Exercise 11A
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Preface Knowing how to get along with others, resolve workplace conflict, manage relationships,
communicate well, and make good decisions are all critical emotional intelligence skills students
need to succeed in career and in life. Our Human Relations book will address all of the critical topics
to obtain career success. This book isn’t an organizational behavior (OB) text, which is too theoretical
for many of our students’ needs. While this book will focus on some of the theories you might find in
an OB book, the focus is a direct benefit to students in their current and future jobs.
This book also isn’t a professional communications, business English, or professionalism book, as
the focus is much broader: it focuses on general career success and how to effectively maneuver in
the workplace.
The core concept in the book is emotional intelligence and how these skills carry over into career
success, such as through ethics, communication, diversity, teamwork, conflict, good decision making,
stress management, motivation, and leadership.
This book’s easy-to-understand language and tone is written to convey practical information in an
engaging way. Plenty of examples are included in each chapter so students understand the concepts
and how the concepts can benefit their career. This book will meet the needs of a course in the
business department or will be offered to professional technical students in any number of career
fields, such as automotive, dental hygiene, culinary, or technology. In addition, this book would be a
great addition to any school offering human relations course for teacher certification.
This book could be used in the following courses:
• Human relations
• Psychology
• Career-focused courses
• Professionalism
• Business communications
• Teacher/education certification
Features Each chapter opens with a realistic example that introduces a concept to be explained in detail later. Each
chapter contains relevant examples, YouTube videos, figures, learning objectives, key takeaways, Why
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Human Relations? boxes, exercises, and a chapter-ending case that offer different ways to promote
learning.
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Chapter 1 What Is Human Relations?
I present myself to you in a form suitable to the relationship I wish to achieve with you.
- Luigi Pirandello
If you don’t like something, change it. If you can’t change it, change your attitude.
- Maya Angelou
No One Wants to Work with Her
Jenny is going to a BBQ at Monica and Harvey’s house this afternoon. Because it is a big annual
event, it is usually a large party. She will likely know about half the people, as Monica and Harvey
invite people from all aspects of their lives. As Jenny enters the backyard, she sees familiar faces, as
expected, but also sees a lot of people she doesn’t recognize. Immediately she starts fidgeting, as
Jenny isn’t good at making small talk. Instead of making eye contact and going over to people who
are acquaintances, she drops her potluck dish down, grabs a drink from the cooler, and tries to find
Monica so she will have someone to talk with.
At work, Jenny avoids interpersonal relationships and small talk because she is uncomfortable
revealing too much of herself. When Jenny attends meetings at work, she sighs impatiently when
someone is late and when people veer too far from the topic, and she makes sure to bring people
back to reality. When choosing project teams, people rarely want to work with Jenny, even though
she is very capable in her job. Some of the women from the office get together for lunch on Tuesdays,
but Jenny is never invited. Needless to say, Jenny isn’t well liked at work.
We have all met someone like Jenny, who is seemingly uncomfortable with herself and unpleasant.
We may even try to avoid the Jennys we know. Despite Jenny being good at her job, no one wants to
work with her. You would think that success at work only takes talent at job-specific tasks. However,
this isn’t the case. As we will discuss throughout this chapter and the book, successful people have
the skills to do the job, but they also have the human relations skills to get along with others. The
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focus of this chapter will be personality, attitudes, self-esteem, and perceptions—all of these topics
and more impact our ability to get along with others.
1.1 Why Study Human Relations?
L E A R N I N G O B JE C T I V E S
1. Be able to define human relations.
2. Discuss why human relations skills are necessary in your future workplace.
3. Explain how the progression of human relations studies relates to today’s human relations in your life.
The study and understanding of human relations can help us in our workplace, and as a result, assist us in
achieving career success. The better our human relations, the more likely we are to grow both
professionally and personally. Knowing how to get along with others, resolve workplace conflict, manage
relationships, communicate well, and make good decisions are all skills we will discuss throughout the
book.
Why Human Relations?
So, what is human relations? We can define human relations as relations with or between people,
particularly in a workplace or professional setting. [1] From a personal perspective, there are many
advantages to having good human relations skills. First, of the top ten reasons people are fired, several
reasons relate back to lack of human relations skills—for example, the inability to work within a team,
personality issues, sexual harassment, and dishonesty. [2] Other reasons, perhaps not directly related to
human relations, include absenteeism, poor performance, stealing, political reasons, downsizing, and
sabotage. Second, people who are competent team players and have a good work ethic tend to get
promoted faster. [3] In fact, according to guru on personal development Brian Tracy, 85 percent of your
success in life is determined by social skills and the ability to interact positively and effectively with
others. [4] Another reason to develop good relationships with others relates to your own personal
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happiness. According to psychologist Sydney Jourard, most joy in life comes from happy relationships
with other people. [5]
Consider John, a very talented project manager but lacking in human relations skills. While he is easily
able to plan and execute the finest details for a project, no one likes to work with him. He doesn’t make
efforts to get to know his team members and he comes across as unfriendly and unapproachable. How
successful do you think John will be in his workplace? While he has the skills necessary to do the job, he
doesn’t have the people skills that can help him excel at it. One could say he does not have emotional
intelligence skills—that is, the ability to understand others—therefore, he may always find himself
wondering why he isn’t more successful at work (we will discuss emotional intelligence in Chapter 2
"Achieve Personal Success"). While project management skills are something we can learn, managers find
it difficult to hire people without the soft skills, or human relations skills. We aren’t saying that skills are
not important, but human relations skills are equally as important as technical skills to determine career
and personal success. Consider human relations skills in your personal life, as this is equally important.
Human relations skills such as communication and handling conflict can help us create better
relationships. For example, assume Julie talks behind people’s backs and doesn’t follow through on her
promises. She exhibits body language that says “get away from me” and rarely smiles or asks people about
themselves. It is likely that Julie will have very few, if any, friends. If Julie had positive human relations
skills, there is a much better chance she could improve her personal relationships.
We can benefit personally and professionally from good human relations skills, but how do organizations
benefit? Since many companies’ organizational structures depend upon people working together, positive
human relations skills reduce conflict in the workplace, thereby making the workplace more
productive. Organizational structures refer to the way a company arranges people, jobs, and
communications so that work can be performed. In today’s business world, teams are used to accomplish
company goals because teamwork includes people with a variety of skills. When using those skills in a
team, a better product and better ideas are usually produced. In most businesses, to be successful at our
job, we need to depend on others. The importance of human relations is apparent in this setting. If people
are not able to get along and resolve conflicts, the organization as a whole will be less productive, which
could affect profitability. Many organizations empower their employees; that is, they give employees
freedom in making decisions about how their work gets done. This can create a more motivated
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workforce, which results in more positive human relations. We will explore this topic further in Chapter 6
"Understand Your Motivations".
Most organizations employ a total person approach. This approach recognizes that an organization does
not just employ someone with skills, but rather, the whole person. This person comes with biases,
personal challenges, human relations skills, and technical skills but also comes with experiences. By
looking at a person from this perspective, an organization can begin to understand that what happens to
an employee outside of work can affect his or her job performance. For example, assume Kathy is doing a
great job at work but suddenly starts to arrive late, leave early, and take longer lunches. Upon further
examination, we might find that Kathy is having childcare issues because of her divorce. Because of a total
person approach perspective, her organization might be able to rearrange her schedule or work with her
to find a reasonable solution. This relates to human relations because we are not just people going to work
every day; we are people who live our personal lives, and one affects the other. Because of this, our human
relations abilities will most certainly be affected if we are experiencing challenges at home or at work.
[6]
Evolution of Human Relations Study
Human relations, however, was not always central to the conversation on organizational success. In fact,
until the 1940s, little thought was given to the human aspect of jobs. Many of the jobs in the early 1900s
were focused on production and located in factory-like settings where the jobs themselves were repetitive.
The focus in these types of work environments was on efficiency. We can call this time period of human
relations studies the classical school of management. This school of thought took place from 1900 to the
early 1920s. Several theories were developed, which revolved around the idea of efficiency, or getting a job
done with the least amount of steps.
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Frederick W. Taylor was an engineer who today is known as the father of scientific management. He
began his career in a steel company and, because of his intimate knowledge of the industry, believed that
organizations could analyze tasks to make them performed with more efficiency.
Following his work, Frank and Lillian Gilbreth performed numerous studies on physical motions workers
took to perform specific tasks and tried to maximize efficiency by suggesting new ways to perform the
tasks, using less energy and thereby being more efficient.
While Taylor and Gilbreth’s research was more focused on physical motions and tasks, Henri Fayol began
looking at how management could improve productivity instead of focusing on specific tasks and motions.
Fayol created the Fourteen Principles of Management, which focused on management but also hinted to
the importance of human relations: [7]
1. Division of work. Work should be divided in the most efficient way. Fayol believed work
specialization, or the focus on specific tasks for teams or individuals, to be crucial to success.
