * systematic/sequential * solves problems by breaking them
down into parts using logic * makes objective judgments * planned and structured * prefers established, certain information * analyzer * relies on language in thinking and
remembering * prefers talking and writing * prefers multiple choice tests * prefers carefully planned work and study * prefers hierarchical (ranked) authority
structures * controls feelings (reflective) * plans ahead * speaks with few gestures * punctual * responds to facts and dates * appears tidy and organized
* trusts intuition * remembers faces * responds to demonstrated, illustrated or
symbolic instructions * random * solves problems by looking at the whole,
looking for patterns, relying on hunches * makes subjective judgments * fluid and spontaneous * prefers elusive, uncertain information * synthesizer * relies on images in thinking and
remembering * prefers drawing and manipulating objects * prefers open-ended questions * pre. ,s open-ended work and study * prefers collegial (participative) authority
structures * free with feelings (impulsive) * spontaneous * gestures when speaking * less punctual * recalls images and patterns * appears disorganized
* Adapted from McCarthy, B. (1980). The 4 MAT system. Oak Brook, IL: EXCEL, Inc., p.79. Reprinted with permission.
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Part II. Diagnosing Learning Style
Environmental Elements
* Sound Do you learn best with music playing in the background, or do you need it absolutely quiet to concentrate? Are you able to screen out people's conversations and other extraneous environmental noise when you read and concentrate on a task?
* Light Do you find either bright or dim lights distracting? Do you work best in natural filtered daylight? Describe your preference.
* Temperature Are you affected by extremes in ambient temperature? Do you prefer cool, warm, or moderate temperatures in which to learn?
* Design When you read something that requires your full attention, do you prefer to sit in an easy chair, a hard back chair, or do you like to stretch out on the carpet? Do you prefer formal or informal room arrangements when you attend a workshop or lecture?
Emotional Elements
* Motivation Under what learning conditions do your sources of motivation differ? When do you need extrinsic reinforcement to encourage you to tackle new knowledge and skill areas (praise, grades, pay bonus)? Under what conditions are you intrinsically motivated to learn something new?
* Persistence How would you describe yourself with respect to your level of persistence in learning new things? Do you prefer to set short, achievable goals or do you have a level of persistence that allows you to tackle long-range goals and objectives?
* Responsibility Under what conditions are you most likely to take responsibility for your own learning?
* Structure Do you like to have new areas of learning highly structured and tightly supervised or do you prefer to set your own goals and monitor your own progress?
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23a
Sociological Elements
* Grouping What types of things do you learn best on your own, in small groups, or in large groups? What kinds of collegial staff development experiences do you find most rewarding?
Physical Elements
* Perceptual Preference If you rely on a visual perceptual style when you learn new things, you learn best when information is written out, when there are ample diagrams, charts, and tables, and when visual media such as films, videos, and pictures are used. If you have an auditory preference, you learn best by hearing things spoken. You like discussions and lectures and have a facility for phonetically sounding out words you do not know. If you are primarily kinesthetic in your perceptual preference, you learn best by touching, moving, and feeling. You like to be active and involved in learning new things. Describe your perceptual preferences.
* Intake How important is it to you to have something to eat or nibble on when you focus on a new task? Do you like to chew gum or drink something when you master something new?
* Time Some people are more alert in the morning; others prefer to tackle new learning tasks in the afternoon or evening. Describe your preference.
* MobilityWhen you attend a staff development workshop, do you need to get up and move around at regular intervals? When you work at a computer or when you read, do you like to take frequent breaks to stretch you muscles, or can you sit and concentrate for long periods?
Part Il adapted from Dunn, R., & Dunn, K. (1978). Teaching students through their individual learning styles. Reston, VA: Reston Publishing, pp. 18-24. Reprinted with permission.
224 Blueprint for Action
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Assessment Tool #17
Temperament/Psychological Type
Rationale:
People differ in fundamental ways; they have distinct preferences for how they take in infor- mation and reach conclusions about the world. These different preferences for how we "function" are important because they govern both behavior (how we act in different situations) and beliefs (how we feel about different situations). A theory to explain these personality differ- ences was first proposed by Carl Jung. Jung believed that individuals could be typed by their preference for a certain function. Jung's theory was popularized by the work of Isabel Briggs Myers who developed the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). The work of Jung and Myers is important because an understanding of the different psychological types can elicit a deeper appreciation for those who function differently than we do.
Assessment Tool #17 was designed as a self-assessment of psychological type along four dimensions: extraversion/introversion; sensing/intuition; thinking/feeling; and judging/ perceiving. While the theoretical framework for this assessment tool is drawn from the work of Jung (1923) and Myers (1980), several other sources were useful in clarifying the concepts associated with temperament and psychological type (Champagne & Hogan, 1981; Keirsey & Bates, 1978; Kroeger & Thuesen, 1988; Lawrence, 1982). Assessment Tool #17 is not meant to substitute for the kind of thorough analysis of psychological type that can come from the admin- istration of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. Rather, it is designed as a brief introduction to the concept and terminology. Directors interested in a more precise assessment of psychological type are encouraged to contact a psychologist or counselor who is professionally qualified to administer the MBTI.
Directions:
Administering the "Tuning Into Your Psychological Type" will probably be most useful shortly after you have hired a new staff member and are preparing his/her staff development profile for the first time. Since one's temperament or psychological type is a fairly stable construct and does not change from month to month, it will probably not be necessary to use this assessment tool more than once every three or four years. When you distribute the assessment to your staff, ask them to take it home and complete it where they have no distractions. Emphasize that there are no right or wrong answers. The information gleaned from this assessment will assist you in
identifying and understanding the different psychological types represented by the center staff. It can also help you appreciate the importance of hiring a diverse staff that represents different psychological typologies.
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Scoring:
Directions for scoring this assessment are included on the instrument itself. Also included is a handout that describes the effects of combinations of different preferences. In addition to the interpretation of temperament/psychological type that is provided here, it is highly recom- mended that you obtain copies of two or three of the following resources for a more complete description of the different psychological typologies.
Myers, I. B. (1980). Introduction to type. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
Myers, I. B. (1980). Gifts differing. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
Lawrence, G. (1982). People types and tiger stripes. Gainsville, FL: Center for Applications of Psychological Type, Inc.
Keirsey, D., & Bates, M. (1978). Please understand me. Del Mar, CA: Prometheus Nemesis.
Kroeger, 0., & Thuesen, J. (1988). Typetalk. New York: Dell Publishing.
Kurtz R. (1991, Jan/Feb). Stabilizer, catalyst, troubleshooter, or visionary Which are you? Child Care Information Exchange, 27-31.
Champagne, D., & Hogan, C. (1981). Consultant supervision: Theory and skill development. Wheaton, IL: CH Publications.
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23a
Tuning Into Your Psychological Type
Just as each of us has distinctive fingerprints, so too, do we have different preferences for how we perceive
the world and make decisions that guide our everyday behavior. These preferences, in large part, shape our personality. The purpose of this survey is to provide a brief profile of your personality preferences with respect to
four different dimensions: extraversion/introversion; sensing/intuition; thinking/feeling; and judging/perceiving. The labels associated with each of these dimensions are value free. In other words, a preference for a pattern of
behavior associated with one end of a continuum is not necessarily better than the other. Likewise in some dimensions, you may exhibit a strong preference, while in other dimensions you may be more evenly balanced
in your preferences. The most important thing to keep in mind is that there are no right or wrong answers.
As you read each statement, use the following coding system to indicate your responses. A descrip- tion and interpretation of each dimension follows each section.
0 = not like me at all 1 = somewhat like me 2 = exactly like me
Extraversion Most of my social activities occur in the context of a group. I readily offer my opinion on issues. I feel comfortable initiating conversations with people. I enjoy working with others on projects and tasks. I find listening more difficult than talking. I feel energized when I am with a lot of people. I thrive on action and variety. I'd like to have a telephone answering machine so I wouldn't miss a call. get impatient when things aren't happening.
I don't mind interruptions when I am working.
Total Extraversion (E) score
introversion I am perceived as a good listener. I prefer a few close friends to a large number of casual acquaintances. usually wait until I am approached before engaging in conversation.
I often rehearse things before I say them. I relish having quiet time during the day to reflect and think. I'd like to have a telephone answering machine so I could screen my calls. In school I preferred written assignments to oral presentations. I dislike interruptions. I prefer to work alone on projects and tasks. I can concentrate for a long time on a single task.
Total Introversion (I) score
The Extraversion/Introversion dimension has to do with the source, direction, and focus of one's energy.
Extraverts are energized by the outer world. They are actively involved with people and things around them. For introverts, reflection, introspection, and solitude produce energy, focus, and attention. Introverts are more
involved with concepts and ideas. They turn to the inner world of ideas and private thoughts.
Write the letter of the pattern that best describes you, (E) Extraversion or (I) Introversion? (If your scores on the Extraversion and Introversion scales are the same, put an X in the space above)
Blueprint for Action 227
Sensing
intuition
I am good at recalling facts and details. I carry out directions by completing each task in the order given. I avoid conversations having to do with global ideas or abstractions. I am a keen observer. I am a realist a practical sort of person. I prefer the known to the unknown. I like jobs that produce tangible results. I get frustrated when people don't give clear instructions. I do my job without worrying about how it fits into the larger scheme of things. I like utilizing and refining the skills I have rather than learning new ones.
Total Sensing (5) score
I enjoy discussing conceptual schemes, ideas, and theories. When I read a report, I look for the implications of the ideas presented. I get impatient with routine tasks. I have a vivid imagination. When I read a magazine, I jump randomly from article to article. I dislike reading directions: precise details bother me. I enjoy trying to solve problems. I've never enjoyed balancing my checkbook. I'd rather learn a new skill than refine an old one. I like to see the interconnections between things and come up with new possibilities.
