ENMT 302 - Research Paper

It seems that people are always talking about the weather. It is either too hot or too cold. "I wish it would rain," or "I wish it would stop raining." But what happens when Mother Nature unleashes her fury and turns the weather against us in a flood or tornado? And what about the traffic on the highway this morning? What is in that tank truck that just passed you? Is it something innocent, such as fresh milk, or is it some super-toxic chemical that could cause ecological damage or a large loss of life if the truck overturned and the tank ruptured?

How well-prepared is our community to address these types of hazards? What measures can we take to minimize the effects of incidents such as those mentioned above? The answers lie in our having an emergency management system that has thoroughly planned for hazards and that has identified the responses needed to efficiently manage the consequences of disasters. In this module, we will prepare you to fulfill your role as emergency manager by introducing you to the concepts of emergency management.

We will begin our course by reviewing some key events that have shaped the current state of emergency management. It is commonly acknowledged that those who refuse to learn from the past are doomed to repeat it. Our review will allow us to analyze the decisions that gave birth to the modern-day emergency management organization, while at the same time assessing best practices that we should incorporate into our own emergency management planning.

The history of emergency management in the United States can be viewed from the perspective of two competing policy streams that have driven the changes in the federal emergency management organization. The first stream, natural disaster response, has defined the federal role in providing assistance to local governments and individuals in response to natural disasters. The second stream, civil defense, takes its motivation from the threat of a foreign government attack on the United States, and from the possibility of international and domestic terrorist attacks on U.S. soil.

Our historical overview will show a cycle of consolidation and separation of these competing systems, leading up to today's emergency management organization. We will also disclose the impact of presidential administrations on the development of emergency management. As each new president has taken office, a new set of priorities for national preparedness has arisen with a new set of mandates, projects, and policies. This has put federal emergency management in a state of constant flux as the pendulum has swung between natural disaster preparedness and civil defense. Unfortunately, because of these shifts, the federal emergency management organization has never quite met the demand for its services; as soon as one program takes shape, a change in administration causes a reorganization and a redirection of focus for the agency.

Although the concept of emergency management is not new, the heavy economic and human toll taken by natural and man-made disasters in the past decade has focused more attention than ever on the field. It has also determined the need for a professional educational curriculum to enhance the qualifications of those entering the discipline. This increased emphasis on the professionalism of emergency management is one of the reasons we have developed this course.

The Early Years: 1600s–1800s

Before the twentieth century, very few organized emergency management services existed in the United States at the local, state, and federal level.

Perhaps the first organized structures within local government with some responsibility for emergency management were fire departments, both paid and volunteer. After major fires occurred in Boston in 1653 and 1676, the city bought its first fire pumper and formed the first paid fire department within the United States.

Many colonies had "fire clubs" that existed solely for the benefit of their members. Citizens could join these clubs by paying an annual fee. After a fire ravaged Philadelphia's commercial district in 1730, Benjamin Franklin did away with this system, founding the country's first all-volunteer fire department in 1736. This department responded to fires on anyone's property.

The next century saw the Great Chicago Fire of 1871, which raged for two days, destroying four square miles and leaving 90,000 people homeless (Wikipedia, 2007), and the Great Boston Fire of 1872, which lasted for a day and caused massive property damage. In the wake of these events, fire professionals encouraged greater attention to building standards and materials. They also urged insurance companies to require property owners to set up fire escapes and other mechanisms to prevent injury and death as a condition for granting insurance protection. The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) coalesced in 1896 to identify measures to promote fire prevention via construction codes.

Figure 1.1 shows an 1871 illustration of the Great Chicago Fire:

Figure 1.1 Chicago in Flames—The Rush for Life over Randolph Street Bridge

Source: Chapin, 1871, Wikipedia Web site

Federal Initiatives: 1930s

During the administration of president Franklin D. Roosevelt in the 1930s, the federal government established what could be considered the foundation of modern-day emergency management. The emergency management aspect of Roosevelt's New Deal was purely coincidental, as the administration had not proposed a national disaster management strategy, but rather programs to give the country an economic boost.

Roosevelt's projects included emergency relief programs, agricultural programs, and the delivery of aid to migrant workers and tenant farmers. The following are some of his organizations and programs related to emergency management:

· The Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC) and the Bureau of Public Roads (BPR) had the authority to provide loans for the reconstruction of public facilities following a disaster.

· The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) built dams to generate hydroelectric power and reduce flooding in the Tennessee Valley.

· The Flood Control Act of 1934 gave the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers the authority to design and build flood control structures. This act proved significant in that it provided the impression that man could control nature and reduce its hazards (Haddow & Bullock, 2006, p. 2).

Although these programs achieved their purpose of stimulating the economy, their shortsighted approach to disaster management proved ineffective and costly over time.

Civil Defense versus Natural Disaster Response: 1950s and 1960s

Following the Japanese air raid on Pearl Harbor in 1947, the United States began preparing for the possibility of attacks on American soil with the implementation of air warning sirens and plane-spotting operations along the coasts. The Cold War that developed between the United States and Russia during the 1950s and 1960s gave rise to a new concern for America's safety and security.

The Cold War spurred fears of nuclear devastation, as both the United States and Russia were developing nuclear weapons as a means of attacking the other or at least of deterring the other from attacking first. This emerging threat gave birth to civil defense measures and government encouragement of citizens and public entities to construct bomb shelters. Teachers introduced schoolchildren to civil defense with "duck and cover" films and drills.