2. Authority. Authority is the right to give orders and accountability within those orders. Fayol
believed that along with giving orders and expecting them to be met, that person in authority also
assumes responsibility to make sure tasks are met.
3. Discipline. Discipline is penalties applied to encourage common effort, as a successful organization
requires the common effort of all workers.
4. Unity of command. Workers should receive orders from only one manager. In other words,
reporting to two or more managers would violate Fayol’s Fourteen Principles of Management.
5. Unity of direction. Everyone in the organization should move toward a common goal and
understand how the team will achieve that goal.
6. Subordination of individual interests to general interests. The interests of one person
shouldn’t have priority over the interests of the organization as a whole. This focuses on teamwork
and the importance of everyone acting toward the same goal.
7. Remuneration. Many things should be considered when paying employees, including cost of living,
supply of qualified people, and business success.
8. Centralization. The degree of importance in the subordinates’ (employees’) role in their
organization and the amount of decision making that occurs at a central level versus a decentralized
level. For example, in many organizations decisions are made centrally (i.e., in the “corporate office”),
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which does not allow as much flexibility as decentralized decision making; this would mean each
individual area can make its own decisions.
9. Scalar chain. This refers to how authority is divided among managers. Specifically, Fayol said
lower-level managers should always keep upper-level managers informed.
10. Order. All materials and people related to one kind of work should be organized and neat. Things
should be easy to find.
11. Equity. All employees should be treated equally.
12. Stability of tenure of personnel. Retention of employees should be a high management priority.
The cost of hiring a new worker is expensive, so efforts should be maintained to keep current
employees.
13. Initiative. Management should take steps to encourage workers to take initiative. In addition,
workers should be self-directed and not need a lot of management control to accomplish tasks.
14. Esprit de corps. Managers should encourage harmony among employees. This harmony creates
good feelings among employees.
Fayol’s research was some of the first that addressed the need for positive human relations in a work
environment. As further research was performed into the 1920s, we moved into a new period of human
relations studies called the behavioral school of management. During this time period, employees
had begun to unionize, bringing human relations issues to the forefront. Because workers demanded a
more humane environment, researchers began to look at how organizations could make this happen.
One of the more notable researchers was Elton Mayo, from Harvard Business School, and his colleagues.
They conducted a series of experiments from the mid-1920s to early 1930s to investigate how physical
working conditions affected worker productivity. They found that regardless of changes such as heat,
lighting, hours, and breaks, productivity levels increased during the study. The researchers realized the
increased productivity resulted because the workers knew they were being observed. In other words, the
workers worked harder because they were receiving attention and felt cared about. This phenomenon is
called the Hawthorne effect (named for the electrical plant for which the experiments were conducted).
In the 1950s, researchers began to explore management techniques and the effect on worker satisfaction.
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This was called the behavioral science approach. These techniques used psychology, sociology, and
other human relations aspects to help researchers understand the organizational environment.
Since the 1960s, research on human relations has been much easier to assimilate because of technology
and a focus on statistical analysis. Hence, this is called the management science school. So while
research today focuses on the human relations aspect, we are now able to use complex statistical models
to improve efficiency and productivity while still focusing on the human relations component.
Human Relations, Technology, and Globalization
While we discuss the impact of technology on human relations throughout the book, it is important to
mention here the immense impact technology has had on this field of study. Inability to see body language
indicators make it more difficult to communicate using technology, creating conflict and
misunderstandings. These misunderstandings can obviously affect human relations. Also consider that
through globalization, we are working with people from all over the world in many time zones who have
different perspectives. Between technology and globalization, humans have never had to work with such a
diverse group of people—using diverse methods of communication—at any time in history.
Technology has allowed us to do this: e-mail, Skype, and instant message, to name a few. The impact on
human relations is obvious—there is less face-to-face interactions and more interactions using technology.
Add in the challenge of a global environment and this creates a whole new set of challenges.
Many organizations today are focusing on how to use technology to save workers time commuting to
work. In fact, an estimated 26.2 million workers telecommute, or work from a remote location at least
once per month. [8]Global Workplace Analytics cites the following benefits to telecommuting:
1. Improved employee satisfaction
2. Reduced unscheduled absences
3. Increased productivity
However, Global Workplace Analytics also says there are some key drawbacks:[9]
1. Social needs may not be met
2. People must be self-directed
3. Employees must be comfortable with technology or it won’t work
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While technology has greatly impacted human relations at work, there are some common denominators
for human relations success in today’s workplace—whether or not technology is used. These factors will be
discussed throughout this book:
• Chapter 1 "What Is Human Relations?". Understanding how personality, attitudes, self-esteem, and
perception impact human relations. How we are, how we behave, and our belief systems all impact
how we view ourselves and others.
• Chapter 2 "Achieve Personal Success". Understanding the components to personal success, such as
goal setting and emotional intelligence skills. Being able to achieve personal success is the first step in
attaining career success.
• Chapter 3 "Manage Your Stress". Managing stress and understanding how too much stress can
negatively impact our human relations.
• Chapter 4 "Communicate Effectively". Communication abilities. Everything we do at work and in our
personal lives involves communication. Understanding how to communicate effectively is the
cornerstone of positive human relations.
• Chapter 5 "Be Ethical at Work". Ethical decision making is necessary because ethical decisions must
be made all the time in our personal and work lives. Understanding how to make an ethical decision
can help us become better employees and human beings.
• Chapter 6 "Understand Your Motivations". Understanding what motivates you can help you know the
right career path and can assist you in guiding your supervisor. Without an understanding of our own
motivations (our own self-knowledge) we may not be able to complete tasks as efficiently. Of course,
this skill is the key to successful human relations.
• Chapter 7 "Work Effectively in Groups". Working in teams has become necessary in most every work
environment. Understanding how teams work and how they achieve success together will provide you
with the tools to be an effective team member.
• Chapter 8 "Make Good Decisions". Good decision making, both personally and professionally, can
help our human relations in that it provides a framework to make sure we are thinking about all
aspects of the decision. We tend to be happier when we make better decisions, which means we relate
better to others.
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• Chapter 9 "Handle Conflict and Negotiation". The ability to manage conflict is necessary in today’s
workplace. Not everything will work exactly as we planned, nor will we get along with everyone we
meet. Learning how to work through these challenges can help us become better at human relations.
• Chapter 10 "Manage Diversity at Work". The ability to work with a diverse workforce. In a globalized
workforce, we will work with people from all cultures and backgrounds. Understanding how to
effectively work with people different from us can help us be more successful at work.
• Chapter 11 "Work with Labor Unions". Understanding labor unions and their role in the workplace
will help us understand how unions work, should we become employed in a union environment.
Understanding the concepts in this chapter gives us the working knowledge to apply the human
relations skills we have learned.
• Chapter 12 "Be a Leader". Leadership and management skills can assist us in understanding how we
can be leaders in our workplace, even if we do not have a formal title.
• Chapter 13 "Manage Your Career". Managing one’s own career, such as etiquette, dealing with change,
and networking. This capstone chapter will relate our discussion back to these key components to
human relations.
We will focus on human relations in a work setting, but many examples will also relate to personal
settings. The examples provided will give you tools to have positive relationships with coworkers,
supervisors, and people in your personal life. These positive relationships—both at home and at work—
help us become more rounded, happier individuals. This is good for everyone, including the company you
work for.
K E Y T A K E A W A Y S
• Human relations is an important part to our career success. It is defined as relations with or between
people, particularly in a workplace setting. Because a company depends on good human relations
through its organizational structure, developing these skills is important.
• Technology has greatly impacted human relations because so much of our communication occurs without
the advantage of seeing body language. This can result in miscommunications. Many
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workers telecommute to work. There are advantages and disadvantages, more notably a disadvantage
being the lack of human, face-to-face contact.
• There was an evolution in human relations study. In the classical school of management, the focus was on
efficiency and not on human relations.
• Employees began to unionize in the 1920s due to lack of positive human relations, and therefore
the behavioral school of management was created. During this time period, researchers began to focus on
the human relations aspect of the workplace. One of the major theories developed was theHawthorne
effect, which determined that workers were more productive when they were being watched and cared
about by researchers.
• During the 1950s, the behavioral science approach looked at management techniques as a way to
increase productivity and human relations.
• In the 1960s and beyond, sophisticated tools allow researchers to analyze more data and focus on the
statistical aspects of human relations and management data.
E X E R C I S E S
1. Have you ever worked with anyone like Jenny (in the opening case), either in school or at a job? Discuss
your experiences and how you handled working with this person. How could they have benefited from an
understanding of human relations?
2. Discuss two advantages to learning about human relations skills. Why do companies value good human
relations skills?
3. Would you be interested in telecommuting for work? What are the advantages and disadvantages to the
employee? Discuss in small groups.
4. Draw a timeline of human relations research. On the timeline, indicate the events that changed human
relations thinking. Bring your timelines to class and discuss in small groups.