Total intuition (N) score
The Sensing/Intuition dimension has to do with how we gather information and perceive reality. Sensing types look at facts and details. They tend to be down-to-earth, very literal, and realistic. Sensing types are sequential in their thinking and rely on their five senses as a means of gathering information. They prefer the practical and enjoy hands-on tangible experiences. Intuition types, on the other hand, are concerned with the "big pic'ture," the grand scheme of things. They are more abstract in the way they process information. Intuition types tend to look at the relationships between things. They strive to under- stand the meaning of situations to order to achieve insight and solve problems.
Write the letter of the pattern that best describes you, (S) Sensing or (N) Intuition? (If your scores on the Sensing and Intuition scales are the same, put an X in the space above)
Thinking
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I am very rational in my decision making. I rank and weight factors before making a decision. I am comfortable with orderly rules. I believe it is more important to be fair-minded than warm-hearted I can remain cool and calm in almost any situation. I am very logical in the way I approach issues. I keep my feelings to myself. My style is brief and businesslike. You can count on me to give constructive criticism. I base decisions on what is fair and equitable and not what makes people happy.
Total Thinking (T) score
24i
Feeling I believe good decisions always consider other people's feelings. I get impatient with people who plod through logical processes. Harmonious interpersonal relations are a high priority for me. In conversations, I tend to focus on the "who" rather than the "what." I am a very empathetic person. I go out of my way to accommodate other people. My heart guides my decision making. People sometimes take advantage of me. I show my feelings freely. I can usually predict how others will Leel.
Total Feeling (F) score
The Thinking/Feeling dimension relates to how we make decisions about the information we've gath- ered. Thinking types tend to be very objective and analytical. They are logical in their decision-making processes and purposefully impersonal. Thinking types weigh facts objectively considering all sides of an issue, including the consequences of a decision. Feeling types are more subjective, using their personal value system for making decisions. Understanding people, achieving harmony, and feeling compassion are important to feeling types. They tend to need approval and personal support more than they need to
achieve in intellectual tasks. Don't let the labels for this dimension mislead you. Thinking types certainly have feelings and feeling types surely have a capacity to think. When making decisions, however, their preferences for how to arrive at a decision are very different.
Write the letter of the p. Lem that best describes you, (T) Thinking or (F) Feeling? (If your scores on the Thinking and Feeling scales are the same, put an X in the space above)
Judging
Perceiving
I make decisions easily and quickly. Most of my daily activities are planned. Sometimes I make decisions too hastily. I work well with deadlines. I like to finish one project before starting another. I like things settled and decided. I am methodical and organized. It bothers me when people are not on time. I am more planned than spontaneous. I love the feeling that comes with completing a project.
Total Judging (J) score
I like to examine an issue from all sides before making a decision. Sometimes I put off making decisions. I need little structure in my daily activities. I take life at a leisurely pace. I am able to adapt to almost any situation. I do just fine without a "to do" list. I am easily distracted. Some people think of me as being disorganized. I pride myself on being flexible. I sometimes have a problem finishing tasks.
Total Perceiving (P) score
242 Blueprint for Action 229
The final dimension, judging/Perceiving, has do with how we structure our lives it is our lifestyle orientation. Judging types tend to have rather structured, scheduled, and organized personal and profes- sional lives. They tend to see a "right way" to do things and proceed accordingly. Judging types are also decisive and deliberate when making decisions. Perceiving types, on the other hand, need variety, novelty, and change. They prefer to stand back and use a "wait and see" style when confronted with the need to make a decision. They often have a poor concept of time and feel comfortable with "a go with the flow" attitude toward life. They are more flexible, spontaneous, and adaptive than judging types.
Write the letter of the pattern that best describes you, (J) Judging or (P) Perceiving? (If your scores on the Judging and Perceiving scales are the same, put an X in the space above)
Determining Your Typology
Write the four letters that make up your typology
E or I S or N T or F J or P
With the four pairs of preferences, there are 16 different possible combinations. Each typology is different from the others. There is no one "best" typology.
Circle your typology:
ISTJ ISFJ INFJ INTJ
ISTP ISFP INFP INTP
ESTP ESFP ENFP ENTP
ESTJ ESFJ ENFJ ENTJ
If your scores were the same on any one of the dimensions and you indicated an X for your prefer- ence, then circle the two typologies for that dimension. (For example if your type was EXTP, then you would circle ENTP and ESTP.)
The following table provides a brief description of the effects of combinations of different preferences. Remember, however, that condensing a description into a table involves considerable oversimplification and possibly even distortion of the richness and complexity of each typology. It should be underscored, therefore, that these brief descriptions should be used with caution. For a more complete description of each typology, several references are noted in the cover sheet to this assessment. These references will provide a fuller treatment of temperament and psychological types.
230 Blueprint for Action
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n s
a n
d s
e rv
e t
h e
ir f
ri e
n d
s a
n d
s ch
o o
l. T
h o
ro u
g h
, p
a in
st a
ki n
g ,
a cc
u ra
te .
M a
y n
e e
d tim
e t
o m
a st
e r
te ch
n ic
a l s
u b
je ct
s. a
s th
e ir
in te
re st
s a re
n o t o ft e n t e ch
n ic
a l.
P a tie
n t w
ith d e ta
il a n d r
o u tin
e L
o ya
l, co
n si
d e ra
te ,
co n
ce rn
e d
w ith
h o
w p
e o
p le
f e
e l.
IN F
J
S u cc
e e d b
y p e rs
e ve
ra n ce
, o ri g in
a lit
y a n d
d e si
re t o d
o w
h a te
ve r
is n
e e d e d o
r w
a n te
d P
u t th
e ir b
e st
e ff o rt
s in
to t h e ir
w o rk
. Q
u ie
tly f o rc
e fu
l, co
n sc
ie n tio
u s,
co n ce
rn e d f o r
o th
e rs
. R
e sp
e ct
e d f o r
th e ir
fir m
p ri n ci
p le
s. L
ik e ly
t o b
e h
o n o re
d a
n d
fo llo
w e d f o r
th e ir c
le a r
co n vi
ct io
n s
a s
to h o w
b e st
t o s
e rv
e t h e c
o m
m o n g
o o d .
N IT
J
H a ve
o ri g in
a l m
in d s
a n d g
re a t d ri ve
w h
ic h
t h
e y
u se
o n
ly f
o r
th e
ir o
w n
p u rp
o se
s. I n f ie
ld s
th a t a p p e a l,
th e y
h a ve
a b ili
ty t o o
rg a n iz
e a
jo b a
n d c
a rr
y it
th ro
u g h w
ith o
r w
ith o u t h e lp
S ke
p tic
a l,
cr iti
ca l,
in d e p e n d e n t, o
ft e n s
tu b b o rn
M u st
le a rn
t o y
ie ld
le ss
im p o rt
a n t p o in
ts in
o rd
e r
to w
in t
h e
m o
st im
p o
rt a
n t.
IS T
P
C o o l o
n lo
o ke
rs , q u ie
t. r
e se
rv e d , o b se
rv in
g .
a n a ly
zi n g li
te w
ith d
e ta
ch e d c
u ri o si
ty a
n d
u n e xp
e ct
e d f la
sh e s
o f o ri g in
a l h
u m
o r
U su
a lly
in te
re st
e d in
im p e rs
o n a l p
ri n ci
p le
s, ca
u se
a n d e
ff e ct
, o r
h o w
a n d w
h y
m e ch
a ri -
ic a l t
h in
g s
w o rk
E xe
rt t h e m
se lv
e s
n o m
o re
th a n n
e ce
ss a ry
. b e ca
u se
w a st
e o
f e n e rg
y w
o u ld
b e in
e ff ic
ie n t
IS F
P
R e tir
in g , q u ie
tly f ri e n d ly
, se
n si
tiv e , a n d
m o
d e
st a
b o
u t
a b
ili tie
s. S
h u
n d
is a
g re
e -
m e n ts
, d o n
o t fo
rc e o
p in
io n s
o r
va lu
e s
o n
o th
e rs
. U
su a
lly d
o n
o t
ca re
t o
le a
d b
u t
a re
lo ya
l f o
llo w
e rs
M a
y b
e r
a th
e r
re la
xe d
a b
o u
t a
ss ig
n m
e n
ts o
r g
e tt
in g
t h
in g
s d
o n
e b
e ca
u se
t h
e y
e n
jo y
th e
p re
se n
t m
o m
e n
t a
n d
d o
n o
t w
a n
t to
s p
o il
it b
y u
n d
u e
h a
st e
.
IN F
P
F u
ll o
f e
n th
u si
a sm
b u
t se
ld o
m t
a lk
o f
id e
a s
u n
til t
h e
y kn
o w
y o
u w
e ll.
C a
re a b o u t le
a rn
in g , id
e a s,
la n g u a g e , a n d
in d e p e n d e n t p ro
je ct
s o f th
e ir o
w n T
e n d
to u
n d e rt
a ke
t o o m
u ch
, th
e n s
o m
e h o w
g e t it
d o n e F
ri e n d ly
, b u t o ft e n t o o
a b so
rb e d in
w h a t th
e y
a te
d o in
g t o b
e so
ci a b le
o r
n o tic
e m
u ch
IN T
P
Q u ie
t, r
e se
rv e d , b ri lli
a n t in
e xa
m s,
e sp
e -
ci a lly
in t h e o re
tic a l o
r sc
ie n tif
ic s
u b je
ct s.
L o g ic
a l t
o t h e p
o in
t o f h a ir -s
p lit
tin g .