The Federal Civil Defense Administration (FCDA) emerged to provide technical assistance to state and local governments in addressing this new threat. At the same time, the Office of Defense Mobilization (ODM) under the Department of Defense (DoD) arose with the mission of stockpiling critical materials needed in the event of a war with the Soviets. In 1958, these two organizations merged into a single government entity known as the Office of Civil and Defense Mobilization (OCDM). The 1950s saw relatively few major natural disasters, allowing for a shift in focus in emergency management from natural disaster response to civil defense.

The 1960s started out with several significant natural disasters. An earthquake in Montana measuring 7.3 on the Richter scale, followed by Hurricane Donna in Florida and Hurricane Carla in Texas, highlighted the need for an effective federal response to natural disasters. In 1961, president John F. Kennedy created the Office of Emergency Preparedness (OEP) to advise and assist the president on non-military emergency matters. Civil defense remained the responsibility of the OCDM.

Several other natural disasters occurred during the 1960s, bringing additional changes to federal emergency management. Table 1.1 shows the government's responses to natural disasters from the late 1950s to the late 1960s. You will see that the government began to shift its focus as the disasters mounted.

Table 1.1 Major Disasters and Key Legislative Actions, 1958–1969

Sources: Wikipedia, Wikipedia Web site; USGS, USGS Web site

The Ash Wednesday storm caused major damage to the eastern coast of the United States. The earthquake in Alaska's Prince William Sound resulted in tsunamis reaching as far south as California. Hurricanes Betsy and Camille caused significant loss of life and property along the Gulf Coast and Virginia. As a result, the federal government engaged in renewed discussion about the need for an insurance program to protect against losses from large-scale flooding.

In the previous section, we tracked emergency management from the early days of state and federal involvement to the first shift in focus to terrorism. In this section, we will describe the expansion of FEMA's role in terrorism prevention. We will also cover federal legislation that has altered the focus of the modern-day emergency management organization.

Terrorism Becomes the Major Focus: 2001

FEMA remained relatively unaltered as the 1990s came to a close. However, terrorism struck the United States again on September 11, 2001. The structure and mission of FEMA changed in response to this major incident as the threat of terrorism became a reality.

On September 11, 2001, terrorists hijacked four commercial airliners and, in near-simultaneous attacks, crashed two of them into the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center, one of them into the Pentagon, and the last into a field near Shanksville, Pennsylvania, after the passengers heroically overtook the hijackers. FEMA activated the FRP and proved the strength of its response capabilities as hundreds of emergency response personnel initiated operations in New York and Virginia on that day. However, as a result of the renewed threat of terrorism, the federal government soon overhauled and refocused the mission and organization of FEMA.

Following September 11, President Bush signed an executive order creating the new Office of Homeland Security (OHS) within the White House. He appointed former Pennsylvania governor Tom Ridge to lead the organization and to hold the title of Assistant to the President. These provisions became part of the Homeland Security Act of 2002, which established a new Department of Homeland Security (DHS) and a cabinet-level position for its secretary.

This legislation brought forth the most sweeping reorganization within the federal government since 1949, when president Harry Truman merged the military branches of the government to form the DoD. The Homeland Security Act brought 22 existing federal agencies (including FEMA) and their 179,000 employees together into a single organization.

Homeland Security Presidential Directives (HSPDs)

Soon after the DHS emerged, a series of Homeland Security Presidential Directives (HSPDs) shaped the new organization and its mission. HSPD-3, HSPD-5, and HSPD-8 had the greatest impact on the emergency management community.

Homeland Security Presidential Directive 3 (HSPD-3)

Every community must assess its hazards as part of its emergency management responsibilities. Before we begin our discussion on the specific hazards a community may encounter, however, we must distinguish among hazards, emergencies, and disasters, and define threat and risk. The distinctions we make will grow in importance as we discuss the elements of the emergency management cycle and the roles played by local, state, and federal agencies in the event of an emergency or disaster.

A hazard is a source of danger that may or may not lead to an emergency or disaster. Hazards have the potential to affect people, property, and the environment. In our daily lives, we encounter a variety of hazards, both natural and man-made. Hazards vary from one geographical area to another. For example, whereas the southeastern United States has a high risk of hurricanes and related weather incidents, these types of events are unlikely to occur in the midwestern states. Similarly, the risk of earthquake events is significantly greater along the Pacific than elsewhere in the United States.

The term emergency is typically used to describe a minor event that causes few casualties and a limited amount of property damage. Common emergencies include house fires, automobile accidents, and heart attacks. The response capabilities of a local community are typically sufficient to manage emergency incidents without outside or federal assistance. Communities typically have standard operating procedures (SOPs) to direct responses to such incidents. SOPs include plans to acquire additional resources should an emergency incident escalate. The Stafford Act notes that an emergency may require federal assistance if the aid will help avert a catastrophe.

A disaster is an event that has the potential to produce more losses than a community has the resources to manage. A community affected by a disaster requires the assistance of other communities as well as of state and federal government resources. Disasters typically cause many casualties and significant property or environmental damage. Managing the resources required in a disaster necessitates significant planning and preparation.

A threat is an open declaration to inflict harm on a person or property. Threat is a special term used predominantly by military and intelligence personnel to define the probability of a terrorist incident.

Lastly, risk is the susceptibility of an individual or community to personal injury or loss of life; property damage or destruction; or economic loss from business devastation or disruption from a natural or man-made hazard. By assessing potential losses of life and property, we can determine what our response capabilities need to be to effectively handle an emergency or disaster. In module 2, we will review the ways in which we can quantify risk to determine community requirements for emergency preparedness.