Next
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[1] Merriam Webster Dictionary, accessed January 30, 2012, http://www.merriam-
webster.com/dictionary/human%20relations
[2] Natalie Jones, “10 Most Common Reasons Why People Are Fired,” Wikinut article, February 28, 2010, accessed
January 31, 2012, http://business.wikinut.com/10-Most-Common-Reasons-People-are-Fired/ggcsrftv/
[3] Jean Maye, “7 Steps to Getting Promoted,” Chicago Tribune, 2012, accessed January 31,
2012, http://www.chicagotribune.com/classified/jobs/sns-jobs-steps-promotion,0,6989913.story
[4] Brian Tracy, “Mastering Human Relationships,” Brian Tracy International, August 19, 2009, accessed January 31,
2012, http://www.briantracy.com/blog/personal-success/mastering-human-relationships/
[5] Tracy, Brian, “Mastering Human Relationships,” Brian Tracy International, August 19, 2009, accessed January
31, 2012, http://www.briantracy.com/blog/personal-success/mastering-human-relationships/
[6] Joan Harrington, “Eight Persuasion Tips to Make Anyone Like You,” Joan Harrington’s True Successes, January
19, 2012, accessed January 31, 2012,http://joansblog.joantruesuccess11.ws/highly-recommended/8-persuasion-
tips-to-make-anyone-like-you/
[7] Girish Sharmaa, “Henri Fayol’s Principles of Management,” Publish Your Articles, no date, accessed February 1,
2012, http://www.publishyourarticles.org/knowledge-hub/business-studies/henry-fayols-principles-of-
management.html
[8] Telework 2011, “A WorldatWork Special Report,” World at Work Organization, June 2011, accessed February 1,
2012, http://www.worldatwork.org/waw/adimLink?id=53034
[9] Telework Research Network, “Costs and Benefits: Advantages of Telecommuting,” Telework Research Network,
no date, accessed February 1, 2012,http://www.teleworkresearchnetwork.com/costs-benefits
1.2 Human Relations: Personality and Attitude Effects
L E A R N I N G O B JE C T I V E S
1. Be able to define personality and attitudes.
2. Explain how your attitude and personality has an effect in the workplace.
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What Determines Our Personality?
Our personality is defined as a set of traits that can explain or predict a person’s behavior in a variety of
situations. In other words, personality is a set of characteristics that reflect the way we think and act in a
given situation. Because of this, our personality has a lot to do with how we relate to one another at work.
How we think, what we feel, and our normal behavior characterize what our colleagues come to expect of
us both in behavior and the expectation of their interactions with us. For example, let’s suppose at work
you are known for being on time but suddenly start showing up late daily. This directly conflicts with your
personality—that is, the fact that you are conscientious. As a result, coworkers might start to believe
something is wrong. On the other hand, if you did not have this characteristic, it might not be as
surprising or noteworthy. Likewise, if your normally even-tempered supervisor yells at you for something
minor, you may believe there is something more to his or her anger since this isn’t a normal personality
trait and also may have a more difficult time handling the situation since you didn’t expect it. When we
come to expect someone to act a certain way, we learn to interact with them based on their personality.
This goes both ways, and people learn to interact with us based on our personality. When we behave
different than our normal personality traits, people may take time to adjust to the situation.
Personality also affects our ability to interact with others, which can impact our career success. In a 2009
study [1] by Angelina Sutin et al., it was found that the personality characteristic of neuroticism (a
tendency to experience negative emotional states) had more effect than any personality characteristic on
determining future career success. In other words, those with positive and hopeful personalities tend to be
rewarded through career success later in life.
Although there is debate between whether or not our personalities are inherent when we are born (nature)
versus the way we grew up (nurture), most researchers agree that personality is usually a result of both
nature and our environmental/education experiences. For example, you have probably heard someone
say, “She acts just like her mother.” She likely behaves that way because she was born with some of her
mother’s traits, as well as because she learned some of the behaviors her mother passed to her while
growing up.
Figure 1.1
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Nature and nurture factors determine our personality.
Another example might be someone who grows up with their parents constantly having parties. As a
result, as an adult this person may end up organizing a lot of parties, too. Or the influence of parties may
create the opposite effect, where the person doesn’t want to have parties at all. The environmental and
educational experiences can create positive or negative associations, which result in how we feel about any
situation that occurs in our lives. [2]
Our values help determine our personality. Our values are those things we find most important to us. For
example, if your value is calmness and peace, your personality would show this in many possible ways.
You might prefer to have a few close friends and avoid going to a nightclub on Saturday nights. You might
choose a less stressful career path, and you might find it challenging to work in a place where frequent
conflict occurs.
We often find ourselves in situations where our values do not coincide with someone we are working with.
For example, if Alison’s main value is connection, this may come out in a warm communication style with
coworkers and an interest in their personal lives. Imagine Alison works with Tyler, whose core value is
efficiency. Because of Tyler’s focus, he may find it a waste of time to make small talk with colleagues.
When Alison approaches Tyler and asks about his weekend, she may feel offended or upset when he
brushes her off to ask about the project they are working on together. She feels like a connection wasn’t
made, and he feels like she isn’t efficient. Understanding our own values as well as the values of others can
greatly help us become better communicators.
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Examples of Values What are your top five values? How do you think this affects your personality?
Accomplishment, success Ease of use Meaning Results-oriented
Accountability Efficiency Justice Rule of law
Accuracy Enjoyment Kindness Safety
Adventure Equality Knowledge Satisfying others
All for one & one for all Excellence Leadership Security
Beauty Fairness Love, romance Self-givingness
Calm, quietude, peace Faith Loyalty Self-reliance
Challenge Faithfulness Maximum utilization Self-thinking
Change Family Intensity (of time, resources) Sensitivity
Charity Family feeling Merit Service (to others, society)
Cleanliness, orderliness Flair Money Simplicity
Collaboration Freedom, liberty Oneness Skill
Commitment Friendship Openness Solving problems
Communication Fun Other’s point of view, inputs Speed
Community Generosity Patriotism Spirit, spirituality in life
Competence Gentleness Peace, nonviolence Stability
Competition Global view Perfection Standardization
Concern for others Goodwill Personal growth Status
Connection Goodness Perseverance Strength
Content over form Gratitude Pleasure A will to perform
Continuous improvement Hard work Power Success, achievement
Cooperation Happiness Practicality Systemization
Coordination Harmony Preservation Teamwork
Creativity Health Privacy Timeliness
Customer satisfaction Honor Progress Tolerance
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Decisiveness Human-centered Prosperity, wealth Tradition
Determination Improvement Punctuality Tranquility
Delight of being, joy Independence Quality of work Trust
Democracy Individuality Regularity Truth
Discipline Inner peace, calm, quietude Reliability Unity
Discovery Innovation Resourcefulness Variety
Diversity Integrity Respect for others Well-being
Dynamism Intelligence Responsiveness Wisdom
Source:http://www.gurusoftware.com/GuruNet/Personal/Topics/Values.htm
What about Our Attitudes?
Our attitudes are favorable or unfavorable opinions toward people, things, or situations. Many things
affect our attitudes, including the environment we were brought up in and our individual experiences. Our
personalities and values play a large role in our attitudes as well. For example, many people may have
attitudes toward politics that are similar to their parents, but their attitudes may change as they gain more
experiences. If someone has a bad experience around the ocean, they may develop a negative attitude
around beach activities. However, assume that person has a memorable experience seeing sea lions at the
beach, for example, then he or she may change their opinion about the ocean. Likewise, someone may
have loved the ocean, but if they have a scary experience, such as nearly drowning, they may change their
attitude.
The important thing to remember about attitudes is that they can change over time, but usually some sort
of positive experience needs to occur for our attitudes to change dramatically for the better. We also have
control of our attitude in our thoughts. If we constantly stream negative thoughts, it is likely we may
become a negative person.
In a workplace environment, you can see where attitude is important. Someone’s personality may be
cheerful and upbeat. These are the prized employees because they help bring positive perspective to the
workplace. Likewise, someone with a negative attitude is usually someone that most people prefer not to
work with. The problem with a negative attitude is that it has a devastating effect on everyone else. Have
you ever felt really happy after a great day and when you got home, your roommate was in a terrible mood
Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 19
because of her bad day? In this situation, you can almost feel yourself deflating! This is why having a
positive attitude is a key component to having good human relations at work and in our personal lives.
But how do we change a negative attitude? Because a negative attitude can come from many sources,
there are also many sources that can help us improve our attitude.
Changing Your Attitude On the Motivation123 website, they describe the three things to consider when trying to
change your attitude.
Reams are written about improving your attitude; not so when it comes to defining that thing you’re
trying to improve. In this checklist, we’re going to fix that.
Though there are many ways to define attitude, I find the three checkpoints below to be the most helpful.
They make it clear not only what your attitude is made of but also how it affects what you do.