In te
re st
e d
m a
in fy
in id
e a
s, w
ith li
tt le
li ki
n g
fo r
p a
rt ie
s o
r sm
a ll
ta lk
. T
e n
d t
o h
a ve
v e
ry sh
a rp
ly d
e fin
e d in
te re
st s
N e e d c
a re
e r
w h e re
s tr
o n g in
te re
st s
ca n b
e u
se d
E S
T P
M a
tt e
r- o
f- fa
ct .
d o
n o
t w
o rr
y o
r h
u rr
y, e
n jo
y w
h a
te ve
r co
m e
s a
lo n
g T
e n
d t
o li
ke m
e ch
a n ic
a l t
h in
g s
a n d s
p o rt
s, w
ith f ri e n d s
o n
t h
e s
id e
M a
y b
e b
lu n
t o
r in
se n
si tiv
e ,
C a n d
o m
a th
o r
sc ie
n ce
w h e n t h e y
se e t h e
n e e d D
is lik
e lo
n g e
xp la
n a tio
n s
A re
b e st
w ith
r e a l t
h in
g s
th a t ca
n b
e w
o rk
e d ,
h a
n d
le d
, ta
ke n
a p
a rt
o r
p u
t b
a ck
t o
g e
th e
r
E S
F P
O u tg
o in
g , e a sy
g o in
g , a cc
e p tin
g , fr
ie n d ly
. fo
n d o
f a g
o o d t im
e L
ik e s
p o rt
s a n d
m a
ki n
g t
h in
g s
K n
o w
w h
a t's
g o
in g
o n
a n
d jo
in in
e a
g e
rl y
F in
d r
e m
e m
b e
ri n
g f
a ct
s e
a si
e r
th a
n m
a st
e ri n
g t
h e
o ri e
s A
re b
e st
in s
itu a tio
n s
th a t n e e d s
o u n d c
o m
m o n
se n se
a n d p
ra ct
ic a l a
b ili
ty w
ith p
e o p le
a s
w e ll
a s
w ith
t h in
g s
E N
F P
W a
rm ly
e n
th u
si a
st ic
, h
ig h
-s p
ir ite
d ,
in g
e -
m o
u s,
im a
g in
a tiv
e .
A b
le t
o d
o a
lm o
st a n yt
h in
g t h a t in
te re
st s
th e m
Q u ic
k w
ith a
so lu
tio n
f o
r a
n y
d iff
ic u
lty a
n d
r e
a d
y to
h e
lp a
n yo
n e
w ith
a p
ro b
le m
. O
ft e
n r
e ly
o n
t h
e ir
a b
ili ty
t o
im p
ro vi
se in
st e
a d
o f
p re
p a
ri n
g in
a d va
n ce
. C
a n a
lw a ys
f in
d c
o m
p e lli
n g
re a so
n s
fo r
w h a te
ve r
th e y
w a n t.
E N
T P
Q u ic
k. in
g e n io
u s,
g o o d a
t m
a n y
th in
g s
S tim
u la
tin g
c o
m p
a n
y. a
le rt
, o
u ts
p o
ke n
, a rg
u e f o r
fu n o
n e
ith e r
si d e o
f a q
u e st
io n .
R e so
u rc
e fu
l i n s
o lv
in g n
e w
c h a lle
n g in
g p ro
b le
m s,
b u t m
a y
n e g le
ct r
o u tin
e a
ss ig
n m
e n
ts .
T u
rn t
o o
n e
n e
w in
te re
st a
ft e
r a
n o
th e
r. C
a n
a lw
a ys
f in
d lo
g ic
a l
re a
so n
f o
r w
h a
te ve
r th
e y
w a
n t
E S
T J
P ra
ct ic
a l r
e a lis
ts , m
a tt e r-
o f-
fa ct
, w
ith a
n a tu
ra l h
e a d f o r
b u si
n e ss
. N
o t in
te re
st e d
in s
u b le
ct s
se e n
o u
se f o r,
b u t ca
n a
p p ly
th e m
se lv
e s
w h e n n
e ce
ss a ry
L ik
e t o o
rg a -
n iz
e a
n d r
u n a
ct iv
iti e s
T e n d t o r
u n t h in
a s
w e ll,
e sp
e ci
a lly
if t h e y
re m
e m
b e r
to c
o n -
si d e r
o th
e r
p e o p le
's f e e lin
g s
a n d p
o in
ts o
f vi
e w
w h e n m
a ki
n g d
e ci
si o n s
E S
F J
W a rm
-h e a rt
e d , ta
lk a tiv
e , p o p u la
r. c
o n sc
i- e n tio
u s.
c o o p e ra
tiv e , a ct
iv e c
o m
m itt
e e
m e
m b
e rs
A lw
a ys
d o
in g
s o
m e
th in
g n
ic e
fo r
so m
e o n e W
o rk
b e st
w ith
p le
n ty
o f
e n co
u ra
g e m
e n t a n d p
ra is
e . L itt
le in
te re
st in
a b st
ra ct
t h in
ki n g o
r te
ch n ic
a l s
u b je
ct s
M a in
in te
re st
is in
t h in
g s
th a t d ir e ct
ly a
n d
vi si
b ly
a ff e ct
p e o p le
's li
ve s
E N
F J
R e
sp o
n si
ve a
n d
r e
sp o
n si
b le
.F e
e l r
e a
l co
n ce
rn f o r
w h a t o th
e rs
t h in
k a n d w
a n t,
a n d t ry
t o h
a n d le
t h in
g s
w ith
d u e r
e g a rd
fo r
o th
e r
p e o p le
's f e e lin
g s
C a n p
re se
n t a
p ro
p o sa
l o r
le a d a
g ro
u p d
is cu
ss io
n w
ith e
a se
a n
d t
a ct
S o
ci a
b le
, p
o p
u la
r, a
ct iv
e in
s ch
o o l a
ff a ir s,
b u t p u t tim
e e
n o u g h o
n th
e ir w
o rk
t o d
o g
o o d jo
b .
E N
T J
H e
a rt
y, f
ra n
k, a
b le
in s
tu d
ie s.
L e
a d
e rs
in a
ct iv
iti e
s U
su a
lly g
o o
d in
a n
yt h
in g
t h
a t
re q u ir e s
re a so
n in
g a
n d in
te lli
g e n t ta
lk ,
su ch
a s
p u b lic
s p e a ki
n g . W
e ll-
in fo
rm e d
a ri d k
e e p a
d d in
g t o t h e ir f u n d o
f kn
o w
l- e d g e . M
a y
so m
e tim
e s
b e m
o re
p o si
tiv e
a n d c
o n fid
e n t th
a n t h e ir e
xp e ri e n ce
in a
n a re
a w
a rr
a n ts
.
R e p ro
d u ce
d b
y sp
e ci
a l p
e rm
is si
o n o
f th
e P
u b lis
h e r.
C o n su
lti n g P
sy ch
o lo
g is
ts P
re ss
. In
c P
a lo
A lto
, C
A 9
4 3 0 3 . F
ro m
I n tr
o d u ct
io n t o T
yp e b
y Is
a b e l B
ri g g s
M ye
rs . C
o p yr
ig h t 1 9 8 0 b y
C o n su
lti n g P
sy ch
o lo
g is
ts P
re ss
, In
c A
ll ri g h ts
r e se
rv e d . F
u rt
h e r
re p ro
d u ct
io n is
p ro
h ib
ite d w
ith o u t th
e P
u b lis
h e r' s
co n se
n t.
24 ! A
24 5
OP. Assessment Tool #18 4
Beliefs and Values
Rationale:
Teachers' attitudes and beliefs about children provide the foundation for their philosophy of teaching. Because beliefs are grounded in one's values, they have a strong impact on shaping behavior. Teachers' values also govern how they will react when confronted with the inevitable ethical dilemmas that occur from time to time. The direct^r's role is one of assuring that the beliefs and values of individual teachers is consonant with the shared beliefs and stated philos- ophy of the center. Assessment Tool #18 asks teachers to reflect on their attitudes and beliefs about children, parents, and their own teaching role in the classroom. The information gleaned from this self-assessment will help you to better understand the undergirding values and beliefs that drive the teaching practices you observe in the classroom. Without clarification of these values, it is difficult to set goals for changing attitudes and behaviors.
Directions:
Since a teacher's attitudes and feelings about her teaching role change over time with expe- rience, it is important to administer this kind of self assessment annually. It will provide you with valuable insights as you compile your staff development profile for each teacher. Assure your teachers of the confidentiality of their responses. You may even want to let them take the assess- ment home to complete it when they have more time and fewer distractions. Emphasize that there are no right or wrong answers to this assessment.
Scoring:
No quantitative score is generated by this instrument. Rather, the answers themselves should be used to generate discussion between you and your teachers about how attitudes and beliefs undergird one's philosophy of teaching.
232 Blueprint for Action
tr;
Values Clarification
Values are enduring beliefs ideas that we cherish and regard highly. Values influence the deci- sions we make and the course of action we follow. Some values we prize more deeply than others; they
become standards by which we live. The purpose of this assessment is to help you assess the values and
beliefs that guide your teaching attitudes and behaviors.
PART I. Complete the following sentences.