In the sections below, we will discuss some of the hazards that you may confront as an emergency manager, and the effects those hazards may have on your community. For most people, the term emergency management conjures up an image of a supervised response to a natural hazard, such as a tornado, earthquake, or blizzard. However, emergency management must also concern itself with the consequences of man-made and technological hazards, such as toxic materials spills, major transportation accidents, and, as we have recently experienced, terrorist attacks. For purposes of our discussion, we will make a distinction between natural and man-made hazards.

Natural Hazards

Natural hazards exist in our natural environment and present a risk to humans, their communities, and the environment. Large-scale natural disasters occur regularly around the globe. You have only to pick up the daily newspaper or view the evening news to see the damage these hazards can cause.

Although natural hazards pose a risk to the people dwelling near them, they are also responsible for the continuous shaping and reshaping of the world in which we live. Scientific records on geophysical, meteorological, and hydrological processes give us the insight that our earth is constantly evolving, and our natural environment always changing.

Governments attempt to control the effects of natural hazards through actions such as damming, altering the routes of streams and rivers, removing trees to control wildfires, etc. However, we have learned that these actions can permanently damage the environment, and that steps to control natural hazards should only be taken after a complete assessment of their effects. More logical in some cases is the removal of people and their property from a hazard rather than an attempt to control the hazard itself. You will have the opportunity to assess different government actions in our discussion of mitigation in module 2.

If it appears that natural disasters have occurred more frequently in recent times, it may be because more people are choosing to live in hazardous areas—closer to shorelines, clustered along picturesque cliffs, near floodplains, volcanoes, and seismic faults. As a result, these people expose themselves to environmental hazards.

We can classify natural hazards as

· meteorological (weather-related)

· hydrological (water-related)

· geophysical (land-related)

Meteorological Hazards

The main meteorological hazards (weather-related hazards) that our communities face are hurricanes, tornadoes, wildfires, and extreme temperatures.

Hurricanes

Figure 1.5 shows a hurricane:

Figure 1.5 Satellite Image of a Hurricane

Source: NOAA, NOAA Web site

Hurricanes begin as tropical waves that progress into tropical depressions, tropical storms, and then hurricanes. Tropical storms draw their energy from warm seawater; they form only when the sea surface temperature exceeds 80oF. Most Atlantic hurricanes begin off the West African coast.

A tropical storm sustains winds from 39 miles per hour (mph) to 74 mph. Once the winds reach a sustained level of 74 mph, the storm is categorized as a hurricane. Hurricane-strength winds rotate in a counterclockwise pattern in the northern hemisphere, and in a clockwise pattern in the southern hemisphere. Hurricane season usually lasts from June 1 to November 30, with August and September as the peak months. Prior to Hurricane Katrina in 2005, hurricanes resulted in relatively few casualties in the United States.

Economic losses from hurricanes have increased recently, mainly due to rises in population in vulnerable areas. Additionally, some studies suggest a relationship between global warming and hurricane incidence. If these studies are accurate, it is reasonable to expect that we will continue to see an increase in the number and severity of hurricanes (National Geographic News, 2005, National Geographic Web site).

Tornadoes

Figure 1.6 shows a tornado:

Figure 1.6 Tornado, Union City, OK

Source: NOAA Photo Library, 1973, NOAA Web site

Tornadoes are rapidly rotating funnels of air that form when cold air from the north collides with a warmer air mass. The cold air descends because of its heavier weight, and is replaced by the rising warm air. This process creates a rotational flow inside the air mass, a drop in pressure inside the vortex, and an increase in wind speed. The air takes the shape of the familiar funnel cloud. Most tornadoes remain airborne, but they cause an extreme amount of damage when they touch the ground.

The states most affected by tornadoes are Texas, Oklahoma, Arkansas, Missouri, and Kansas, but tornadoes have been known to occur almost everywhere in the United States. This country has 800 to 1,000 tornadoes a year, resulting in the death of seventy to eighty persons (Waugh, 2000, p. 79). The most severe tornado recorded in the United States was a Category F5 tornado that struck Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on March 18, 1925, destroying over 15,000 homes and leaving 695 people dead (Wikipedia, 2007).

Wildfires

Figure 1.7 shows a wildfire:

Figure 1.7 Wildfire at No Name Creek, West Glenwood, CO

Source: Booher, 2002, FEMA Photo Library

About 80,000 wildfires occur in the United States each year (NIFC, 2007, NIFC Web site). As residences expand into previously unpopulated wooded areas, the risk of human exposure to wildfire incidents also increases. Most wildfire incidents are caused by people rather than by natural events, either through the careless handling of fire near wooded areas, or through the deliberate setting of fires.

Wildfire management requires a vast store of emergency response resources. It was within the wildfire response community that the first Incident Command Systems (ICSs) evolved. We will discuss the concept of the ICS in greater detail in our discussion of response in module 4. Wildfire incidents damage and destroy timber as well as structures built by people. Forests protect the soil surface, and when trees burn, an additional hazard arises in the potential for landslides and flooding.

Extreme Temperatures

Figure 1.8 shows a landscape after an ice storm deposited five inches of snow on top of several inches of ice, creating extremely hazardous conditions:

Figure 1.8 Christmas Day Ice Storm, Wilburton, OK

Source: Downing, 2001, FEMA Photo Library

Extreme temperatures also present a risk to people and the communities in which they live. During the summer, periods of high heat can result in drought conditions and heat-related deaths. Overexposure to heat causes the body's evaporation functions to slow, and the body must work harder to maintain its internal temperature. Older adults, children, and sick individuals are most likely to succumb to heat-related disorders because of their bodies' inability to maintain the proper temperature.

Around 175–200 persons die heat-related deaths annually in the United States. A midwestern heat wave in 1995 claimed over one thousand lives, including over 450 in the city of Chicago (Waugh, 2000, p. 86). Droughts caused by high heat have devastating effects on agriculture, typically resulting in the loss of millions of dollars in crops and cattle. Even in more populated areas, communities may find themselves facing water usage restrictions when their reservoirs fall below normal operating levels.