1. How You Enter
Before heading down South for a vacation, I expected a relaxing and enjoyable time. This is the first piece
of your attitude: it is what you expect before something happens.
For me, I expected good things. Someone with a more negative bent—at least in relation to traveling—
would predict rough times ahead.
2. How You Live through It
The second piece of your attitude is the way in which you gauge progress. Do you notice what is going
wrong? Going well? Somewhere in between?
I went to dinner the other night with a few friends. I’m always on the lookout for stories to use on the site,
so when they started to comment on the place, I was drawn in. One friend noticed how noisy the
restaurant was, how grumpy the waiter seemed, and how bad the food tasted.
On the heels of this cheery testimonial, the friend sitting next to me said she loved the atmosphere, the
style of the tables, and her dinner. Two attitudes looking for very different things.
3. How You Exit
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The last role your attitude plays happens at the end of a situation or experience. At this point, your
attitude affects the way you sum things up.
I was watching a competition-based reality show the other night and, when two people were sent home,
they were given the chance to talk to the camera one last time.
They were asked what they would take away from the experience. The first reflected on the friendships he
had made and the good times he had had. The second was angry and vengeful. To her, the experience was
a waste of time. Attitude strikes again.
Reprinted with permission: Motivation123.com. Get hundreds of simple motivation tips, along with your
free Motivation123 Welcome Kit, at the Motivation123.com website.
Visit http://www.motivation123.com today.
As Note 1.19 "Changing Your Attitude" points out, our attitude is ultimately about how we set our
expectations; how we handle the situation when our expectations are not met; and finally, how we sum up
an experience, person, or situation. When we focus on improving our attitude on a daily basis, we get used
to thinking positively and our entire personality can change. It goes without saying that employers prefer
to hire and promote someone with a positive attitude as opposed to a negative one. Other tips for
improving attitude include the following: [3]
1. When you wake up in the morning, decide you are going to have an excellent day. By having this
attitude, it is less likely you may feel disappointed when small things do not go your way.
2. Be conscious of your negative thoughts. Keep a journal of negative thoughts. Upon reviewing them,
analyze why you had a negative thought about a specific situation.
3. Try to avoid negative thinking. Think of a stop sign in your mind that stops you when you have
negative thoughts. Try to turn those thoughts into positive ones. For example, instead of saying, “I am
terrible in math,” say, “I didn’t do well on that test. It just means I will study harder next time.”
4. Spend time with positive people. All of us likely have a friend who always seems to be negative or a
coworker who constantly complains. People like this can negatively affect our attitude, too, so steering
clear when possible, or limiting the interaction time, is a great way to keep a positive attitude intact.
5. Spend time in a comfortable physical environment. If your mattress isn’t comfortable and you aren’t
getting enough sleep, it is more difficult to have a positive attitude! Or if the light in your office is too
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dark, it might be more difficult to feel positive about the day. Look around and examine your physical
space. Does it match the mental frame of mind you want to be in?
Self-Assessment: What’s My Attitude? 1. People would describe me as unhappy.
o True
o False
2. I complain right away if there is something I don’t like.
o True
o False
3. Being positive most of the time is far too unrealistic.
o True
o False
4. If I have a bad morning, the rest of my day is sure to be ruined.
o True
o False
5. I tend to think more about my weak points than my strong points.
o True
o False
6. I don’t give out compliments because I don’t want someone to get a big ego.
o True
o False
7. In the past two weeks, I have called myself depressed.
o True
o False
8. I worry too much about things I can’t control.
o True
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o False
9. It takes a lot to make me happy.
o True
o False
10. When I experience a failure, I usually just stop trying.
o True
o False
Now, count the number of true and false answers. The more false answers you have, the better attitude
you tend to have. If you have many true answers, what are some ways to help you change to a more
positive attitude?
When considering our personality, values, and attitudes, we can begin to get the bigger picture of who we
are and how our experiences affect how we behave at work and in our personal lives. It is a good idea to
reflect often on what aspects of our personality are working well and which we might like to change. With
self-awareness (discussed further in Chapter 2 "Achieve Personal Success"), we can make changes that
eventually result in better human relations.
Why Human Relations? Our personality traits, attitude, and self-esteem have everything to do with human relations. When you
are planting a vegetable garden, you wouldn’t fill the new garden with old soil that no longer has nutrients
in it. Doing this will result in your plants not growing as large as they can or could even result in them not
growing at all. If we look at our human relations ability, the same idea applies. Personality, attitude,
and self-esteem comprise the nutrient-rich soil required for our human relations skills to
grow. Our personality is how we see the world, either positive and full of hope or negative and full of
despair. Without a positive attitude, it can be difficult to relate to others—because they may
not want to be around us! Likewise, having a positive self-image can give us the confidence to nurture
relationships, resulting in positive human relations as well. Just like the garden that needs soils
rich in nutrients, our human relations skills are the same. To make our human relations skills
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grow, we need to look at our underlying personality characteristics, attitudes, and self-esteem that could
be helping—or hindering—our ability to relate to others.
K E Y T A K E A W A Y S
• Personality is defined as a set of traits that predict and explain a person’s behavior. Values are closely
interwoven into personality, as our values often define our traits.
• Our personality can help define our attitudes toward specific things, situations, or people. Most people
prefer to work with people who have a positive attitude.
• We can improve our attitude by waking up and believing that the day is going to be great. We can also
keep awareness of our negative thoughts or those things that may prevent us from having a good day.
Spending time with positive people can help improve our own attitude as well.
E X E R C I S E S
1. Visit http://www.thecolorcode.com. Find the section that allows you to take the personality test for free,
take the test, and then review the results. What color are you? How does this impact how you relate to
others either at school or at work?
2. Looking at Note 1.17 "Examples of Values", which five are most important to you? Connect two to three
personality traits you possess as a result of these values. For example, if you value practicality you might
see this manifest through the importance placed on goods purchased or the type of wardrobe you have.
3. In two or three paragraphs, discuss your attitude and name four specific strategies you will use to
improve your attitude.
Next
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[1] Angelina R. Sutin and Paul T. Costa, “Personality and Career Success,” European Journal of Personality 23, no. 2
(March 2009): 71–84.
[2] Alexandria Lupu, “Our Personality: Is It Genetically Inherited or Determined by the Environmental Factors,”
Softpedia News, July 2, 2006, accessed February 3, 2012,http://news.softpedia.com/news/Our-Personality-Is-It-
Genetically-Inherited-or-Determined-by-The-Environmental- Factors-28413.shtml
[3] Richard Whitaker, “Improving Your Attitude,” Biznick, September 2, 2008, accessed February 3,
2012, http://biznik.com/articles/improving-your-attitude
1.3 Human Relations: Perception’s Effect
L E A R N I N G O B JE C T I V E
1. Be able to explain influencers of perception that impact your ability to relate to others.
Why Does Perception Matter to Human Relations?
As we have discussed so far in this chapter, many things impact our human relations with others.
Perception is no different. Perception is the recognition and interpretation of sensory stimuli based
upon our memory. In other words, it is the way you interpret data around you. The data could come from
sight, smell, touch, taste, and hearing. For example, if you wake up in the morning to the smell of coffee,
your perception is likely correct that your roommate is already awake. The challenge with perception in
human relations is that we may not always understand someone else’s perception and/or assume their
perception is our own. This is where disagreements and other communication issues can occur. For
example, if you perceive that your significant other is too focused on spending time with friends, your
interactions with her will be based upon this perception. For example, you could be frustrated and short
tempered. In a workplace setting, perceptions can also cause miscommunications. For example, you may
perceive your coworker to be lazy because he always arrives to work at 8:15 a.m. and the start time is 8
a.m. Suppose he has a child with a medical condition who needs special schooling, and the school doesn’t
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open until 8 a.m.? Perhaps he has made arrangements with your supervisor of which you are unaware.
This perception can be a dangerous one, since we don’t have all of the facts.
How many legs does this elephant have? This section on perception is going to address the
many ways we perceive things—and how these perceptions impact our ability to relate to
others.
Source: http://www.moillusions.com/2006/05/elephant-optical-illusion.html
What Influences Our Perception?
We have defined perception and given some example to show how perceptions can be incorrect—
negatively impacting relationships. But where do our perceptions come from? There are a number of
things that influence our perception. [1] First, our heredity can be major influencers of our perception.
Height, skin color, and gender influence the way we see the world. For example, someone who is 5’ 2”
may perceive an object to be stored too high, while someone who is 6’ 2” may not have that same
perception.
Our needs impact our perception as well. Physiological needs, such as food and water (or lack
thereof), can influence how we feel about certain situations. Have you ever been in a social situation
where you were very hungry? If so, you know this impacted your ability to socialize with other
people. You may have found yourself less patient to listen because you were concerned about when
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Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 26
you were going to eat! Or if you have ever taken a road trip and needed to use the restroom, your
perception may be that the highway lacks a sufficient number of rest areas.