I think children are generally
2. When children are unhappy, it's usually because
3. I get angry when children
4. The most important thing a teacher can do is
5. Children should not
6. All children are
7. I wish parents would
8. When parents I feel
PART U. Circle the five traits or characteristics you would like children to be or have as a result of their
preschool experience with you.
adventurous open-minded determined
affectionate inquisitive energetic
polite respectful friendly
altruistic self-starter obedient
caring sense of humor spontaneous
honest industrious persistent
assertive creative proud
confident independent thinker risk-taker
cheerful desire to excel appreciate beauty
Blueprint for Action 233
247
O. Assessment Tool #19
Job Satisfaction
Rationale:
Job satisfaction may be defined as an individual's evaluation of his/her job. It is a kind of "psychological contract" between the worker and demands of the workplace that is influenced by personal needs, values, and expectations (Jones & James, 1979; Jorde-Bloom, 1989a; Mumford, 1972). Put more simply, job satisfaction is the discrepancy between real conditions and ideal conditions. When job satisfaction is high, the discrepancy between existing and ideal conditions will be small. But job satisfaction is more than just a global feeling that things are going well or not so well. Indeed, many aspects of our work contribute to our feelings of profes- sional fulfillment; and it is possible to be quite content in one facet of our work and discouraged and frustrated in another. Assessment Tool #19 is a modified version of the Early Childhood Job Satisfaction Survey (Jorde-Bloom, 1989a) which assesses five facets of job satisfaction: co- worker relations, supervisor relations, nature of the work itself, working conditions, and pay and promotion opportunities. The following page includes a fuller description of each facet.
Directions:
It is important to convey to staff that the "Work Attitudes Questionnaire" is a self-assessment designed to help each employee explore those areas of his/her job that are most satisfying and those that may need improvement. The employee is responsible for scoring the assessment and developing his/her own personal profile. This profile may then be brought to the goal setting conference and used as a springboard fcr discussing the individual's feelings about his/her job.
Examining the interaction between the nature of the work setting and individual attitudes may facilitate effective job restructuring. The goal, of course, is to implement organizational practices that facilitate a good fit. Sometimes, however, the analysis may lead to the realization that the fit is not right that the individual and the center have differing goals and expectations. Many new teachers, for example, have unrealistic expectations about their jobs. Directors can specifically ask questions that relate to workers' conceptions of their ideal job with respect to each job facet. Such information may help reduce the incidence of mismatch in perceptions of what the role and work setting can offer and thus promote greater professional fulfillment.
Scoring:
The directions for scoring the "Work Attitudes Questionnaire" are included on the assess- ment.
234 Blueprint for Action
24
Facets of Job Satisfaction
Satisfaction with... Definition
Co-worker relations The extent to which a worker has formed close relationships with colleagues. The degree of mutual trust and respect.
Supervisor relations Perceived quality and quantity of feedback, encouragement, and helpful support from supervisor. The worker's assessment
of supervisor's overall competence.
The nature ot the work itself Includes various job components as they relate to the nature
of the work experience (degree of challenge, variety, autonomy, and control) as well as the sheer quantity of tasks to be done and the time frame in which to do them. Extent to which job provides intrinsic enjoyment and fulfills one's needs for recognition, creativity, and skill building. Also includes task identity (the perceived importance of the work).
Working conditions Includes both the structure of the work experience (flexibility of hours, teacher-child ratio, adequacy of breaks, substitutes, and teaching materials) as well as the context in which the work is performed (the aesthetic quality of the physical envi- ronment, overall noise level, heat, ventilation, light, and spatial
arrangement).
Pay and promotion opportunities Concerns the adequacy of pay as well as the perceived equity and fairness of policies regarding the distribution of pay, fringe benefits, and opportunities for advancement. Also
includes the worker's perceived job security.
From Jorde-Bloom, P. (1988c). Factors influencing overall job satisfaction and organizational commitment in
early childhood work environments. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 3(2), 110.
Blueprint for Action 235
249
Work Attitudes Questionnaire
This survey is designed to find out how you feel about different facets of your job. The purpose of this assessment is to help you become more aware of those aspects of your work that contribute most to your job satisfaction, and those which you would like to improve. Clearly, the success of this assessment depends on your candid and honest responses. After you have scored your survey, you will develop a personal job satisfaction profile. This summary profile will be useful when you meet with your supervisor or director to plan your professional goals.
PART I. Check (/) the corresponding space (strongly disagree to strongly agree) to indicate how you feel about each of the statements in the categories below:
My Co-workers...
1. care about me
2 encourage and support me
3. share their personal concerns with me
4. are hard to get to know
5. are critical of my performance
6 are competitive
7. are not very helpful
8. share ideas and resources with me
9. can't be trusted
10. are enjoyable to work with
My Supervisor...
11. respects my work
12. is too busy to know how I'm doing
13. supervises me too closely
14. gives me helpful feedback
15. asks for my opinion
16. is tactful
17. is not very dependable
18. encourages me to try new ideas
19. makes me feel inadequate
20. is unpredictable
21. is stimulating and challenging
236 Blueprint for Action
250
strongly strongly Magri, agree
My Work...
22. is respected by the parents of my students
23. involves too much paperwork and record keeping
24. does not have enough variety
25. is not very creative
26. makes an important difference in my students lives
27. does not match my training and skills
28. gives me a sense of accomplishment
29. there is too little time to do all there is to do
30. I have control over most things that affect my satisfaction
Working Conditions...
31. my work schedule is flexible
32. the teacher/child ratio is adequate
33. I always know where to find the things I need
34. I feel too cramped
35. I need some new equipment/materials to do my job well
36. the decor of my center is drab
37. this center meets my standards of cleanliness
38. I can't find a place to carry on a private conversation
39. this place is too noisy
40. the center's policies and procedures are clear
My Pay and Promotion Opportunities...
41. my pay is adequate
42. my pay is fair considering my background and skills
43. my pay is fair considering what my co-workers make
44. I'm h a deadend job
45. my fringe benefits are inadequate
46. I feel I could be replaced tomorrow
47. I have enough time off for holidays and vacations
48. I'm being paid less than I deserve
49. opportunities for me to advance are limited
50. I expect to receive a raise during the next year
251
strongly strongly
disagree agree
Blueprint for Action 237
PART II. If you could design your ideal job, how close would your present position resemble your ideal job with respect to the following:
relationship with co-workers
relationship with supervisor
the work itself
working conditions
pay and promotion opportunities
not llke my somewhat resembles Ideal at all my Ideal
1 2 4
Is my
Ideal 5
PART W. Different people value different aspects of their work. In other words, we gain fulfillment in our jobs by meeting certain needs. Below is a list of some of the ways that our jobs can be rewarding. Put a check (/) next to the three job characteristics that you value the most.
Colleagues working with people you like Altruism helping others Achievement that feeling of accomplishment of doing a job well Pay earning a good living to buy the things you need Intellectual stimulation learning new things Variety the opportunity to do different kinds of things Challenge the opportunity to master new skills Security the assurance that your position is secure Creativity developing new ideas, creating new things Autonomy being independent in making decisions Prestige gaining respect from others Environment pleasant surroundings in which to work Leadership the opportunity to guide and influence the work of others Other:
PART IV. What are the two most satisfying things about your present job? What are to two most frustrating things about your present job?
satisfactions frustrations 1 1
2. 2.
238 Blueprint for Action
252
Developing Your Job Satisfaction Profile
Step #1 Assign points (1, 2, 3, 4, or 5) to each statement in Part I according to the following formula:
Co-worker Relations
Score questions #1, 2, 3, 8, 10: Score questions #4, 5, 6, 7, 9:
Supervisor Relations
Score questions #11, 14, 15, 16, 18: Score questions #12, 13, 17, 19, 20:
Nature of the Work Itself
Score questions #21, 22, 26, 28, 30: Score questions #23, 24, 25, 27, 29:
Working Conditions
Score questions #31, 32, 33, 37, 40: Score questions #34, 35, 36, 38, 39:
Pay and Promotion Opportunities
Score questions #41, 42, 43, 47, 50: Score questions #44, 45, 46, 48, 49:
1 (strongly disagree) 5 (strongly disagree)
1 (strongly disagree) 5 (strongly disagree)
1 (strongly disagree) 5 (strongly disagree)
1 (strongly disagree) 5 (strongly disagree)
1 (strongly disagree) 5 (strongly disagree)
to 5 (strongly agree) to 1 (strongly agree)
to 5 (strongly agree) to 1 (strongly agree)
to 5 (strongly agree) to 1 (strongly agree)
to 5 (strongly agree) to 1 (strongly agree)
to 5 (strongly agree) to 1 (strongly agree)
Step #2 Now add together the scores within each category. These scores will range from 10 to 50.
Co-worker Relations
Supervisor Relations
The Nature of the Work Itself
Working Conditions
Pay and Promotion Opportunities
total score =
total score =
total score =
total score =
total score =
Step #3 Add together the total number of points for Part II:
Total congruence with ideal = (score will range from 5 to 25)
Step #4 Plot your job satisfaction facet scores and your congruence with ideal score on the profile on the
following page.
Step #5 Transfer the information from Part III and Part IV to the profile on the next page.
Blueprint for Action 239
253
Job Satisfaction Profile for
PART I. Facets of Job Satisfaction
High 50
40
30
20
Low 10
co-worker supervisor work working pay/promotion relations relations itself conditions opportunities
PART H. Congruence with Ideal
is my ideal 25
20
somewhat like my ideal 15
10
not like my ideal at all 5
PART IV. Primary Satisfactions and Frustrations
PART HI. Occupational Values
1.
2.
3.
satisfactions frustrations
1. 1.
2. 2.