Severe cold can result in disaster conditions as well. Snowstorms can paralyze a city, with large amounts of snow shutting down businesses, causing massive power failures, and keeping the government from maintaining essential services. Blizzards result when severe cold combines with heavy snowfall and high winds. Ice stormsare also a common occurrence in the United States during periods of extreme cold. In addition to the hazards that falling ice presents to humans, the weight of it may topple power lines and cause power failures.

Hydrological Hazards

The main hydrological hazards (water-related hazards) that our communities face include floods and tsunamis.

Floods

Figure 1.9 shows a flood:

Figure 1.9 Flood, Snohomish River, WA

Source: Nauman, 2006, FEMA Photo Library

Floods occur when a large-scale weather system produces heavy rainfall or onshore winds. During a normal rainfall cycle, rainwater soaks into the ground or travels downhill in the form of surface runoff. When the soil becomes saturated or the terrain can no longer handle the excess water from runoff, flooding takes place. Flooding is capable of undermining roadways and bridges, uprooting trees, and washing away vehicles and property. It has become a widespread problem in the United States, accounting for three-quarters of all presidential disaster declarations. Floods are the most frequent and widespread of all natural hazards (Lindell, 2007, p. 117).

We are probably all familiar with the massive flooding that occurred in New Orleans after the levees broke during Hurricane Katrina in August 2005. At least 1,836 people lost their lives in those floods, and the damage is estimated at over $80 billion, although the long-term recovery costs are expected to greatly exceed this early estimate (Wikipedia, 2007).

Tsunamis

Figure 1.10 shows a tsunami wave:

Figure 1.10 Tsunami Wave

Source: NOAA News Photo, FEMA Photo Library

The term tsunami comes from a Japanese word meaning "harbor wave." A tsunami is a strong wave of energy caused by an undersea disturbance, usually an earthquake. Volcanoes, meteorites, the collapse of landmasses/glaciers into the ocean, and large explosions in or over water can also trigger tsunamis.

The ocean waves produced by a tsunami may not extend far above sea level, and are not the monster "tidal waves" that most people envision. When an undersea disturbance occurs, the energy expands outward in all directions in a series of waves. When the waves reach the coastline, they increase in height, first pulling water from the shoreline, and then smashing it into the coastline, causing destruction. Although a tsunami can strike almost anywhere along the U.S. coastline, the most destructive tsunamis have occurred along the coasts of California, Oregon, Washington, Alaska, and Hawaii.

Most of us probably remember the disaster that occurred in the Indian Ocean on December 26, 2004, when an earthquake measuring 8.9 on the Richter scale caused a series of tsunamis that struck regions from Indonesia to Africa, causing between 150,000 and 200,000 deaths (Haddow & Bullock, 2006, p. 31).

After a devastating earthquake and tsunami rocked the coast of Hawaii in 1946, the Seismic Sea Wave Warning System (SSWWS) was created to monitor seismic activity in the oceans and sea levels at stations throughout the Pacific. Unfortunately, the Indian Ocean lacked such an extensive system in 2004. Following the recent disaster, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) set a goal to plant monitoring systems around the Indian Ocean and eventually the entire globe (Encyclopedia Britannica 2007, Encyclopedia Britannica Web site).

Geophysical Hazards

The main geophysical hazards (land-related hazards) that our communities face include earthquakes, landslides, and volcanoes.

Earthquakes

Figure 1.11 shows the aftermath of an earthquake:

Figure 1.11 Earthquake Damage, Paso Robles, CA

Source: Golden, 2004, FEMA Photo Library

An earthquake is a shifting of the plates that form the earth's surface. Scientists measure the intensity of an earthquake from its epicenter (the point deep in the earth from where the earthquake originated).

The Richter scale gauges the magnitude of an earthquake's energy release, assigning it a number. Each whole number indicates an energy release of about 31 times that of the previous number, so that an 8.0 earthquake might cause serious damage in areas several hundred miles across, but a 9.0 earthquake might level areas several thousand miles across. Earthquakes may cause light damage—broken glass and furniture—or they may collapse bridges, rupture underground utility lines, and destabilize or flatten buildings. The Northridge earthquake on January 1994 damaged 114,000 residences and commercial buildings in California, and resulted in 72 deaths (Haddow & Bullock, 2006, p. 22).

Landslide/Snow Avalanche

A landslide occurs when masses of earth, rock, and other debris move down a slope in natural terrain. Landslides vary in size and speed. They are typically initiated by storms after wildfire or human activity has destabilized the surface of the land. Mudslides occur frequently in California on the ridgelines of the coast and the mountains.

An avalanche takes place when piled snow and debris plummet down the face of a mountain. Changes in weather can destabilize mountain slopes and cause a shifting of snow and other materials. Although they can span many miles, avalanches have a minimal impact on the human population, as they typically occur in uninhabited areas. However, in recent times, avalanches have injured or killed adventurous climbers.

Volcanic Eruptions

Figure 1.12 shows a volcano (and the earth's biggest mountain):

Figure 1.12 Mauna Loa Volcano, HI

Source: USGS Photo Gallery, USGS Web site

A volcano is a special type of mountain that has a reservoir of molten rock (lava) in its core. When gases accumulate within this reservoir, an eruption may occur, releasing gas, lava, rock, and debris. Volcanic eruptions can cause land destruction (from flowing lava and debris), fires (from heated gases and lava), landslides, and earthquakes.