Our peer group can also impact our perception. Our peers tend to determine what is desirable or
undesirable, thereby giving us information on how to interpret data around us. You have experienced
this personally, no doubt. If you perceive a brand of clothing desirable, it is more likely your friends
also feel similar. The same thing happens at work; for example, suppose a supervisor uses Skype to
conduct meetings because her perception is that it is an efficient way to do business. It is highly likely
that others in your workgroup will perceive it as a useful tool, also.
Our interests impact our perception. If you like running marathons, your perception on how much to
spend on running shoes will be different from someone who prefers kayaking for fun and needs a
pair of athletic shoes. Assume your interest at work is to be promoted. Your perception of work is
very different than someone who can’t stand the job and is looking for a position with a different
company.
Our expectations are another driver of our perceptions. For example, research performed by Ronald
Melzack [2] suggests our expectations about how much something will hurt alters our perception after
the fact. For example, if you are dreading getting a flu shot because you believe it will hurt a lot
(expectations), once you actually have it done, you may say, “That didn’t hurt at all” (perception),
because your expectation prepared you beforehand. In other words, our expectations affect our
perception after the fact. In this example, our expectation was extreme pain, but when that didn’t
occur, our perception was quite the opposite. Our expectations and resulting perception can also be
looked at in a work setting. For example, if you have high expectations that your workgroup will win
the annual chili cook-off at your company picnic, but you don’t win, your perception could be one of
unfairness: “The judges like the marketing department better.” Likewise, if your team wins the chili
cook-off and you expected to win, your perceptions may be, “Of course we won, we knew ours was
the best.”
A halo effect or reverse halo effect can also alter our perceptions. The halo affect assumes that if a
person has one trait we like, that all traits must be desirable. The reverse halo effect is if we find an
undesirable trait in someone, we assume all traits are undesirable. Assume you don’t like the way
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your coworker, Mariette, speaks. You may then make an assumption that all of Mariette’s traits are
negative. Likewise, if you believe Rhonda is a great dental hygienist, you may promote her to manage
the other dental hygienists. Later, if the other hygienists complain about her management style, you
may realize you promoted her because you thought her skill as a dental hygienist meant she also had
good management skills. In this case, the halo effect occurred.
Awareness of our own perceptions and what drives those perceptions is a key component to being
successful at work. If we know why we believe something to be good, right, fair, negative, or unfair
based on our perceptions, we can begin to let go of some of our misperceptions. As a result,
developing good relationships at work, respect, and mutual understanding can create a better
workplace.
K E Y T A K E A W A Y S
• Personality is defined as a stable set of traits that can explain or predict a person’s behavior in a variety of
situations. Our personality affects the way we interact with others. Our personality comes from both
environmental factors and some factors we are just born with (nature).
• Values are the things we find important to us. If our values conflict with another’s, there may be a
miscommunication or other issues.
• Attitudes can be favorable or unfavorable feelings toward people, things, or situations. Our attitudes have
a great impact on each other. If one person has a bad attitude, it is likely to be contagious. We can do
many things to change our attitude, but all include making a conscious effort to be aware of our negative
thoughts and feelings.
• Perception refers to how we interpret stimuli such as people, things, or events. Our perception is
important to recognize because it is the driving force behind our reaction to things.
• Heredity, needs, peer group, interests, and expectations all influence our perception. A halo
effect or reverse halo effect can also influence our perception.
E X E R C I S E S
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1. In groups, discuss a situation where you have experienced the halo or reverse halo effect. What was the
outcome of the situation?
2. Think of at least five perceptions you had today. What influenced those perceptions? Were your
perceptions correct?
3. In groups, discuss a school, personal, or work situation where your perception was wrong. What was the
outcome?
Next
[1] Rita Baltus, Personal Psychology for Life and Work (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2000), 27–29.
[2] Ronald Melzack et al., “Central Neuropasticy and Pathological Pain,” Annals New York Academy of Sciences 933
(2001): 157–59.
1.4 Human Relations: Self-Esteem and Self-Confidence Effects
L E A R N I N G O B JE C T I V E S
1. Be able to define and explain the importance of self-esteem in your career.
2. Define and use the Johari window as a tool for self-discovery.
What Is Self-Esteem, Self-Image, and Projection?
Self-esteem is the opinion you have of yourself and your perception on your value as a person. Low
(negative) self-esteem can cause people to be negative, lack motivation, and be moody. Those with higher
(positive) self-esteem like themselves, so they expect others to like them, too. They don’t harshly judge
themselves and are comfortable with who they are.
Self-confidence, on the other hand, is your belief in yourself and your abilities. Often, people with high
self-esteem also have self-confidence, although this may not always be the case. Both self-esteem and self-
confidence can translate to positive human relations because if a person feels good about himself or
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herself, it is more likely he or she will be more comfortable communicating and working in teams—key
components for success. According to researchers George Hollenbeck and Douglas Hall, [1] self-confidence
can come from several sources:
1. Actual experience. When you have accomplished something and succeeded, it is likely you will
have the self-confidence to be successful at the task again.
2. Experiences of others. If you watch another person perform a task, you may know you can do the
same thing.
3. Social comparison. When we see others with similar abilities able to perform a task, we may feel
more confident in our own abilities to perform the same task.
4. Social persuasion. A boost in self-confidence can come from the encouragement of someone we
trust.
5. Emotional arousal. This refers to our inner feelings of being adequate or inadequate when it comes
to accomplishing a certain task. This can come from negative or positive self-talk.
Self-efficacy is the confidence you have to carry out a specific task. Someone may have generally
lower self-confidence but have self-efficacy in certain areas of his or her life. For example, Michael
may have low self-esteem in general, but he is a computer whiz so he has self-efficacy in his ability to
rebuild a computer.
Self-image is a bit different than self-esteem in that it means how an individual thinks others view
him or her. One’s self-image may not always be in line with what people actually think, but you can
imagine the impact this can have on human relations at work. If someone’s self-image is that people
think they are stupid, they may not try as hard since they believe this is what people think of them
anyway. Obviously, this can be an unproductive and unhealthy way of working with others.
Projection refers to how your self-esteem is reflected in the way you treat others. For example, if
Cheng has low self-esteem, he may project this by putting down other people or belittling them.
Likewise, if Cheng has high self-esteem, his projection onto others may be positive.
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Improving Self-Confidence
Even if our self-confidence needs improvement, the good news is that there are many ways we can
improve it. The following are examples:
1. Use positive self-talk and visual imagery. Self-talk refers to the things we tell ourselves in quiet
moments. It could be, “I did a really good job on that project” or “I am not good in math.” We
constantly have an internal dialogue and our subconscious does not know the difference between
truth and reality. So when we use negative self-talk, our subconscious actually starts to believe
whatever we are telling it! This is why it is important to use positive self-talk. Visual imagery is
focusing on a positive outcome and imagining it. By focusing on a positive outcome, we begin to
believe it, thereby making it more likely to happen. For example, before you swing a golf club, you
may imagine yourself hitting it perfectly with the ball going in just the right direction. This helps get
us mentally ready to perform.
2. Take risks. Risk-taking is an important source of gaining self-confidence. Of course, not all risks
work out the way we want them to, but until we take risks, we are unable to accomplish tasks.
3. Accomplish. Accomplishing something important such as earning a degree or a promotion can help
us gain self-confidence. Of course, as mentioned earlier, often it involves risk taking in order to
accomplish.
4. Know your strengths and weaknesses. Everyone has a set of things they are good at. Knowing
what you are good at and focusing on those things can improve self-esteem. Also, knowing what you
are not good at and working to improve those skills can build self-confidence, too.
5. Choose to spend time with people who boost your self-esteem. There are many negative
people who do not want anyone to succeed because it makes them feel bad about themselves. Choose
friends who boost your self-esteem and limit the time with people who harm your self-esteem.
Everyone can continue working on their self-esteem and self-confidence throughout life.
The Johari window is one tool that can help us determine how we see ourselves and how others see
us. This can serve as a good starting point and self-assessment tool to help us become better at
human relations.
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The Johari window was created in 1955 by Josephy Luft and Harry Ingham. When it was created, the
researchers gave people fifty-six adjectives they could use to describe themselves. The subjects
picked five or six adjectives and then had someone who knew them well pick six for that person as
well. Then, the adjectives were placed in the appropriate place in the grid. The grid consists of four
windows. The first window is the open area. In this area, these are things that someone knows
about themselves and others see in them too. The second window is the blind area. In the blind
area, the person does not know it about themselves, but others see it in them. In the hidden area,
the person knows this about her- or himself, but others are not aware of it. In the unknown area,
neither person knows what exists there. Through time and as we change and grow, we may have
more self-awareness and aspects of ourselves once in the unknown area may go into one of the other
windows.
Figure 1.2 The Johari Window
Having higher self-esteem and higher self-confidence can improve our projection, meaning we can better
accept criticism, learn from our mistakes, and communicate more effectively. This can result in better
human relations at work and, ultimately, higher productivity and higher profitability.