240 Blueprint for Action
24
Job Satisfaction Profile for nialviLt PART I. Facets of Job Satisfaction
High 50
40
30
20
Low 10
SAMFLE
co-worker supervisor work working pay/promotion relations relations itself conditions opportunities
PART II. Congruence with Ideal
is my ideal 25
20
somewhat like my ideal 15
1 0
not like my ideal at all 5
PART IV. Primary Satisfactions and Frustrations
satisfactions
4P.41.1i g , 4a . .6 4.4d Avg L
AAP: I .4 41 a A L. 44 # .4e . / 4 LLJ
PART III. Occupational Values
1. Chattbrve_.
2. atrAtti-allti
3. Aug/Li-i.e.-,
frustrations
1. fryputuk.em.4 to-r 1#424:4) ehiato.n./
2. _JettiALpgAr
Blueprint tor Action 241
255
Assessment Tool #20
Professional Orientation
Rationale:
Professional involvement of teachers and administrators promotes growth and change, knowledge-based skill, reference-group orientation, and achievement of goals. Individuals who have a strong professional orientation also tend to have a stronger commitment to the center and demonstrate more enthusiasm about their work. Assessment Tool #20 assesses the type and variety of activities an individual engages in that promote professionalism. Reliability and validity data and a comparison to national norms are provided elsewhere (Jorde-Bloom, 1989a, 1989b).
Directions:
The kind of information elicited on the "Professional Activities Questionnaire" will provide important background data on prospective candidates for employment at your center. Once the teachers are employed, you will probably want to administer this assessment annually to see how they are progressing in their level of professional orientation. Staff should be instructed to answer the 13 questions as honestly as possible.
Scoring:
The scores on this instrument range from a low of 0 to a high of 20. The following may be used as a guide for scoring the 13 questions included on this assessment tool:
1. "just a job" = 0, a career = 1
2. no = 0, yes = 1
3. no = 0, yes = 1
4. 0 to 5 hrs = 0, 6 to 10 hrs = 1, more than 10 hrs = 2
5. give 1 point for each different organizatio'n noted up to 2 points (note, NAEYC and its affiliates ILAEYC, CAEYC, HAEYC, etc. are considered as only one organization)
6. give 1 point for each educational magazine or journal noted up to 2 points
7. none = 0, 1-3 = 1, 4 or more = 2
8. none = 0, 1 = 1, 2 or more = 2
9. none = 0, 1-3 = 1 4 or more = 2
10. none = 0, 1 = 1, 2 or more = 2
11. 1 point if title and publisher noted
12. no = 0, yes = 1
13. no = 0, yes = 1
242 Blueprint for Action
4r) 40.4 ti
Professional Activities Questionnaire
1. Do you consider your work "just a job" or a career?
2. Did you enroll in any college courses for credit last year? no yes
3. Are you currently working toward a degree or CDA credential? no yes
4. On the average, how many hours per week do you spend over and above what you are paid for in activities related to early childhood? hours
5. What professional organizations do you currently pay dues to?
6. What professional journals and/or magazines do you currently subscribe to?
7. How many professional 000ks did you read last year?
none 1 to 3 4 or more
8. How many advocacy letters to elected representatives or to the editor of your local newspaper have you written during the past year?
none 1 2 or more
9. How many professional conferences/workshops did you attend last year?
none 1 to 3 4 or more
10. How many workshops or lectures to professional groups did you give during the past year (not counting your own staff)?
none 1 2 or more
11. Have you published any articles or books on early childhood education?
Title/publisher
12. Do you expect to be working in the field of early childhood three years from now?
no yes If no, why?
13. If you could do it all over again, would you choose a career in early childhood education?
no yes Why?
From Jorde-Bloom, P. (1989a) Measuring work attitudes. Technical manual for the Early Childhood Job Satisfaction Survey and the
Early Childhood Work Envirciment Survey. Brandon, VI Psychology Press.
Blueprint for Action 243
25 7
Assesornent Tool #21
Role Clarity Rationale:
Central to program effectiveness is a clear understanding about who does what, when, and where. While job descriptions provide the broad framework for organizational functioning, everyday issues about the scope and nature of responsibilities often get blurred. Conflict between individuals at a center often arises when their definition of their own role responsibilities differs from the way in which others look upon their role. In addition, the way in which others perform their roles affects one's ability to perform at optimal levels. Role conflict occurs when one's formal position has conflicting organizational expectations. Role ambiguity results when there are vague or ambiguous job descriptions and operating policies and procedures.
Assessment Tool #21 assesses staff's perceptions about their jobs. It is adapted from the work of Dyer (1984), Fox and Schmuck (1973), Rizzo, House, and Lirtzman (1970), and Seashore, Lawler, Mirvis, and Cammann (1983).
Directions:
Distribute the "Role Perception Questionnaire" to all staff who have worked at the center for more than three months. Be sure and give each staff person a blank envelope. Ensure staff of the confidentiality of their responses. Place a box labeled "Questionnaire Return Box" in your center's office or staff room and ask respondents to deposit their completed questionnaires in this box. If you feel that staff will not be as honest and candid in their responses to the open- ended questions if they know you are tabulating the results, you may want an outside person to tally the results and summarize the responses.
Scoring:
Tally the individual scores for respondents. To do this add the numerals circled for all items except #5, 7, and 11. These three items are worded negatively and have to be reversed scored (seldom = 5, always = 1). The respondent's total score on this assessment tool will range from 12 to 60. Next add all the staff's scores together and divide by the total number of respondents to get an average role clarity score. A high score (48 60) indicates that staff perceive their jobs are clearly defined and they seldom experience conflicting demands and role expectations. A
low score (12 24) indicates that confusion exists about lines of authority and in role assign- ments.
244 Blueprint for Action
Role Perception Questionnaire
Please circle the response that most nearly describes your feelings about your present job.
1. am clear about what my responsibilities are.
/ 2. I am certain about how much authority I have. 3. I am given a chance to do the things I do best.
4. I have an opportunity to develop my own special abilities.
5. I spend time on unnecessary, irrelevant tasks.
6. Clear planned goals and objectives exist for my job.
7. 1 receive conflicting expectations from people about my job.
8. I have the knowledge and skills to do my job well.
9. I have enough resources to do my job well.
10. There is enough time to do my job well.
11. I ignore certain policies in order to carry out my job.
12. I get the support I need to do my job well.
seldom sometimes always
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 rJ
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
What keeps you from being as effective as you would like to be in your position?
If you had the power to change anything about your job, what would you change? Why would this be an improvement over existing conditions?
What suggestions do you have for improving schedules, routines, and procedures so staff can function as a more effective team?
Blueprint for Action 245
25D
Assessment Tool #22
Role Clarity (New Staff)
Rationale:
Confusion about roles and expectations often begins in the first days (even the first hours)
that an employee starts a new job. Tapping into staff's perceptions about their new positions can
create the beginnings of a relationship based on mutual trust and respect. It can also circum-
vent potential problems before they have a chance to grow into full-blown job grievances. Assessrnent Tool #22 is designed for new staff employed at a center. Ideally, it should be given
to staff approximately four weeks after they have begun a new position.
Directions:
Distribute the "Staff Orientation Assessment" to all new staff approximately four to six weeks
after they have begun working for your program. It is advised that the individual have the oppor-
tunity to take the assessment home and complete it without the distractions of the classroom.
Scoring:
Since the responses on this assessment tool are open-ended, they will vary from individual
to individual. The results of this assessment should help alert the director to potential misunder-
standings about the scope and nature of the position assumed. The results can also prove
helpful in modifying orientation policies for new staff in the future.
246 Blueprint for Action
260
Staff Orientation Assessment
Please take a few minutes to answer the questions below. Your honest, candid responses will help us continue to meet the needs of new staff in our center.
1. Were you made to feel comfortable and welcome at the center on your first day on the job? Did other staff know you were coming?
2. Were you given enough familiarity with the particulars of our school environment to help you through those first difficult days (parking, supplies, storage, lunch routines, schedules, etc.)?
3. Were you given sufficient background on the center's policies, goals, and philosophy?
4. Were you made to feel that others had a personal interest in your progress? Have staff made you feel like you are part of a team?
5. Are there any policies or procedures you would like to know more about?
26i Blueprint for Action 247
Assessment Tool #23
Organizational Commitment
Rationale:
The level of commitment of child care workers relates to their acceptance of the center's goals and values. It will directly affect their willingness to exert effort on behalf of the program, and their desire to remain working at the center. Assessment Tool #23 was designed to help you tap into your staff's level of commitment. It was adapted from the work of Mowday, Steers, & Porter (1979) and Jorde-Bloom (1989a).
Directions:
Because the nature of the questions included on the "How Committed Am I?" questionnaire are quite sensitive, it is recommended that individuals use it as a self-assessment to reflect on their level of commitment to the center. Please emphasize to staff that you are not interested in their answers to specific questions, but rather their overall total score. For this reason, staff should be responsible for scoring the instrument themselves. Reassure them of the confidential nature of their score and that your interest in knowing their total score is to help you get a sense of the collective commitment of the staff and if that commitment has fluctuated over time. It is recommended that this assessment tool be administered annually, prior to the teacher's goal setting conference.
Scoring:
The total scores for this instrument will range from a low of 0 to a high of 90. A score ranging between 75 and 90 would indicate that the individual has quite positive feelings about the center
as a place to work. From the employee's perspective, the match between what he/she brings to
the center and what the center can offer is obviously quite good. A score lower than 30 would indicate that there are strong feelings on the part of the individual that this may not be the most appropriate place for him/her to work.
From the other data you have collected on this person, you will be able to discern if the indi- vidual is a candidate for burnout and needs to be re-energized, or if the possibility exists that there is a mismatch between the needs and expectations of this person and what the program can offer. This kind of situation may necessitate the person leaving the center to find a more
satisfying and fulfilling place to work.
2 48 Blueprint for Action
264,
How Committed Am I?
Below are a series of statements that represent possible feelings that individuals may have about the early childhood center for which they work. With respect to your own feelings about your center, please indicate your degree of agreement or disagreement with each statement using the scale below:
strongly strongly disagree agree
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
I am willing to put in a great deal of effort beyond that normally expected in order to help this center be successful.