When people think of volcanic hazards, they don't typically think of the United States. However, the eruption of Mount St. Helens in Washington in 1980 and the constant flow of lava from the Mauna Loa and Kilauea volcanoes in Hawaii remind us that the danger does indeed exist within our country.

Active volcanoes in the United States exist mainly in Hawaii, Alaska, and the Pacific Northwest. Those of the Cascade Range in California, Oregon, and Washington have caused problems recently. Because volcanoes have a twenty-mile radius danger zone and may affect areas one hundred miles away, parts of Montana and Wyoming are also at risk from volcanic eruption.

Man-Made Hazards

Man-made hazards result from actions initiated by people and technology. For example, the use of hazardous materials to produce almost every manufactured good brings with it the risk of an accidental release of toxic materials into the environment and the exposure of those materials to the population. Our massive transit system and the extreme volumes of commuter traffic we produce on a daily basis increase the risk of major transportation accidents.

Our reliance on electrical power and telecommunications highlights an area of risk that could affect a large segment of the population should one of those systems fail. And, finally, we must recognize and plan for terrorist activity within the United States—deliberate attacks on property with the goal of inflicting human casualties. We must give these man-made and technological hazards the same consideration in our emergency operations planning that we would give to natural hazards.

Fire

In the United States, more than 4,000 people die and more than 25,000 suffer injuries each year from fires, many of which could have been prevented. Direct property loss from fires is estimated at $8.6 billion annually (FEMA, 2006, FEMA Web site). Structural fires in our communities are an almost daily occurrence. Most of these incidents are easily managed through local emergency response capabilities, without the need for outside assistance.

However, history has warned us of the potential for large-scale disasters from fire with the Great Chicago Fire of 1871, the Great Boston Fire of 1872, and the 1906 San Francisco fire, in which large portions of these cities were destroyed. Before the twentieth century, many buildings had wooden structures. Improved building standards and materials and the regulation of construction methods have reduced the risk of fire-related disasters. However, communities must still provide for fire management. This problem is still common within our communities, mostly because of human carelessness.

Hazardous Materials Incidents

The use of hazardous materials in industry, agriculture, medicine, research, and manufacturing poses numerous risks to people and property. Hazardous materials come in the form of flammables, explosives, toxic poisons, and radioactive materials. Many of these products are transported on a daily basis across the nation's highways, railways, waterways, and pipelines. The release of these chemicals is typically caused by accidents in transportation or in storage facilities.

Hazardous materials spillage can cause serious injury and death, chronic health problems, and damage to buildings and property. In a recent incident, a train collision spewed toxic chlorine vapors into Graniteville, South Carolina on January 6, 2005. This accident resulted in 10 deaths and over 250 injuries. Over 5,400 citizens had to evacuate the area for nearly two weeks while cleaning crews removed the chemicals (Wikipedia, 2007). Figure 1.13 shows this incident:

Figure 1.13 Toxic Train Wreck, Graniteville, SC

Source: EPA, 2005, Wikipedia

Nuclear Emergency

Nuclear power plants use heat generated from nuclear fission to convert water into steam, which powers generators to produce electricity. Nuclear power plants operate in most states, and produce about twenty percent of the nation's power. Nearly three million Americans live within ten miles of an operating nuclear power plant (FEMA, 2006, FEMA Web site).

Although the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) regulates the construction and operation of nuclear power facilities, accidents can occur. Escaped plumes of gases, and chemicals and particles deposited on the ground, can expose those who live close to the plants to dangerous amounts of radiation. Individuals can also inhale or ingest radioactive materials. High exposure to radiation can cause cancer, other serious illnesses, or death.

Transportation Accidents

We live in a mobile society, using all forms of transportation for commuting and for business and pleasure travel. Unfortunately, operator error, mechanical failure, and bad weather make transportation accidents a regular occurrence. The large majority of these are managed through local response capabilities, but our emergency planning must also take into account the possibility of disaster. We must plan for large-scale aviation, railway, waterway, and motor vehicle incidents.

Transportation disasters require a considerable amount of outside assistance because of the high number of fatalities and casualties. Federal agencies such as the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) are required to perform investigations into the cause of such incidents. Among transportation disasters, railway accidents occur the most frequently, with over 180 taking place every year. Most occur at roadway crossings, where automobile drivers fail to heed the warning devices intended to protect them from the hazard of a moving train.

Figure 1.14 shows the site of a transportation incident in Tennessee, where a school bus crossed a railroad track in front of an oncoming train, leading to the death of three passengers:

Figure 1.14 Transportation Accident, Conasauga, TN

Source: NTSB, 2000, NTSB Web site

Power Failure

We often take electricity for granted. However, natural hazards, human error, equipment failure, or the deliberate destruction of equipment may stop the power. Although many power outages last only for a short time, the local emergency management organization must be prepared for longer blackouts requiring the sheltering of citizens, increased emergency responses, and the provisioning of food and water. Power outages occur most frequently during extreme weather situations, and emergency response requirements may be compounded by additional hazards created by the elements.

One of the most significant blackouts in recent times occurred on August 14, 2003, when a massive power outage affected a large portion of the northeastern United States and eastern Canada. Dubbed the Northeast Blackout of 2003, this outage stemmed from a chain of equipment failures, leaving ten million people in Canada and forty million people in the United States without power (Wikipedia, 2007).

Telecommunications Failure

The operations and security of global and local telecommunications networks must undergo the same scrutiny as do our electrical, gas, water, and other critical utilities. We must consider the effects of a potential disaster on the infrastructure in our emergency planning, as a destructive event directed at any one of these systems could cripple the population in both vital and mundane ways.