K E Y T A K E A W A Y S
• Self-esteem is defined as the opinion one has about their value as a person. This is different than self-
confidence, which refers to the belief someone has in themselves. Both are important determinants to
career and human relations success.
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Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 32
• Self-efficacy is the confidence someone has to carry out a specific task. Self-confidence and self-efficacy
can come from a variety of sources.
• Self-image is how you think others view you, while projection refers to how your self-esteem is reflected
in others.
• The Johari window is a tool to look at our own self-esteem and learn how others view us. The Johari
window involves the open area, hidden area, blind area, and unknown area.
E X E R C I S E S
1. Write down the five words that describe you the best. When you look at these words, are they positive? If
they are not positive, what steps can you take to improve your self-esteem? How will the steps you take
improve your human relations skills?
2. Take the self-esteem quiz at http://testyourself.psychtests.com/testid/3102. What were the results? Do
you agree with the results?
Next
[1] George Hollenbeck and Douglas Hall, “Self-Confidence and Leader Performance” (technical report, Boston
University Executive Development Roundtable, 2004).
1.5 Summary and Exercise
C H A P T E R S U M M A R Y
• Human relations is an important part to our career success. It is defined as relations with or between
people, particularly in a workplace setting. Because a company depends on good human relations
through its organizational structure, developing these skills is important.
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• Technology has greatly impacted human relations because so much of our communication occurs without
the advantage of seeing body language. This can result in miscommunications. Many
workers telecommute to work. There are advantages and disadvantages, a more notable disadvantage
being the lack of human, face-to-face contact.
• There was an evolution in human relations study. In the classical school of management, the focus was on
efficiency and not on human relations.
• Employees began to unionize in the 1920s due to lack of positive human relations, and therefore
the behavioral school of management was created. During this time period, researchers began to focus on
the human relations aspect of the workplace. One of the major theories developed was the Hawthorne
effect, which determined that workers were more productive when they were being watched and cared
about by researchers.
• During the 1950s, the behavioral science approach looked at management techniques as a way to
increase productivity and human relations.
• In the 1960s and beyond, sophisticated tools allow researchers to analyze more data and focus on the
statistical aspects of human relations and management data.
• Personality is defined as a stable set of traits that can explain or predict a person’s behavior in a variety of
situations. Our personality affects the way we interact with others. Our personality comes from both
environmental factors and some factors we are just born with (nature).
• Values are the things we find important to us. If our values conflict with another’s, there may be a
miscommunication or other issues.
• Attitudes can be favorable or unfavorable feelings toward people, things, or situations. Our attitudes have
a great impact on each other. If one person has a bad attitude, it is likely to be contagious. We can do
many things to change our attitude, but all include making a conscious effort to be aware of our negative
thoughts and feelings.
• Perception refers to how we interpret stimuli such as people, things, or events. Our perception is
important to recognize because it is the driving force behind our reaction to things.
• Heredity, needs, peer group, interests, and expectations all influence our perception. A halo
effect or reverse halo effect can also influence our perception.
Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 34
• Self-esteem is defined as the opinion one has about their value as a person. This is different than self-
confidence, which refers to the belief someone has in themselves. Both are important determinants to
career and human relations success.
• Self-efficacy is the confidence someone has to carry out a specific task. Self-confidence and self-efficacy
can come from a variety of sources.
• Self-image is how you think others view you, while projection refers to how your self-esteem is reflected
in others.
• The Johari window is a tool to look at our own self-esteem and learn how others view us. The Johari
window involves the open area, hidden area, blind area, and unknown area.
C H A P T E R E X E R C I SE
1. Using the following adjectives, please select five to six that best describe you. Once you have
done this, have someone who knows you well select five to six adjectives. Compare those you
selected to those your friend selected, and then place in the appropriate window of Johari’s
model, the open area, blind area, unknown area, or hidden area. Then answer the following
questions:
a. What surprised you most about the adjectives your friend chose?
b. What are some ways you can make your hidden area more open? What are the advantages to
doing this?
c. How do you think this exercise relates to your self-esteem?
d. How can the information you gained about yourself apply to positive human relations?
simple brash vulgar unimaginative violent
withdrawn childish unhappy irrational insecure
cynical impatient inane imperceptive hostile
boastful panicky distant loud needy
weak smug chaotic self-satisfied ignorant
unethical predictable vacuous overdramatic blasé
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rash foolish passive unreliable embarrassed
callous patient dull dependable insensitive
humorless powerful intelligent dignified dispassionate
sensible proud introverted energetic inattentive
sentimental quiet kind extroverted able
shy reflective knowledgeable friendly accepting
silly relaxed logical giving adaptable
spontaneous religious loving happy bold
sympathetic responsive mature helpful brave
tense searching modest idealistic calm
trustworthy self-assertive nervous independent caring
warm self-conscious observant ingenious cheerful
wise cowardly organized inflexible clever
witty irresponsible timid glum complex
intolerant selfish unhelpful aloof confident
The Johari Window
Next
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Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 36
Chapter 2 Achieve Personal Success
Once you are in the field, emotional intelligence emerges as a much stronger predictor of who will be
most successful, because it is how we handle ourselves in our relationships that determines how well we
do once we are in a given job.
- Daniel Goleman
If you want to be successful, it’s just this simple. Know what you are doing. Love what you are doing.
And believe in what you are doing.
- Will Rogers
Reegan is highly committed to her company but is having trouble getting along with two of her coworkers.
They just don’t seem to like her, even though she has a lot of good ideas to contribute to the team. While
she wants to stay with the company, she just doesn’t see that happening with the current work
environment. Reegan schedules a meeting with her manager, Lynn, hoping she will have some ideas on
how to improve the situation.
Lynn listens intently to Reegan’s concerns and says, “Reegan, you are an asset to this organization, with
all of your abilities and skills. But as of right now, you are lacking in some areas we should discuss.”
Reegan is very upset with this reaction; she expected Lynn to talk with the others in her department and
force them to be easier to work with. “First, the perception is that you are not a team player. You spend
time in meetings talking about your ideas, but you don’t ask others what they think of those ideas, nor do
you seem to notice body language that indicates someone might have something to say,” says Lynn.
“Another thing I have noticed is your seemingly unwillingness to engage your coworkers in anything
besides work-related tasks. Remember, this team has worked together for over eight years and they have
built personal relationships. You don’t seem to be interested in anyone you work with.”
Reegan, defensive, says, “No one will say anything when I mention my ideas! It isn’t my fault that they
don’t care about bettering this company. They need to speak up if they have comments or ideas of their
own. As far as personal life, I am here to work, not make friends.”
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Lynn sits back in her chair and asks Reegan if she has ever heard of emotional intelligence skills. Reegan
hasn’t, so Lynn gives her some websites to check out, and then schedules a meeting to talk in two days
about emotional intelligence.
This situation in the workplace is not uncommon yet causes thousands of lost work hours and frustrations
on the part of managers and employees. Emotional intelligence skills (sometimes referred to as EQ or EI),
as we will discuss in this chapter, can help people be aware of their own emotions, manage those
emotions, and work better with others. These skills can be developed over time and are an important part
of career success.
Before we begin this chapter, it is important to distinguish between personal and professional success,
because personal success does not always mean professional success and the other way around. In
addition, personal and professional success means different things to different people. For example,
having a nice car, a beautiful home, and a fancy job title could be considered professional success. On the
other hand, personal success may include the ability to travel, interpersonal relationships, friendships,
and other factors that have little to do with professional success. Consider Desiree—she does not earn
large sums of money and does not have a fancy job title. She has never been promoted and has worked as
an administrative assistant for twelve years for more or less the same salary. However, she does not have
the goal of being promoted and prefers to leave the office at 5 pm and not have to think about work
beyond that. She has a rich life full of friends and travel and often takes classes to learn new skills such as
pottery and kickboxing. One would not argue that Desiree has achieved success and happiness personally.
For her, achieving this is far more important than achieving what many would call professional success.
However, we know there is much crossover between skills that can help us achieve both professional and
personal success or happiness. Emotional intelligence is one of those skills, which we will discuss in
greater detail throughout this chapter. Next
2.1 Emotional Intelligence
L E A R N I N G O B JE C T I V E
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1. Understand how emotional intelligence can impact your career success.
Emotional intelligence is a topic that has been researched since the early 1990s and has been found
to be an important indicator of life and career success. In fact, our book is written around the ability
to develop emotional intelligence skills. Emotional intelligence (EQ) refers to a form of social
intelligence that involves the ability to monitor one’s own and others’ feelings and emotions, to
discriminate among them, and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and actions. [1] This is
different from intelligence quotient (IQ) in that IQ measures intelligence based on a score derived
from intelligence tests. The other main difference between the two is that IQ is stable over a lifetime,
while EQ can grow and develop over time.
