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agenda

• introduction to methodology

• basic methodological questions

• critical rationalism

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research design

“Research designs are procedures for collecting, analyzing, interpreting,

and reporting data in research studies”

(Creswell & Clark, 2011, p. 53)

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research design

“A good design has a clear focus and is built around a clear research

question. Both design and questions allow the research to reduce the

study to the essential issue for answering the question. A good design

makes the research manageable in resources and time and is clear in

decisions about sampling and why particular methods are used. It is also

well linked to the theoretical background and based on the research

perspective of the study. Finally, it reflects the aims of generalization

and the audiences for the study and, more concretely, it allows the

comparisons that are intended by the study” (Flick, 2018, p. 45)

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methodology

“Overarching, macro-level framework[s] that offer principles of reasoning

associated with particular paradigmatic assumptions that legitimate

various schools of research”

(O’Leary, 2017, p. 11)

“Without unpacking these [methodological] assumptions and clarifying

them, no one (including ourselves!) can really divine what our research has

been or what it is now saying (…) Without it, research is not research”

(Crotty, 2006, p. 17)

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methodology vs. method

“Methodology means understanding the entire research process -

including its social-organizational context, philosophical assumptions,

ethical principles, and the political impact of new knowledge from the

research enterprise. Methods refer to the collection of specific

techniques we use in a study to select cases, measure and observe social

life, gather and refine data, analyze data, and report on results. The

two are closely linked and interdependent.”

(Neuman, 2014, p. 2)

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heuristic scheme: methodology & research design

ontology

What is the fun- damental nature of social reality?

epistemology

What constitutes legitimate

knowledge?

methodology

What are the principles of researching?

methods

Which methods are appropriate?

analysis

What kind of analysis can be

performed?

philosophical assumptions research designs

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methodology is grounded in ...

... ontology

• “An area of philosophy that deals with the

nature of being, or what exists; the area of

philosophy that asks what really is and what

the fundamental categories of reality are” (Neuman, 2014, p. 94)

• what is the nature of social reality?

... epistemology

• “An area of philosophy concerned with the

creation of knowledge; focuses on how we

know what we know or what are the most

valid ways to reach truth”

(Neuman, 2014, p. 95)

• what are the conditions of scientific

knowledge?

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paradigms

ontology epistemology methodology methods analysis

What is the fun- damental nature of social reality?

What constitutes legitimate

knowledge? What are the principles of researching?

Which methods are appropriate?

What kind of analysis can be

performed?

philosophical assumptions research designs

”Paradigm. A general organizing framework for theory and research that includes basic assumptions, key issues, models of quality research, and methods for seeking answers” (Neuman, 2014, p. 96)

paradigms organise scientific communities (Hacking, 2012) • account for the relative ease of professional communication within a scientific community • account for the relative ease of professional judgment within a scientific community

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categorising paradigms

1. What is the ultimate purpose of conducting social scientific research?

2. What is the fundamental nature of social reality?

3. What is the basic nature of human beings?

4. What is the view on human agency (free will, volition, and rationality)?

5. What is the relationship between science and common sense?

6. What constitutes an explanation or theory of social reality?

7. How does one determine whether an explanation is true or false?

8. What does good evidence or factual information look like?

9. What is the relevance or use of social scientific knowledge?

10. Where do sociopolitical values enter into science?

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basic methodological

questions

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ontology

• “An area of philosophy that deals with the nature of being, or

what exists; the area of philosophy that asks what really is

and what the fundamental categories of reality are” (Neuman, 2014, p. 94)

• “A field of metaphysics that is concerned with the study of

being, or that which is; it includes a hierarchy of levels of

reality to determine what exists, undeniably, in the external

world” (Pernecky, 2016, p. 205)

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ontology

MATERIALISM (Metaphysical) Realism

There is an external world or matter that exists

independent of perception.

Objects cause sensations or ideas.

IMMATERIALISM (Metaphysical) Idealism

Objects of perception are ‘sense data’ or

‘appearances’ or ‘ideas’. There are only mind-

dependent perceptions.