We have become increasingly dependent on the global telecommunications network in conducting our daily business and in managing our personal affairs. We have only to watch other drivers passing us on the highway to observe a high number of them talking on their cell phones. Cell phones, Internet-connected computers, personal digital assistants (PDAs), and other communications devices have become a part of our daily lives, and many of us would have great difficulty in adjusting to the loss of their capabilities. Among industries, banking is one of the most dependent on the global networking infrastructure, estimating millions of dollars in losses from failed brokerage operations and credit card transactions for every hour of network outage (Wikipedia, 2007).

The vulnerability of the Internet causes concern for the security and stability of the global telecommunications system. At any moment, countless viruses and network attacks are active on the network. Many of these are relatively harmless, whereas others may destroy or steal data files from users' computer systems. Computer security has become a vital industry, struggling to stay a step ahead of the destructive forces of network hackers and virus launchers. It is critical that users maintain up-to-date security mechanisms to protect their systems and data.

Terrorism

Terrorism is defined in the United States Code as "the unlawful use of force and violence against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social objectives" (28 C.F.R. Section 0.85, Wikipedia). During the 1950s and 1960s, emergency management focused on preparing for attacks from foreign governments, but it has since expanded to include planning for the malicious actions of organized groups or individuals, both international and domestic, who would harm the United States.

Before April 19, 1995 (which saw the bombing of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City), and September 11, 2001 (which saw the aircraft attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon), U.S. citizens paid very little attention to the threat of terrorist attacks inside the country. Until that time, most terrorist incidents in the United States had involved explosions, but had led to minor property damage and minimal loss of life. The 1995 domestic terrorist incident and the 2001 international terrorist incident brought a new level of realization to the United States of the risk and the impact of these types of incidents. Figure 1.15 shows some damage done to the Twin Towers during the 9/11 attacks:

Figure 1.15 Fallen Tower

Source: Tilford, 2001, Wikipedia

On April 15, 2013, the Boston Marathon bombing showed the United States still has some vulnerabilities to terrorist attacks.

Figure 1.16 Boston Marathon Medical Teams

Source: Rose, 2013, FEMA Library

The Consequences of Disaster

As emergency managers, we need to consider the possible consequences of a disaster in our community. We need to look beyond the physical effects (property damage, personal injury, death) and consider the social and political aftermath. Although the physical impact of an emergency or disaster is easily measured, we may find it difficult to assess other types of effects. As part of our planning, it is necessary to predict all outcomes in order to determine the best means of recovery for households and businesses. Below, we discuss the financial, economic, sociological, and political consequences of disasters.

Financial Consequences

The financial impact of a disaster includes the costs of response, recovery, and reconstruction. The community must repair and restore buildings, property, and their contents; must shelter and evacuate people; and must clean up roads and neighborhoods. It must also account for injury and loss of life.

Although the immediate disaster response phase typically lasts only a short time (three to five days), the recovery and reconstruction period can continue for decades. Consider the impact of Hurricane Katrina, to which the initial response lasted only a few weeks. The devastation caused by the storm necessitates an extended recovery and reconstruction period that will continue for several decades.

Economic Consequences

We can typically measure the financial impact of a disaster in terms of repair and replacement costs; however, the economic impact is usually long-term and is more difficult to measure. A major disaster can destroy the economic base of a community. When assessing the economic impact of a disaster, we need to consider unemployment, interruption of business, loss of production, decreases in demand and consumer spending, and tax base losses.

We also need to keep in mind the costs inherent in the relocation of vital economic enterprises that move from the area rather than rebuild in a high-risk community. The economic impact of a disaster often exceeds the financial costs of response and recovery, as it comprises the long-term effects of the migration of jobs, industry, and commerce. For example, the estimated financial cost of Hurricane Katrina exceeds $80 billion, whereas the estimated long-term economic cost exceeds $150 billion (Wikipedia, 2007).

Sociological Consequences

When assessing the potential impact of a disaster on a community, we also need to consider the sociological effects. We have to take into account both psychosocial and demographic concerns. Along with physical stress and fatigue, psychological stress can plague the victims of a disaster and those trying to help them. The effects of psychological stress include fatigue, nausea, depression, and anxiety. Fortunately, most of these effects are mild and short-lived, with few victims requiring long-term psychiatric help.

However, some victims may require special attention. These include the very young, the very old, the impoverished, ethnic minorities who do not speak English, and individuals who have suffered considerable loss or the death of family members.

We must also consider the psychological impact of a disaster on our community's emergency responders. Many will suffer the same effects as the residents from long hours, hard work, large-scale property destruction, and the presence of mass injury and death. It is important for planning efforts to include provisions for critical-incident stress management for emergency responders.

The demographic effects of a disaster include the changes that occur in the community as people move out with no intention to return. Demographic effects are particularly relevant in impoverished areas, where large numbers of people may lack the resources to rebuild. Citizens may fear that another disaster will strike and cause additional harm, or that the loss of jobs in the area will make a return financially unfeasible. Parts of the community may then turn into "ghost towns."

Political Consequences

Citizens of a community assume that the government will be there to protect them and to assist in recovery in the event of an emergency or disaster. When disaster strikes, many will inevitably view our best efforts as not good enough, and some citizens will lose confidence in their political leadership. Disaster recovery requires the completion of a considerable amount of tasks within a relatively short time period. When local government agencies do not respond quickly enough, communities will create their own methods for solving problems.

Often, this will result in conflicts within those communities, as neighbors will argue over recovery measures. Questions such as how long temporary shelters should remain in place and what standards should govern the construction of replacement homes will pit neighbor against neighbor. Many will want to bypass zoning and permit requirements. Conflicts can divide a community, and it is best to plan for disasters to ensure a quick and efficient response.