The original researchers of EQ, John Mayer and Peter Salovey, [2] provided the first hint of emotional
intelligence in their research, but much of the later research on emotional intelligence was done by
Daniel Goleman. [3] According to Goleman, there are four main aspects to emotional intelligence,
which we will discuss later in this section. First, why is emotional intelligence necessary for success?
To begin with, different from what was previously thought, IQ is not a good predictor of job
performance, happiness, or success. Goleman points out that if this myth were true, everyone who
graduated at the top of their class with honors would be the most successful people. Because we
know this isn’t the case, we know qualities other than just IQ can help predict success. Research by
Travis Bradberry and Jean Greves has shown that EQ makes up 58 percent of our job requirements
and is the single biggest predictor of performance in the workplace and the strongest driver of
leadership and personal excellence. [4]Their research also showed that 90 percent of high performers
at work had high EQ, while 20 percent of low performers had low EQ. In other words, you can be a
high performer at work without EQ, but the chances are slimmer with low EQ. [5]EQ research by
Bradberry and Greves shows a link between higher EQ and higher salary. In fact, for every point
increase in EQ, there is a $1,300 per year increase in salary. [6]
In one study performed by Virginia Tech, [7] six hundred undergraduate computer science students
and twenty institutions participated in a survey that measured emotional intelligence and the ability
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to handle demanding curriculum. Although emotional intelligence was not directly linked to
academic success in the study, students with higher levels of emotional intelligence had more self-
efficacy (belief in one’s own ability), which allowed them to handle problems better—creating higher
academic success. For example, the ability to read body language and understand when someone is
sad or mad and needs to talk is an emotional intelligence skill. These skills enable us to interact with
others successfully. Consider a person who does not have a “filter” and continually puts down others
and says exactly what is on their mind, even if it is hurtful. This clear lack of emotional intelligence
affects this person’s ability to have good, healthy relationships, both at work and in their personal
life.
So, we know that emotional intelligence is important for success at work, at school, and in our
personal lives. Let’s discuss the four main components of EQ:
1. Self-awareness. Self-awareness refers to a person’s ability to understand their feelings from
moment to moment. It might seem as if this is something we know, but we often go about our day
without thinking or being aware of our emotions that impact how we behave in work or personal
situations. Understanding our emotions can help us reduce stress and make better decisions,
especially when we are under pressure. In addition, knowing and recognizing our own strengths and
weaknesses is part of self-awareness. Assume that Patt is upset about a new process being
implemented in the organization. Lack of self-awareness may result in her feeling angry and anxious,
without really knowing why. High self-awareness EQ might cause Patt to recognize that her anger and
anxiety stem from the last time the organization changed processes and fifteen people got laid off.
Part of self-awareness is the idea of positive psychological capital, which can include emotions
such as hope; optimism, which results in higher confidence; and resilience, or the ability to bounce
back quickly from challenges. [8]Psychological capital can be gained through self-awareness and self-
management, which is our next area of emotional intelligence.
2. Self-management. Self-management refers to our ability to manage our emotions and is
dependent on our self-awareness ability. How do we handle frustration, anger, and sadness? Are we
able to control our behaviors and emotions? Self-management also is the ability to follow through
with commitments and take initiative at work. Someone who lacks self-awareness may project stress
on others. For example, say that project manager Mae is very stressed about an upcoming Monday
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deadline. Lack of self-management may cause Mae to lash out at people in the office because of the
deadline. Higher EQ in this area might result in Mae being calm, cool, and collected—to motivate her
team to focus and finish the project on time.
3. Social awareness. Social awareness is our ability to understand social cues that may affect
others around us. In other words, understanding how another is feeling, even if we do not feel the
same way. Social awareness also includes having empathy for another, recognizing power structure
and unwritten workplace dynamics. Most people high on social awareness have charisma and make
people feel good with every interaction. For example, consider Erik’s behavior in meetings. He
continually talks and does not pick up subtleties, such as body language. Because of this, he can’t
understand (or even fathom) that his monologues can be frustrating to others. Erik, with higher EQ in
social awareness, may begin talking but also spend a lot of time listening and observing in the
meeting, to get a sense of how others feel. He may also directly ask people how they feel. This
demonstrates high social awareness.
4. Relationship management. Relationship management refers to our ability to communicate
clearly, maintain good relationships with others, work well in teams, and manage conflict.
Relationship management relies on your ability to use the other three areas of EQ to manage
relationships effectively. Take Caroline, for example. Caroline is good at reading people’s emotions
and showing empathy for them, even if she doesn’t agree. As a manager, her door is always open and
she makes it clear to colleagues and staff that they are welcome to speak with her anytime. If Caroline
has low EQ in the area of relationship management, she may belittle people and have a difficult time
being positive. She may not be what is considered a good team player, which shows her lack of ability
to manage relationships.
To increase our self-awareness skills, we should spend time thinking about our emotions to
understand why we experience a specific emotion. We should look at those things that cause a strong
reaction, such as anger to help us understand the underlying reasons for that reaction. By doing this,
we can begin to see a pattern within ourselves that helps explain how we behave and how we feel in
certain situations. This allows us to handle those situations when they arise.
To increase our self-management skills, we can focus on the positive instead of the negative. Taking
deep breaths increases blood flow, which helps us handle difficult situations. Although seemingly
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childish, counting to ten before reacting can help us manage emotions such as anger. This gives us
time to calm down and think about how we will handle the situation. Practicing positive self-
talk can help increase our self-management. Self-talk refers to the thoughts we have about ourselves
and situations throughout the day. Since we have over 50,000 thoughts per day, [9] getting into the
habit of managing those thoughts is important. By recognizing the negative thoughts, we can change
them for the positive. The following are some examples:
Positive Negative
I made a mistake. I am, or that was, dumb.
I need some work on xx skills. I am an idiot.
It may take a bit more effort to show them what I have to offer. They will never accept me.
I need to reprioritize my to do list. I will never be able to get all of this done.
Let me see what seminars and training is available. I just don’t have the knowledge required to do this job.
Increasing social awareness means to observe others’ actions and to watch people to get a good sense
of how they are reacting. We can gain social awareness skills by learning people’s names and making
sure we watch body language. Living in the moment can help our interactions with others as well.
Practicing listening skills and asking follow-up questions can also help improve our social awareness
skills.
Strategies for relationship management might include being open, acknowledging another’s feelings,
and showing that you care. Being willing to listen to colleagues and employees and understanding
them on a personal level can help enhance relationship management skills. Being willing to accept
feedback and grow from that feedback can help people be more comfortable talking with you.
The importance of emotional intelligence, as we introduced at the start of this section, is imperative
to being successful at work. Figuring out a plan on how we can increase our emotional intelligence
skills can also benefit us personally in our relationships with others.
Emotional intelligence is the key to everything we will discuss throughout the book, and each aspect
of our discussion relates back to emotional intelligence, as you can see from Figure 2.1.
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Figure 2.1
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Emotional intelligence applies to all areas of our lives, both professionally and personally. We will
be discussing each of these emotional intelligence aspects throughout the book.
K E Y T A K E A W A Y S
• Emotional intelligence (EQ) is different from intelligence quotient (IQ) in that EQ can help predict career
success and can be improved over time, whereas IQ is stable over time.
• Emotional intelligence consists of four main components. Self-awareness is the first. This level of
intelligence comprises the ability to understand one’s own emotions and reactions to those emotions.
• Self-management refers to the ability to manage one’s reactions and emotions.
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• Social awareness refers to one’s ability to read body language and social cues to develop positive
relationships both professionally and personally.
• Relationship management skills require all of the three mentioned skills. This skill allows us to handle
conflict and get along with others.
• EQ is important because the majority of successful people have both appropriate IQ levels for their job
and EQ skills.
E X E R C I S E S
1. Reread the opening case. What emotional intelligence issues do you think Lynn will address with Reegan
when they meet? If you were Lynn, what recommendations would you make to Reegan?
Visit http://www.queendom.com/tests/access_page/index.htm?idRegTest=3037 (you do not
need to register) and take the 146-question quiz on emotional intelligence, which should take
about an hour. Then answer the following questions:
a. Why do you think EQ predicts more career success than IQ?
b. What were the results of the quiz? Do you agree with them?
c. Formulate a plan to improve your emotional intelligence skills, with at least three
goals and strategies to reach those goals. Next
[1] Cherniss, Cary. (2000). Paper presented to annual meeting of the Society for Industrial and Organizational
Psychology, New Orleans, LA, April 15, 2000. Accessed February 26,
2012, http://www.eiconsortium.org/reports/what_is_emotional_intelligence.html; Mayer, J. D., Caruso, D., &
Salovey, P. (1999). Emotional intelligence meets traditional standards for an intelligence. Intelligence, 27, 267–98.