SOLIPSISM

Material objects have no existence

outside of a person’s consciousness. Only

the Self exists.

metaphysical nominalismrealism nominalism

(Pernecky, 2016, p. 26, Figure 1.3 [part])

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ontology

question ontological choice

is there an independent [social] reality? yes

yes, but it is different from its appearances

if [social] reality and its appearances are yes

distinct, are they ontologically the same? no

is [social] reality given or constructed? given and we can see it

but we can’t see it

constructed but it becomes given afterwards

nothing but the process of construction exists Wirén, 2018, p. 39, Table 1 [part, modified])

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‘ontological continuum’

realism constructivism

social reality is given social reality is constructed

social reality exists ‘out there’ social reality is created by subjects through their interactions and interpretations

human action & interaction are governed by structures, laws, regularities

actors influence structures and regularities

social reality exists outside and independent of the researcher

knowledge about social reality is always dependent on subjects and social relations

facts can be discovered facts are constructed through categorizations

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epistemology

• “An area of philosophy concerned with the creation of knowledge;

focuses on how we know what we know or what are the most valid ways

to reach truth” (Neuman, 2014, p. 95)

• “The theory of knowledge, including issues such as the nature, scope,

justification, and the limits of knowledge” (Pernecky, 2016, p. 201)

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empiricism vs. rationalism

empircism

• “A posteriori knowledge ... is knowledge

derived from sense data” (Pernecky, 2016, p. 45)

rationalism

• “A priori justifications rely on rational

intuitions or insights; they are based on

reason alone and include mostly abstract

concepts and mathematical calculations ... ” (Pernecky, 2016, p. 45)

“Historically, there have been two ways by which knowledge claims can be rationally justified (Gor-

man, 1992: 21). On the one hand, this is the view that knowledge can only derive from experience

(empiricism), and on the other that the source of knowledge is reason (rationalism)”

(Pernecky, 2016, p. 28)

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(post-) positivism, verification, falsification

General Principle; Law;

Theory Hypothesis

Generali- zation; Pattern

Observation 1

Observation 2

Observation 3

INDUCTIVISM

A Posteriori

HYPOTHETICO-DEDUCTIVISM

A Priori

A: Positivist/Verificationism

B: Postpositivist/Falsificationism

(Pernecky, 2016, p. 52, Figure 2.2) © albrecht becker. 18

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(post-) positivism

“Data are consequently something that exists, is (already) there, and the

task of the researcher thus becomes to gather and systematize them”

(Alvesson & Sköldberg, 2018, p. 21)

“The study of social phenomena in general as ‘things’ or external

structures that exist independent of social agents is what is perhaps most

characteristic of the positivist, postpositivist, and (scientific) realist

approaches to social science”

(Pernecky, 2016, p. 51)

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social construction of reality

• socially constructed reality

• social reality is created by subjects through their interactions and

interpretations

• actors influence structures and regularities

• knowledge about social reality is always dependent on subjects and

social relations

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social construction of reality

• ‘Thomas theorem’ (Thomas & Thomas, 1928)

• ‘If men [sic!] define situations as real, they are real in their consequences’

• symbolic interactionism (Blumer, 1969)

• humans act toward things on the basis of

the meanings they ascribe to those things

• the meaning of such things is derived from, or arises out of, the social interaction that

one has with others and the society

• these meanings are handled in, and modified through, an interpretative

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constructivism

• scientific knowledge is ideographic: symbolic representation of

the social world studied

• thick description (Geertz)

• "setting down the meaning particular social actions have for the actors

whose actions they are" (Geertz, 1973, p. 27)

• "stating, as explicitly as we can manage, what the knowledge thus

attained demonstrates about the society in which it is found and,

beyond that, about social life as such" (Geertz, 1973, p. 27)

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abductive reasoning

theory generation or refinement

empirical observation

theory-informed potential explanation

(Dubois & Gadde, 2002) © albrecht becker. 23

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constructivism

“Interpretive theory gives the reader a feel for another’s social

reality. The theory does this by revealing the meanings, values,

interpretive schemes, and rules of living used by people in

their daily lives”