I talk about this center to my friends as a great place to work.
I feel a great deal of loyalty to this center.
I would accept almost any type of job assignment in order to keep working for this center.
I find that my values and this center's values are very similar.
I am proud to tell others that I work for this center.
It would not be the same working for another center even if the type of work I did was similar.
This center really inspires the very best in me in the way of job performance.
It would take a big change in my present circumstances to cause me to leave this center.
I am extremely glad that I chose to work at this center over other options I was considering at the time I started.
Most of the time I agree with this center's policies on important matters relating to its employees.
I really care about the fate of this center.
For me this is the best of all possible centers for which to work.
Even if I had a slightly higher paying job offer, I wouldn't leave this job.
I intend to work here at least two more years.
263 Blueprint for Action 249
1". Assessment Tool #24
Perceived Problems
Rationale:
One approach to providing meaningful, individualized staff development is based on identi- fying the day-to-day problems which staff experience as they go about their work. If we can identify what teachers feel their problems are, then we have accomplished the first step in helping them manage or solve those problems. The director will then be better able to design staff development activities which address these problems. Assessment Tool #24 was devel- oped by John M. Johnston (1984).
Directions:
Distribute the "Prekindergarten Teacher Problem Checklist" to those teachers or assistant teachers for whom you feel the issues addressed are appropriate. Ask the teacher to read through the 60 problems carefully. This will take some time and reflection, so you may advise them to take the assessment tool home with them for a day or two. Be sure and tell them that these problems were generated by teachers. This may help reduce their level of anxiety about identifying their most problematic areas. Ask your staff to put a check by the problems that are troublesome for them. Then ask them to put a star in front of the 10 problems they seem to expe- rience most frequently. These can then be discussed at the annual planning conference as you develop new goals for the following year.
Scoring:
The 60 problems can be grouped into seven major problems areas: subordinate staff rela- tions; control and nurturance of children; remediation; relations with supervisors; parent cooperation; management of time; and management of routines. The 10 problems selected by the teacher can be reviewed in light of these seven areas to determine if they tend to focus more on one particular area. Such analysis can lead to a discussion of staff development strategies for improvement in that area.
Assessment Tool #24 may also be used as a basis for staff development plans for the center. Using a scale of 1 (not a problem) to 5 (this is a serious problem), have the staff assign a
rating to each item. Tally all the staff's ratings for each item and divide by the number of staff. This will yield an average score for each item. The items with the highest average score repre- sent problems of importance to the staff as a whole. Several teachers may share the same problem; these can form the basis for a small group staff development activity. Other problems shared by most staff members can form the basis for center-wide staff development activities.
250 Blueprint tor Action
Prekindergarten Teacher Problems Checklist
Read through the following list of 60 problems that prekindergarten teachers have identified as troublesome. As you read through the list, preface each problem statement with the phrase, "I have a problem..." Put a check next to those that seem to be troublesome for you. When you are finished, go back through your list and put a star next to the 10 most troublesome problems you experience.
1. Getting children to do what I ask them to do.
2. Controlling the noise or energy level in the room.
3. Understanding the reason for children's problem behavior.
4. Getting parents to supply accurate, up-to-date information for our files.
5. Getting children to share or take turns.
6. Providing for communication among staff.
7. Getting parent cooperation in solving their children's preschool/center-related problems.
8. Orienting new staff to all aspects of the program and their job.
9. Knowing how to handle children's aggressive behavior.
10. Getting parents to drop off or pick up their children on time.
11. Dealing with a child who cries or whines frequently.
12. Promoting effective mutual communication between home and center/preschool.
13. Getting staff to follow through on assigned responsibilities.
14. Getting parents to keep their children home when they are sick.
15. Getting children to clean up.
16. Motivating myself to be involved in outside professional activities.
17. Dealing with parents who say their child is toilet-trained when he/she is not.
18. Providing adequate staff to meet all program needs.
19. Knowing how to help the special or atypical child.
20. Spending personal time doing necessary classroom tasks or administrative tasks.
21. Contending with interruptions while I am working.
22. Meeting the required staff-child ratios at all times during the day.
23. Getting children to learn and follow room rules and routines.
24. Finding time away from children for planning and preparation.
25. Getting children to use words and not hit others when they are angry.
26. Getting parents to follow policies on enrollment or fee payments.
27. Keeping children's attention during group time.
28. Getting parent cooperation with toilet training.
29. Getting children to sleep or rest quietly without disturbing others at nap time.
Blueprint for Action 251
265
30. Working with an ineffective supervisor.
31. Getting parents to provide appropriate clothing from home.
32. Finding effective substitute staff.
33. Feeling positive toward a child who frequently misbehaves.
34. Getting my supervisor to respect my professional judgment.
35. Being able to stay home when I am sick.
36. Keeping one child's problem behavior from affecting other children.
37. Finding workshops that are appropriate to my level of skill and knowledge.
38. Meeting an individual child's needs without neglecting the group.
39. Getting children who are toilet trained not to wet their pants.
40. Helping parents understand and deal appropriately with their child's behavior.
41. Getting staff to model appropriate behavior for children.
42. Getting staff to work in a cooperative fashion.
43. Helping parents of special or atypical children recognize and adjust to their child's needs.
44. Getting parents to come to scheduled events or conferences.
45. Getting my supervisor to give me feedback about my job performance.
46. Getting my supervisor to include me in the decision-making process for my classroom.
47. Knowing how to counteract a child's negative home environment.
48. Meeting the needs of the children when the room is short staffed.
49. Working with equipment or facilities which are in poor condition.
50. Getting all children to participate in group activities.
51. Knowing if parents are abusing or neglecting their children.
52. Finding time for cleaning and other non-teaching tasks.
53. Involving the passive child in activities.
54. Getting staff to recognize and act on children's needs.
55. Dealing with unfair criticism from my supervisor.
56. Meeting the needs of all children in a multi-age group.
57. Giving adequate attention to the special or atypical child without neglecting other children.
58. Getting staff to understand and deal appropriately with young children's behavior.
59. Dressing and undressing children for cold weather outdoor play.
60. Understanding the public attitude that day care or preschools are just babysitting.
From inhnston, J. (1984, March). Assessing staff problems: Key to effective staff development. Child Care
In formation Exchange, pp. 1-4. Reprinted with permission from Exchange Press.
252 Blueprint for Action
Assessment Tool #25 4
Flexibility and Openness to Change
Rationale:
Gaining insight into one's attitudes and behaviors relative to change is an important first step in identifying potential resistance to new and innovative ideals. When we think about atti- tudes toward change, it is possible to think of a continuum from a flexible (typically more open-minded) approach to a more conservative (typically more cautious) approach. Knowing a teacher's orientation on this continuum can help directors to structure the pace and timing of staff development experiences to accommodate individual needs. Assessment Tool #25 is a modified version of an instrument developed by the Public Management Institute (1980).
Directions:
You will probably want to administer the "Flexibility Index" to your staff about once every two or three years. This instrument is designed to be self-administered and self-scored by the indi- vidual staff member. Using the scoring directions below, a flexibility profile can be generated. This profile can then be brought to the planning conference and used to stimulate discussion about the individual's openness to change.
Scoring:
Instruct teachers how to use the grid on the page following the questionnaire to chart their "yes" and "no" answers to create an individual profile regarding their orientation toward change. To analyze the results, consider that a flexibility profile with fewer than 6 "yes" answers indicates a dynamic, change-oriented approach to work. The higher the number of "yes" answers, the more conservative (and possibly resistant) the person may be to change.
Blueprint for Action 253
267
Flexibility Index
Answer "yes" or "no" to the 20 questions below using the introductory words, "I generally...," before each phrase. There are no right or wrong answers to this questionnaire. Instead, the responses should reflect your preferred orientation with respect to change.
I generally...
1. try to cope with things as they are.
2. feel there is a right way and a wrong way to teach young children.
3. think change often just interrupts the efficiency of my classroom routine.
4. must believe I will succeed before I try something new in my classroom.
5. believe that changes in routine will only make teaching more difficult.
6. believe a rational approach to problem solving is best.
7. choose alternatives according to their risk factors.
8. believe I'm not particularly creative in my teaching.
9. believe if I fail to manage my classroom well, I'll probably lose my job.
10. tend to set short term rather than long term goals for my children and
the classroom.
11. have trouble evaluating alternatives quickly.
12. am skeptical of plans that will change the basic routine of my classroom.
13. believe that change happens so slowly that in the end it is ineffective.
14. like my job for security reasons.
15. believe that routine is an important element of teaching.
16. feel the old way of doing things works just as well or better.
17. feel that many changes don't make any real difference.
18. believe that most people are quite satisfied with the way things are.
19. see most risks as win/lose situations.
20. must understand every facet of the problem before I make a decision.
254 Blueprint for Action
9 ",-1, P.ye J
Yis no
Chart Your Flexibility Profile
Using your responses to the statements on the previous page, circle your "yes" answers and your "no"
answers on the profile below.
Conservative
Yes 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Flexible
SAMFLE Chart Your Flexibility Profile
Using your responses to the statements on the previous page. circle your 'yes- answers and your 'no' answers on the profile below.
Yes
Coning live
8 9 10 illf 13 (1) 4) 16 el (D 19 20
3 4 0 6 7 0 0 11 12
Flexible
14 15 113 17 18 41 fin
Adapted from Public Management Institute. (1980). Non-profit manaaement skills for women managers. San Francisco, CA: PMI, pp. 173-175. Reprinted with permisison.