So far, you have had the opportunity to view emergency management from a historical perspective and to gain some understanding of the hazards and risks that communities face. We have also paid a lot of attention to the role of the federal government in emergency management. It is now time to delve into your role as emergency manager and the functions performed by local emergency management organizations.

The primary mission of the emergency manager and the emergency management organization is to prevent or reduce losses from hazards, disasters, and emergencies. This is a big responsibility, and it requires skills, training, and experience. Gone are the days when the emergency manager's primary task was to act as air raid warden and sound the siren in the event of an enemy attack. Today's emergency manager must be a professional in the field of emergency management, and must constantly seek to improve his or her skills.

It is important for the emergency manager to understand the federal government's view of the local emergency organization. The NRP and the Stafford Act define the role of the local public safety agency in the initial response to a disaster, and provide a mechanism for acquiring state and federal resources when local capabilities become overwhelmed.

Consider figure 1.16 below. When an incident occurs, the local emergency management organization must activate plans and dispatch the resources necessary to safely handle the incident and its consequences. The local organization must also know how to assess the hazards of the incident and to determine whether recovery needs exceed local capabilities. If the incident expands in size and complexity, the local organization may need to request and activate the resources of the state and possibly the federal government to efficiently manage the incident.

The local emergency management organization must follow its operations plan in order to initiate these requests for support. In most instances, the federal and state governments have no authority to intervene in a local jurisdiction's management of an incident without a specific request for assistance. To some degree, this procedural requirement contributed to the flaws in the response to Hurricane Katrina in August 2005. The lag in the time it took the local government to request federal assistance delayed the deployment of critical resources to the region. Although the federal government took a large portion of the blame for the belated response, the local and state governments should recognize that they too failed in their responsibilities.

Figure 1.17 illustrates the stages of response that should follow a major disaster:

Figure 1.17 Response Roles

Emergency management staff must perform the following activities:

· identify the risks and hazards that affect the community

· assess weaknesses in the operational capabilities to mobilize resources in response to these risks and hazards

· determine appropriate strategies for reducing risks through prevention and mitigation processes, increased operational training, and readiness

The emergency manager and the emergency management organization must be capable of performing these essential activities and must take the necessary steps to translate preparedness needs into emergency management functions. Once organized to meet these functions, the organization and the manager will only achieve credibility through performance. By the end of this course, you will have the opportunity to assess your own local emergency management organization and determine how to improve its operations.

Questions to Consider

Consider your local emergency management organization.

1. How is your emergency management office organized to satisfy its mission?

2. How well did the organization perform after the last emergency or disaster in your community?

Functions of Emergency Management

As a discipline, emergency management defines the actions professionals take to prevent or minimize the effects of natural or man-made disasters. Emergency management is also a basic function of government, and one of the primary reasons for the existence of local ruling bodies. No community is immune to the effects of disasters; therefore, an effective emergency management system must be put into place to minimize harm to citizens.

Emergency management is an ongoing process that requires the integration of mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery (see figure 1.18 below). As we complete this introductory module, we will define each of these functions. The modules that follow will provide more detail on each.

Figure 1.18 The Emergency Management Cycle

Mitigation is the phase of emergency management in which the organization makes efforts to prevent hazards from causing or developing into disasters and to reduce the effects of disasters when they occur. Mitigation involves enforcing building codes, constructing flood levees and dams, implementing land-use legislation, and creating insurance policies.

Although mitigation is typically the first phase of emergency management, it should be a component of the other phases. For example, operations implemented during the recovery phase of a disaster may include restricting land use or altering the makeup of an area to prevent the occurrence or to reduce the effects of another disaster. Mitigation is one of the most important phases of emergency management. It includes all the actions taken to prevent or minimize damage from a hazard.

Preparedness is the phase in which the organization defines the hazards of concern to the community, the resources available to mitigate the effects of incidents involving those hazards, and the procedures to mobilize those resources in the event of an emergency or disaster. Preparedness involves using training and exercises to enhance the readiness of personnel and to evaluate their capability to respond to an incident.

Response is the phase in which the organization mobilizes necessary emergency services and moves them to the site of an emergency or disaster. Response may involve firefighters, law enforcement personnel, public health and public works staff, and other government, private, or volunteer resources. Response operations include evacuation, sheltering, doling out food and water, coordinating search and rescue missions, and providing local security to prevent looting.

Recovery is the phase performed after the occurrence of an emergency or disaster to restore the affected area to its previous state. Recovery efforts include helping individuals and public entities with cleanup, removing debris, and restoring public services.

In this module, we aimed to provide you with an introduction to the concepts of emergency management. We began with a discussion of the historical context of emergency management from the pre-FEMA years to the FEMA formative period to this decade and its policy initiatives. We also spent some time discussing various types of hazards, both natural and man-made, that challenge the emergency management capabilities of a community. In our final section, we discussed the roles and responsibilities that you will have as an emergency manager and leader of an emergency management organization.

In the next modules, we will give you the opportunity to explore many of these concepts in greater detail and to conduct independent research that will further your understanding of emergency management.

References

Barr, Stephen. (2001). FEMA's transformation under Bill Clinton. In David Abshire (Ed.). Triumphs and tragedies of the modern presidency: 76 case studies in presidential leadership. Westport, CT: Praeger. Information retrieved March 2007 from http://hnn.us/roundup/entries/15369.html

Booher, Andrea (Photographer). (2002, June 16). Colorado wildfire [Photograph]. Retrieved March 2007 from http://www.photolibrary.fema.gov/photolibrary/photo_details.do?id=7493

Chapin, John R (Artist). (1871). Chicago in flames—the rush for life over Randolph street bridge [Illustration]. In Harper's Weekly. Retrieved March 2007 from http://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Image:Chicago-fire1.jpg. In the public domain.