(Neuman, 2000, p. 73)

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‘epistemological continuum’

(post-) positivism constructivism

scientific knowledge is (shall) be an objective representation of reality

scientific knowledge is an interpretation of interpretations and thus created by the researcher

concepts must be defined so as to be measurable concepts are grounded in the field’s perspectives

scientific explanations aim at discovering causal relations scientific knowledge is nomothetic

scientific ‘explanations’ aim at under-standing the field’s reality constructions (‘Verstehen’)

Nasser Alajmi

heuristic scheme

ontology epistemology methodology methods analysis

What is the fun- damental nature of social reality?

What constitutes legitimate

knowledge? What is the

overarching re- search design?

Which methods are appropriate?

What kind of analysis can be

performed?

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methodological affinities (1)

ontology epistemology methodology methods analysis

realism (post-) positivism ‘scientific method’

hypothetico- deductive quantitative

statistical analysis

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methodological affinities (2)

ontology epistemology methodology methods analysis

nominalism constructivism ethnography

case studies abduction qualitative thematic

exploration: semantic analysis

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critical rationalism

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critical rationalism

• based in work of Karl R. Popper

(1902-1994)

• for a long time seen as ‘standard operating

procedure’ of research

• philosophy of (social) science against which

‘alternative’ methodologies are positioned

• model of science and research in everyday

knowledge

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Popper

presentation of critical rationalism based on Baert (2005, ch. 3) and Irzik (2008) © albrecht becker. 30

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unity of science

• ‘methodological naturalism’ (Baert)

• superior logic as essence of natural sciences

• tale of progress and success

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logical positivism

• Vienna Circle

• Rudolf Carnap, Moritz Schlick, Otto Neurath ...

• Enlightenment: critical attitude

• confronting theories and predictions with empirical evidence

• rational scrutiny and discussion

• inductivism

• obtaining universal statements from singular statements

• protocol sentences as foundation for theoretical inferences

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criticising inductivism

• David Hume (1711 – 1776)

• no certainty of the validity of universal

statements from singular statements

• no exclusion of potential contradicting

observations in the future

• knowledge cannot be rationally justified

https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Hume

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Popper’s falsificationism (1)

• ‘asymmetry between verifiability and falsifiability’

• deductive method can be rationally justified problem

theoretical system (universal statements)

initial conditions

hypothesis

• corroboration or falsification

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Popper’s falsificationism (2)

• falsifiability as demarcation criterion between science and non-science

• theories must be formulated in a way which allows empirical testing

• “It must be possible for an empirical scientific system to be refuted by experience” (Popper, 1959, in Baert, 2005, p. 67)

• the class of potential falsifiers of a theory must not be empty

• verisimilitude

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critical rationalism in social sciences

• deductivism and falsificationism as basic principles

• social situations are even less complex than physical ones

• people tend to act rationally (intendedly rational)

• allows applying relatively simple models

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methodological individualism

• explaining social phenomena by referring to individual actions

• people act purposefully

• on the whole, people act rationally

• people act in a particular context (‘situation’)

• social action can be explained by referring to the situation people are in

• ‘zero method’

• constructing model of completely rational action

• comparing actual behaviour with the model

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situational logic

• constructing a model of situationally rational action

• explaining social phenomena as intended and unintended consequences

of intendedly rational actions

• rational choice theory

• upholding the counterfactual model of rationality

• refutation of theory

• however value of model is greater than abandoning it

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critical rationalism in business research

• most quantitative research is grounded in critical rationalist methodology

• hypothesis testing

• corroborating vs. confirming

• ‘confirmation bias’