Blueprint for Action 255
26;-)
Assessment Tool #26
Supervisory Beliefs
Rationale:
Before choosing a supervisory approach to use with a teacher, it is important for the director to assess her own beliefs about teacher supervision and staff development. Although supervisors probably use directive, collaborative, and non-directive styles at one time or another, one style usually dominates. The director will benefit from being aware of her strongest orientation. Other staff who serve in supervisory roles such as Master Teachers may also enjoy taking this self assessment. Assessment Tool #26 was developed by Carl Glickman (1981). For a full discussion of the three different supervisory styles assessed by this instrument, readers are encouraged to read Glickman's book, Supervision of Instruction: A Developmental Approach (1985).
Directions:
This inventory is designed to be self-administered and self-scored. As you read the ques- tions, circle one of two options: A or B for each item. You may not completely agree with either choice, but choose the one that is closest to how you feel.
Scoring:
Step #1. Circle your answers from the inventory in the following columns:
Column I Column H Column Ill
1B 1A
2B 2A
3A 3B
4B 4A
5B 5A
6A 6B
7A 7B
8A 8B
9A 9B
10B 10A
11A 11B
12A 12B
13B 13A
14B 14A
15A 15B
2511 Blueprint for Action
Step #2. Tally the number of circled items in each column and multiply by 6.7.
2.1 Total response in Column I x 6.7 =
2.2 Total response in Column II x 6.7 =
2.3 Total response in Column III x 6.7 =
Interpretation:
The product you obtained in step 2.1 is an approximate percentage of how often you take a directive approach to supervision. The product you obtained in step 2.2 is an approximate percentage of how often you take a collaborative approach, and that in step 2.3 an approximate percentage of how often you take a nondirective approach.
Blueprint for Action 257
27i
The Supervisory Beliefs Inventory
Circle either A or B for each item. You may not completely agree with either choice, but choose the one that is closest to how you feel.
1. A. Supervisors should give teachers a large degree of autonomy within broadly defined limits.
B. Supervisors should give teachers directions about methods that help them improve teaching.
2. A. It is important for teachers to set their own goals and objectives for professional growth.
B. It is important for supervisors to help teachers reconcile their personalities and teaching styles with the philosophy and dir,;ction of the school.
3. A. Teachers are likely to feel uncomfortable and anxious if the objectives on which they will be eval- uated are not clearly defined by the supervisor.
B. Evaluations of teachers are meaningless if teachers are not able to define with their supervisors the objectives for evaluation.
4. A. An open, trusting, warm, and personal relationship with teachers is the most important ingredient in supervising teachers.
B. A supervisor who is too intimate with teachers risks being less effective and less respected than a supervisor who keeps a certain degree of professional distance from teachers.
5. A. My role during supervisory conferences is to make the interaction positive, to share realistic infor- ,
mation, and to help teachers plan their own solutions to problems.
B. The methods and strategies I use with teachers in a conference are aimed at our reaching agree- ment over the needs for future improvement.
6. In the initial phase of working with a teacher
A. I develop objectives with each teacher that will help accomplish school goals.
B. I try to identify the talents and goals of teachers so they can work on their own improvement.
7. When several teachers have a similar classroom problem, I prefer to:
A. Have the teachers form an ad hoc group and help them work together to solve the problem.
B. Help teachers on an individual basis find their strengths, abilities, and resources so that each one finds his or her own solution to the problem.
8. The most important clue that an inservice workshop is needed occurs when:
A. The supervisor perceives that several teachers lack knowledge or skill in a specific area, which is resulting in low morale, undue stress, and less effective teaching.
B. Several teachers perceive the need to strengthen their abilities in the same area.
258 Blueprint for Action
4
9. A. The supervisory staff should decide the objectives of an inservice workshop since they have a broad perspective on the teachers' abilities and the school's needs.
. B. Teachers and supervisory staff should reach consensus about the objectives of an inservice workshop before the workshop is held.
10. A. Teachers who feel they are growing personally will be more effective than teachers who are not
experiencing personal growth.
B. The knowledge and ability of teaching strategies and methods that have been proved over the years should be taught and practiced by all teachers to be effective in their classrooms.
11. When I perceive that a teacher might be scolding a student unnecessarily:
A. I explain during a conference with the teacher why the scolding was excessive.
B. I ask the teacher about the incident, but do not interject my judgments.
12. A. One effective way to improve teacher performance is to formulate clear behavioral objectives and create meaningful incentives for achieving them.
B. Behavioral objectives are rewarding and helpful to some teachers but stifling to others; some teachers benefit from behavioral objectives in some situations but not in others.
13. During a preobservation conference:
A. I suggest to the teacher what I could observe, but I let the teacher make the final decision about
the objectives and methods of observation.
B. The teacher and I mutually decide the objectives and methods of observation.
14. A. Improvement occurs very slowly if teachers are left on their own, but when a group of teachers work together on a specific problem, they learn rapidly and their morale remains high.
B. Group activities may be enjoyable, but I find that individual, open discussion with a teacher about a problem and its possible solutions leads to more sustained results.
15. When an inservice or staff development workshop is scheduled:
A. All teachers who participated in the decision to hold the workshop should be expected to attend.
B. Teachers, regardless of their role in forming a workshop, should be able to decide if the workshop is relevant to their personal or professional growth and, if not, should not be expected to attend.
From Glickman, C. (1981). Developmental supervision: Alternative practices for helping teachers improve instruction.
Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, pp. 13-15. Reprinted with permission.
Blueprint for Action 259
273
Assessrrent Tool #27
Goal Setting Motivation
Rationale:
Whether it's a New Year's resolution to lose 10 pounds or a promise to our grandmother that we'll call more often, we have all set goals and made promises to change our behavior. But too often our goals go unfulfilled; our promises go unkept. Somewhere along the way we lost our will power to see them through. Often this is because we do not take the time to accurately assess our true motivation in reaching our goals. Setting goals for oneself is only the first step to changing behavior. We also need to determine what reasons might affect our motivation to achieve the goal. Otherwise, goal setting and action plans may become merely a paper exercise. Assessment Tool #27 was designed to help you assist staff in assessing their level of motivation for achieving the goals they have set as part of their staff development action plan. This assess- ment is a modified version of a goal-setting motivation questionnaire developed by Dyer (1984).
Directions:
After you have met with your staff at their annual planning conference to target new profes- sional goals for the coming year, distribute the "How Motivated Am l" questionnaire to them and ask them to complete it. This questionnaire is designed to provoke reflection on their part about the level of commitment they have for achieving the goals that have been drawn up on the action plan. It is designed to be self-administered. There is no need to collect it after the staff member has completed it.
Scoring:
This questionnaire is designed to be self-scored by the individual teacher or staff member completing it. The most important part of this assessment is the goal motivation continuum at the bottom of the page. The individual should determine his/her overall level of motivation for achieving the goals on the staff development action plan that has been drawn up. Let teachers know that if they have rated their overall motivation a 3 or lower on this scale, it will be important for them to meet with you again to revise the action plan to more accurately reflect those areas that they are sincerely motivated to accomplish.
260 Blueprint for Action
27';
"How Motivated Am I?"
The two lists below show some of the reasons people make a change (payoffs) or c'on't make a change (blocks). As you set your goals and write your action plan, identify those reasons that might affect your motivation to achieve your goals.
"Blocks"
Fear of the unknown Complacency Lack of skill Takes too much time Don't want more responsibility Don't see a need for change Too much effort required Fear of rejection
Forced to make the change
other
Which of the "blocks" affects you the most?
"Payoffs"
Greater recognition More freedom/autonomy More productive More efficient More responsibility Increased feelings of self-worth Opportunity to be of help to others Better interpersonal relationships More control over what I am doing
other
In what ways can you reduce the impact of these blocks?
What is the "payoff" for you for taking on this goal?
On a scale of 1 7, assess the strength of your motivation to achieve the goal you have set.
(low) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 (high)
Adapted from Dyer, W. (1984). Strategies for managing change. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, pp. 101-102. Reprinted with permission.
Blueprint (or Action 261
275
Appendix 5
Sample Forms
The sample forms included in this appendix 1. Individual Profile
are available for purchase from the publisher as a separate packet. The masters included 2. Observations
in the packet may LA freely reproduced for professional development activities at your center. 3. Preparing for the Planning Conference
Permission for systematic large-scale reproduction for other training and research pu .poses, or for 4. Goals Blueprint
inclusion in other publications must be obtained from the copyright holder. The authors would 5. Staff Development Action Plan appreciate any feedback from individuals using the forms included in this book. This appendix 6. Peer Observation
includes the following sample forms: 7. Performance Appraisal
8. Working Together Toward a Common Vision
27G Blueprint for Action 263
Sample Form #1
Individual Profile
Name Age
Education/training
Teaching experience
Professional orientation
Special interests/skills/talents
Relevant personal history
Concomitant roles
Stage of adult development/ego development
Career stage
264 Blueprint for Action
277
Personal traits and characteristics
Energy level
Level of abstract thinking
Temperament/psychological type
Learning style
General dispositions
Self-confidence/self-efficacy
Degree of flexibility/openness to change
Commitment/motivation
Beliefs and values
Expectations/needs
Blueprint for Actton 266
27a
Sample Form #2
Observations
Name
Date:
Date:
Date:
266 Blueprint tor Action
Sample Form #3
Preparing for the Planning Conference
Dear staff member:
As you prepare for our planning conference, think about the following:
What aspect of your job gives you the greatest personal satisfaction?
What aspect of your job is most frustrating?
What keeps you from being as effective as you would like to be in your position?
If you had the power to change anything about your job, what would you change? Why would this be
an improvement over existing conditions?
What do you see yourself doing five years from now?
What new skills or knowledge would you like to learn this next year?
How can I or other staff help you achieve your personal and professional goals?
2 Blueprint for Aotiorl 267
Sample Form #4
Goals Blueprint
Teacher's name Date
Strengths as a teacher
1.