Definition of terrorism. (2007). In Wikipedia. Retrieved March 2007 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Definition_of_terrorism

Downing, Gerald (Photographer). (2001, January 1). Christmas Day Ice Storm, Wilburton, OK [Photograph]. Retrieved March 2007 from http://www.photolibrary.fema.gov/photolibrary/photo_details.do?id=544

Economic effects of Hurricane Katrina. (2007). In Wikipedia. Retrieved March 2007 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_effects_of_Hurricane_Katrina

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). (2005). Graniteville derailment, aerial view closeup [Photograph]. Retrieved March 2007 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graniteville_train_disaster. In the public domain.

Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). (2006). Are you ready: Nuclear power plants. Retrieved March 2007 from http://www.fema.gov/areyouready/nuclear_power_plants.shtm

Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). (2006). Fire. Retrieved March 2007 from http://www.fema.gov/hazard/fire/index.shtm

Golden, Dane (Photographer). (2004, January 25). California earthquake [Photograph]. Retrieved March 2007 from http://www.photolibrary.fema.gov/photolibrary/photo_details.do?id=9424

Graniteville train disaster. (2007). In Wikipedia. Retrieved March 2007 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graniteville_train_disaster

Great Chicago Fire. (2007). In Wikipedia. Retrieved March 2007 from http://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Great_Chicago_Fire

Haddow, George D., & Jane A. Bullock. (2006). Introduction to emergency management. Burlington, MA: Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann, Inc.

Hurricane Carla. (2007). In Wikipedia. Retrieved May 2007 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hurricane_Carla

Hurricane Donna. (2007). In Wikipedia. Retrieved May 2007 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hurricane_Donna

Hurricane Katrina. (2007). In Wikipedia. Retrieved March 2007 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hurricane_Katrina

Kaufmann, Robert (Photographer). (2013, June 20). Burned Houses Demolished in Camp Osbourne, New Jersey [Photograph]. Retrieved July 2013 from http://www.fema.gov/photolibrary/photo_details.do?id=66830

Lindell, Michael K, Carla Prater, & Ronald W. Perry. (2007). Introduction to emergency management. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Ames Research Center. (1995). Oklahoma City bombing 1995 [Photograph]. Retrieved March 2007 from http://dart2.arc.nasa.gov/Deployments/ OklahomaCityBombing1995/images/Oklahoma-12a.jpg

National Geographic News. (2005, August 4). Is global warming making hurricanes worse? Retrieved March 2007 from http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/08/0804_050804_hurricanewarming.html

National Interagency Fire Center (NIFC). (2007). Wildland fire statistics: Total wildland fires and acres (1960–2006). Retrieved March 2007 from http://www.nifc.gov/stats/fires_acres.html

National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Hurricane [Photograph]. Retrieved March 2007 from http://hurricanes.noaa.gov/

National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Tsunami [Photograph]. Retrieved March 2007 from http://www.photolibrary.fema.gov/photolibrary/photo_details.do?id=2713

National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Photo Library. (1973, May 24). Tornado nssl0064, National Severe Storms Laboratory (NSSL) Collection [Photograph]. Retrieved March 2007 from http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/nssl/nssl0064.htm

National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB). (2000, March 28). Conasauga, Tennessee railroad/highway grade crossing accident [Photograph]. Retrieved March 2007 from http://www.ntsb.gov/events/2001/ conasauga/Conasauga_BoardPresent.htm

Nauman, Marvin. (2006, November 8). Flood, Snohomish River, WA [Photograph]. Retrieved March 2007 from http://www.photolibrary.fema.gov/photolibrary/photo_details.do?id=26905

Network outage. (2007). In Wikipedia. Retrieved March 2007 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_outage

Northeast Blackout of 2003. (2007). In Wikipedia. Retrieved March 2007 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Northeast_Blackout_of_2003

Rose, Robert (Photographer). (2013, April 15). Boston Marathon Medical Teams [Photograph]. Retrieved July 2013 from http://www.fema.gov/photolibrary/photo_details.do?id=66020

Tilford, Eric J. (2001, September 17). September 17 2001 ground zero 04 [Photograph]. Retrieved March 2007 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:September_17_2001_Ground_Zero_04.jpg. In the public domain.

Tornado statistics. (2007). In Wikipedia. Retrieved March 2007 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tri-State_Tornado

Tsunami. (2007). In Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved March 2007 from http://www.britannica.com/eb/ article-9073633/tsunami

U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS). HSPD-8 overview. Retrieved March 2007 from http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/ odp/assessments/hspd8.htm

U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ). Presidential Decision Directive 39. Retrieved March 2007 from http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/odp/docs/pdd39.htm

U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). Mauna Loa volcano [Photograph]. Retrieved March 2007 from http://earthquake.usgs.gov/regional/states/montana/history.php

U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). Montana: Earthquake history. Retrieved May 2007 from http://hvo.wr.usgs.gov/gallery/maunaloa/1984/2441073_L.jpg

Waugh, William L. (2000). Living with hazards, dealing with disasters. New York: M.E. Sharpe.

White House. (2002, March 12). Homeland Security Presidential Directive-3. Retrieved March 2007 from http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/03/20020312-5.html

White House. (2003, February 28). Homeland Security Presidential Directive/HSPD-5. Retrieved March 2007 from http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2003/02/20030228-9.html

White House. (2003, December 17). Homeland Security Presidential Directive/HSPD-8. Retrieved March 2007 from http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2003/12/20031217-6.html