• not always acknowledged

• explicit or implicit

• conscious or unconscious

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ontology of critical rationalism: realism

ontological realism critical rationalism social reality exists ‘out there’

human action & interaction is governed by structures, laws, regularities

humans act rationally under the given conditions and their actions can be predicted

social reality exists outside and independent of the researcher through observation, a researcher can establish

empirical facts which exist independent of him/her facts can be discovered

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epistemology of critical rationalism: post-positivism

epistemological positivism critical rationalism scientific knowledge is (shall) be an objective representation of reality

deductivism allows to rationally justify knowledge (post-positivism)

concepts must be defined so as to be measurable to be testable, constructs are defined in a clearly measurable way

scientific explanations aim at discovering causal relations

theoretical statements provide the cause of an empirical phenomenon

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Kuhn’s Structure of scientific revolutions (1)

• history of the development of science

• explaining what scientists actually do

• demonstrates that scientists usually

do not follow Popper’s prescriptions

• distinction between ‘normal science’

(puzzle-solving) and ‘scientific revolutions’

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Kuhn’s Structure of scientific revolutions (2)

“We have, for example, already noted that once the reception of a

common paradigm has freed the scientific community from the need

constantly to re-examine its first principles, the members of that

community can concentrate exclusively upon the subtlest and most

esoteric of the phenomena that concern it. Inevitably, that does increase

both the effectiveness and the efficiency with which the group as a

whole solves new problems”

(Kuhn, 2012, p. 163-4)

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some more problems of critical rationalism

• “It is a blatant contradiction to opt, as Popper did, for a falsificationist methodology

and to recognize the fallibility of observations that form the base of falsification” (Baert, 2005, p. 82)

• upholding the rationality principle, arguing that it still produces valuable insights

contradicts falsificationism

• if a theory is empirically refuted how do we know which aspect of the theory is to

blame?

• when rejecting inductivist reasoning, how do we develop theories and hypotheses?

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References

Alvesson, M., & Sköldberg, K. (2018). Reflexive methodology: New vistas for qualitative

research (3rd ed.). London: Sage Publications.

Baert, P. (2005). Philosophy of the social sciences: Towards pragmatism. Cambridge:

Polity.

Blumer, H. (1969). The methodological position of symbolic interactionism. In: Symbolic

interactionism: Perspective and method (pp. 1-60. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Creswell, J. W., & Plano Clark, V. L. (2011). Designing and conducting mixed methods researfch (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage.

Crotty, M. (2006). The foundations of social research: Meaning and perspective in the re- search process. London: Sage.

Dubois, A., & Gadde, L.-E. (2002). Systematic combining: an abductive approach to case research. Journal of Business Research, 55(7), 553–560.

Durkheim, E. (1982). The rules of sociological method. New York: The Free Press.

Edmondson, A.C. & McManus, S.E. (2007). Methodological fit in management field

research. Academy of Management Review, 32(4), pp. 1155-1179.

Flick, U. (2018). Designing qualitative research. London: Sage.

Geertz, C. (1973). Thick descriptions: Toward an interpretive theory of culture. In C. Geertz, The interpretation of cultures: Selected essays by Clifford Geertz (pp. 3-30).

New York: Basic Books.

Hacking, I. (1999). The social construction of what? Cambridge, MA: Harvard University

Press.

Hacking, I. (2012). Introductory essay. In T. S. Kuhn, The structure of scientific revolutions

(4th ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Irzik, G. (2008). Critical rationalism. In S. Psillos & M. Curd (Eds.), The Routledge

campanion to philosophy of Science (pp. 58-66). London: Routledge.

Kuhn, T. S. (2012). The structure of scientific revolutions (4th ed.). Chicago: University of

Chicago Press.

Neuman, W.L. (2014). Social research methods: Qualitative and quantitative approaches

(7th ed.) Harlow: Pearson.

O'Leary, Z. (2017). The essential guide to doing your research project (3rd ed.). Los

Angeles: Sage.

Pernecky, T. (2016). Epistemology and metaphysics for qualitative research. Los Angeles:

Sage.

Thomas, W. I., & Thomas, S. S. (1928). The child in America: Behavioural problems and

progress. New York: Knopf.

Wirén, M. (2018). Strategizing in the new normal - Implications of digitalization for

strategizing and uncertainty: Philosophical and managerial considerations. Turku: University of Turku.

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