2.
3.
Areas in need of improvement/growth
1.
2.
3.
Goal
Objectives
1.
2.
3.
268 Blueprint tor Action
Sample Form #5
Staff Development Action Plan
Name Date
Objective #1
Activities Time Needed ROSOurCeS Needcwi
1.
2.
Evaluation (how/when)
Objective #2
Activities Time Needed Resources Needed
Evaluation (how/when)
Objective #3
Activities Time Needed Resources Needed
1.
Evaluation (how/when)
Blueprint tor Action 269
2 S
Sample Form #6
Peer Observation
Name of colleague observed Date
As you observe, please note comments about the following aspects of the classroom environ- ment: interactions between the teacher and children; interactions between the teacher and other co-teachers or volunteers; interactions between the teacher and parents; the physical arrangement of space; the curriculum; and health, nutrition, and safety aspects of the program.
Aspects of this classroom I was impressed with include ...
1
2.
3.
Aspects of this classroom that might be improved include . . .
2.
3,
Signed
270 Blueprint for Action
S a
m p
le F
o rm
# 7
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is a l
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sn a ck
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s h e a lth
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a in
ta in
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a fe
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ss a ry
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ty in
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te lle
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id u a l c
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7 P
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th a t p ro
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p o si
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u id
a n ce
1 . P
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a n d im
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m e n ts
h a n d s-
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ve lo
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st a b lis
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w ith
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ch ild
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d e p e n d e n t
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sh ip
s w
ith f a
m ili
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a ss
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m e n t in
fo rm
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28 9
Sample Form tfrb
Working Together Toward a Common Vision
Date:
Center Goal Name:
Objectives
274 Blueprint for Action
Name:
Name:
Name:
Name:
Name:
26.0
Index
Abstract thinking, level of, 73-74
Action plan,
implementing of, 64-65, 110
objectives, 60, 64
sample form, 70, 115, 120, 157, 269
writing of, 60-64, 108-109
Adult developmental stages, 81-83
Assessment,
importance of, 45-46
individual, 71-93
organizations 45-70
tools for, 55-58, 90-92
Assistant teacher, role of, 138-139, 145, 147
Beliefs and values, 89-91
assessment of, 91, 232-233
Benefits, 143-144
Career advancement, 135-146
Career ladder, 121, 135-147
Career stages, 83-85
Case study, "Children's Corner," 9, 11, 13, 34, 65,
72, 81, 85, 109, 125, 150, 154
Change,
and staff development, 41-43, 95-110, 121
as loss, 152
assessing reaction to, 170-171
concerns about, 41-43, 172-176
definition of, 19
impetus for, 21
models of, 23-26
nature of, 21-23,
process of, 21-23, 58-65
resistance to, 77-78, 150-153
role of director in, 31-43, 149
steps in implementing, 28-29, 58-65
strategies, 37-41, 58-65
Child Development Associate (CDA), 126, 138-
136
Classroom research, 103-104
Collaboration, 153-159, 274
Collegiality,
assessment of, 56, 192-193
Commitment, 86-87
assessment of, 92, 248-249
Communication processes,
assessment of, 56, 188-191
Concomitant roles, 10, 90
Creative Curriculum, 27
Culture, 7-8, 13-15, 37, 50
Data,
analysis, 58-60
anecdotal, 106-107
collection of, 52-55, 106-107
observational, 54, 106-107
Decision-making processes, 41, 153
assessment of, 57, 194-196
Developmental supervision, 98-101
291
Blueprint for Action 275
Differentiated staffing, 135-147
Director,
as a catalyst for change, 2, 32, 149
as change agent, 31-35, 149
as resource provider, 34
role of, 2, 31-43, 45-46, 95-110, 149, 153-155
Dispositions, teacher, 78
Dominant coalitions, 7, 10-11
Early childhood special educator, role of, 138,
140, 147
Education coordinator, role of, 137-138, 142, 146-
147
Ego development theory, 81-82
Enabler model, 96
Energy levels, adult, 73
Evaluation, of staff, 121-135, 197-200
External environment, 6-9, 48
Flexibility, 77-78
assessment of, 92, 253-255
Force-field Analysis, 58, 61
Goal consensus, 153-155
assessment of, 56 188-191
Goal setting,
conference, 107-108, 267
organizational, 58-64
sample form, 114, 119, 268
Group meeting processes, 41,
assessment of, 57, 205-208
Halo effect, 134-135
Hierarchy of Needs, 87-88
High/Scope Curriculum, 25, 42-43, 172-176
Innovations,
adoption of, 26-28
attributes of, 27-28
concerns about, 41-43
Inservice, 2, 103
Job descriptions, 126-129
example of, 128-129
guidelines for writing, 126-127
Job satisfaction, 88
276 Blueprint for Action
assessment of, 91, 234-241
Leadership style, 36-37
assessment of, 56, 180-187
Learning style, 75-77, 155
assessment of, 91, 219-224
Master teacher, role of, 136-138, 140, 145, 147
Math Their Way, 37
Mentoring, 102-103, 140, 155
Motivation, 87-88
assessment of, 109, 260-261
Needs and expectations, 80-81
Norms (see organizational norms)
Observation,
sample form, 113, 118, 266
Organizational climate, 7, 14-15,
assessment of, 56, 177-179
Organizational commitment, 86-87
assessment of, 92, 250-252
Organizational culture, 7-8, 13-15, 50
Organizational equilibrium, 17
Organizational needs,
assessment of, 45-66
Organizational norms, 14-15
assessment of, 57, 201-204
Organizational outcomes, 7-8, 15-16, 50
Organizational processes, 7-8, 12-13, 40-41, 50
Organizational structures, 7-8, 11-12, 49
Organizations,
child care centers as, 5
Outcomes (see organizational outcomes)
Parent education coordinator, role of, 138, 141,
147
Parent satisfaction,
assessment of, 58, 209-210
Peer observation, 106,-12, 130, 270
Perceived problems, teachers',
assessment of, 92, 250-252
Performance appraisal, 121-135
conference, 127, 134
errors in, 134-135
2 ;3
principles of, 122-127
sample form, 131-134, 271-273
sources of evidence for, 125-126
Perry Preschool Project, 16
Preprofessional roles, 137-139
Teacher aide, 137-139
Problem identification, 46-51
Problem solving, 46-55, 58-66, 92, 108
Professional development,
philosophy of, 2, 95-96
Professional orientation, 88
assessment of, 91, 242-244
Professional roles,
Early childhood special educator, 138, 140,
147
Early childhood subject area teacher, 138,
140
Education coordinator, 137-138, 142, 146-147
Assistant teacher, 138-139, 142, 145, 147
Master teacher, 136-138, 140, 145, 147
Program administrator, 138, 142, 145-147
Parent education coordinator, 138, 141, 146-
147
Social service coordinator, 138, 141
Teacher, 128-129, 138-139, 145, 147
Profile, individual, 107, 111-112, 116-117, 264-265
Program administrator, role of, 138, 142, 145-147
Psychological states, teachers', 150-151
Psychological type, 74-76
assessment of, 91, 225-231
Psychosocial development theory, 81-82
Questionnaire design, 55
Reciprocation, 35
Research, classroom, 103-105
Role clarity,
assessment of, 91-92, 244-241
Roles (see preprofessional and professional roles)
Salary scale, 137-138, 143
Self-confidence, 78-80
Self-efficacy, 78-80
Social service coordinator, role of, 138, 141
Social systems,
child care centers as, 5-18
components of, 6-16
congruence between components of, 17-18
model, 8
Staff development,
action plan, 108-110, 115, 120
and supervisory style, 97-101
content areas, 97, 104-105
goals of, 97
individualized model of, 2, 95-110
implementing, 95-110
philosophy of, 95-96
strategies, 100, 102-104
Staffing pattern, 147
Supervision processes,
assessment of, 57, 197-200
Supervisory beliefs, 98
assessment of, 256-259
Supervisory style, 98-100
Subject area teacher, role of, 138, 140
Temperament, 74-76,
assessment of, 91, 225-231
Teacher, role of 128-129, 138-139, 145, 147
Teacher aide, role of, 137-139
Teaching practices,
assessment of, 90-91, 211-218
Theory X, Theory Y, 96, 98
Turnover, 7, 12, 15
Values, teacher, 89-91, 232-233
assessment of, 91
Workshops, 103
23 Blueprint for Action 277
Blueprint fop Action Assessment Tools and Sample Forms
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irectors need not reinvent the wheel this book includes assessment tools and sample forms that will save hours of work."
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Paula Jarde Bloom. Ph.D. Paula is an Associate Professor at National-Lc
Univer ;ity. She has taught preschool and kindergar designed and directed a child care center, and ser as administrator of a campus laboratory school. Paul the author of numerous Journal articles and sev widely read books including Avoiding Burnout: Strate for Managing Time. Space. and People in E Childhood Education (New Horizons); Living Learning with Children (New Horizons); and A G Place to Work: Improving Conditions for Staff in Yc Children's Programs (NAEYC).
Marilyn Sheerer. Ph.D. Marilyn is an Assistant Professor of Family and C
Studies at Northern Illinois University. She has taught directed ea7ly childhood programs in community university settings and is the author of several article staff development issues. Marilyn does consulting training in the area of administration and supervision serves as a board member of the Illinois Associatio the Education of Young Children.
Joan Britz. Mid. Joan is an instructor of early childhood educ
at National-Louis University. She has been a directo nonprofit urban day care center and had worke several research studies focusing on administr issues in child care. Joan currently serves as consi to the Illinois State Board of Education. She is coa of a monograph Problem Solving in the Early Child Classroom (NEA).
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