[2] Mayer, J. D., Salovey, P., & Caruso, D. R. (2000). Models of emotional intelligence. In R. J. Sternberg
(Ed.). Handbook of intelligence (pp. 396–420). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
[3] Goleman, Daniel. (n.d.). Emotional intelligence. Accessed February 26,
2012,http://danielgoleman.info/topics/emotional-intelligence/
[4] Bradberry, Travis, & Greaves, Jean. (2009). Emotional Intelligence 2.0 (p. 21) TalentSmart Publishing.
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[5] Bradberry, Travis, & Greaves, Jean. (2009). Emotional Intelligence 2.0 (p. 21) TalentSmart Publishing.
[6] Bradberry, Travis, & Greaves, Jean. (2009). Emotional Intelligence 2.0 (p. 22) TalentSmart Publishing.
[7] Virginia Tech. (2005, October 5). Emotional intelligence may be good predictor of success in computing
studies. ScienceDaily.
[8] Luthans, Fred. (2002). The need for and meaning of positive organizational behavior.Journal of Organizational
Behavior, 23(6), 695–706.
[9] Willax, Paul. (1999, December 13). Treat customers as if they are right. Business First, accessed March 2,
2012,http://www.bizjournals.com/louisville/stories/1999/12/13/smallb2.html?page=all
2.2 Goal Setting
L E A R N I N G O B JE C T I V E S
1. Be able to explain strategies you can use for goal setting.
2. Embrace strategies on how you can effectively deal with change.
Goal Setting
As we discussed, our emotional intelligence is the cornerstone for career success. Part of self-management
is knowing ourselves and being able to set goals based on understanding our own needs and wants.
Many people end up adrift in life, with no real goal or purpose, which can show lack of self-management.
Some people are happy this way, but most people would prefer to have goals that can set the direction for
their life. It is similar to going on a road trip without a map or GPS. You might have fun for a while, going
where the wind takes you, but at some point you may like to see specific things or stop at certain places,
which creates the need for GPS. What happens if you have been driving aimlessly for a while but decide
what you want to see is five hundred miles back the other way? A goal would have helped you plan the
steps along the way in your trip. Goals are the GPS for your life. Research done by Locke et al. in the late
1960s shows a direct connection between goal setting and high achievement. [1] One of the most popular
methods to setting goals is called the SMART philosophy. This includes the following “steps” or aspects
to goal setting:
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1. Specific. First, the goals need to be specific. Rather than saying, “I want to be a better person,” try a
goal such as “volunteer two hours per week.” The more specific the goal, the more we are able to
determine if we were successful in that goal. In other words, being specific allows us to be very clear
about what we want to achieve. This clarity helps us understand specifically what we need to do in
order to achieve the goal.
2. Measurable. The goal must be measured. At the end of the time period, you should be able to say,
“Yes, I met that goal.” For example, “increase my sales” isn’t measureable. Saying something such as,
“I will increase my sales by 10 percent over the next two years,” is very specific and measureable. At
the end of two years, you can look at how well you have performed and compare your goal with the
result.
3. Attainable. The goals should be something we can achieve. We must either already have or be able
to develop the attitudes, skills, and abilities in order to achieve the goal. This doesn’t mean you need
these skills right now, but it does mean over time you should be able to develop them. For example, if
my goal is to become a light aircraft pilot, but I am afraid of flying, it may mean I am not willing (or
able) to develop the skills and abilities in order to achieve this goal. So this goal would not be
attainable and I should choose another one.
4. Realistic. The goal that is set must be something you are willing and able to work toward. The goal
cannot be someone else’s goal. For example, earning a business degree because your parents want you
to may not be compelling enough to follow through with that goal. The goal should be realistic in
terms of your abilities and willingness to work toward the goal. If I decided I wanted to be a WNBA
player, this is probably not a realistic goal for me. I am too old; I am five feet two inches and not really
willing to put in the time to get better at basketball. So as a result, I would likely not achieve this goal.
5. Time-oriented. There should always be a timeframe attached to a specific goal. Most individuals
will have longer-term and shorter-term goals. For example, a long-term goal might be to manage a
medical lab. In order to meet this longer-term goal, shorter-term goals might include the following:
o Earn a medical lab technology degree
o Obtain employment as a medical lab tech
o Develop skills by attending two conferences per year
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o Develop positive relationship with coworkers and supervisor by using emotional
intelligence skills
Within all of our goals, there are shorter-term objectives. Objectives are the shorter-term goals we must
do in order to accomplish our bigger goals. For example, possible objectives for two of the goals
mentioned previously might be the following:
• Earn a medical lab technology degree
o Take three courses per quarter to finish in two years
o Study at least three to six hours per day to earn a 3.5 GPA or higher
o See my advisor once per quarter
o Slot one night per week for social time, but focus on studies the rest of the time
• Obtain employment as a medical lab tech
o Do an internship in the last quarter of school
o Create a dynamic resume
o Obtain recommendations from instructors
o Attend the quarterly medical lab networking event while in school
Another effective strategy in goal setting is writing goals down. [2] Why is this so important? First, you are
forced to clarify and think about specific goals using SMART objectives. Second, writing goals down can
turn your direction into the right one, and you will be less likely to be sidetracked by other things. Writing
goals down and revisiting them often can also provide an outlet for helping you celebrate meeting a
certain objective. In our previous example, by writing these things down, we are able to celebrate the
smaller successes such as earning a 3.7 GPA or finishing an internship.
Research performed published in the Academy of Management journal also suggests that goals are much
more likely to be met if the goal is set by the person attaining the goal. [3] For example, if Sherry’s parents
want her to become a dental hygienist, but she really wants to become an automotive technician,
achieving the goal of dental hygienist may be more difficult, because it’s not her own. While this may seem
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obvious, we can easily take on goals that other people want us to achieve—even well into our adult life.
Expectations from our partner, spouse, friends, and social group can influence our goals and make them
not our own. For example, if in your group of friends all have the goal of becoming lawyers, we can
assume this should be our goal, too. As a result, we may try to meet this goal but be unsuccessful or
unmotivated because it isn’t truly what we want.
Another thing to consider about goal setting is that as we change, and situations change, we need to be
flexible with them. For example, let’s say Phil has a goal of earning a degree in marketing. Suppose Phil
takes his first marketing class but creates a great idea for a new business he would like to start once he
graduates. At this point, Phil may decide earning an entrepreneurship degree instead makes the most
sense. It is likely, as a result, since Phil’s goal has changed, objectives and timelines may need to change as
well.
Revisiting our goals often is an important part to goal setting. One of the most popular examples for
rigidity in goal setting was Ford. In 1969, the goal was to develop a car that weighed less than 2,000
pounds and was less than $2,000. This was to be done by the model year 1971. As you know, this was a
very short time to reengineer and redesign everything the organization had done in the past. Ford met
their goal, as the Ford Pinto was introduced in 1971. [4] However, due to the rush to meet the goal,
common safety procedures were not followed in the development process, which resulted in disaster.
Engineers did not look at the safety issues in placement of the fuel tank, which resulted in fifty-three
deaths when the car went up in flames after minor crashes. While this is an extreme example, revisiting
goals, including timelines, is also an important part of the goal-setting process. Why Human Relations? In a 2005 study [5] that compared violence and emotional intelligence, inmates were divided into
nonviolent offenses and violent offenses. When emotional intelligence was measured, there was a clear
difference between emotional intelligence deficiencies and violence as a vehicle to act out emotions. This,
of course, is an extreme example, but it proves the point: the ability to understand our emotions
allows us to be better prepared to handle those emotions appropriately, which in turn can
create success personally and at work. It allows us to create coping tools to deal with emotions such
as anger and frustration.
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The ability to manage ourselves helps us handle our emotions but also allows us to handle ourselves in
other ways. For example, practicing self-management can teach us how to forgo immediate
gratification to meet our goals, a necessary skill to create the kind of life you want. Time
management, handling change, and other skills allow us to be successful personally and professionally.
Social awareness is a skill that helps us to see how we are affecting others. Often, we can get too tied up
with ourselves and we fail to notice how another person is feeling. Someone who “gets” the social cues, for
example, can develop positive working relationships and motivate people.
Relationship management can help us foster skills that help us maintain good working relationships with
others. Learning how to handle conflict and communicate well are necessary skills to have a successful
marriage, relationship, friendship, and work relationships.
All of these skills are part of every chapter in this book, as the core of a successful career and a happy work
life is emotional intelligence skills.
Time Management
Part of reaching goals also refers to our ability to manage our time. This is also part of emotional
intelligence, specifically, self-management—the ability to understand what needs to be done and
appropriately allot time to achieve our goals. Time management refers to how well we use the time we
are given. In order to meet our goals, we must become proficient at managing time. Common tips include
the following:
• Learning how to prioritize. Develop the skills of making sure the most important things are done first
(even if they are less fun).
• Avoid multitasking. Focus on one task and finish it before moving on.
• Don’t get distracted—for example, with e-mails, text messages, or other communications—while
working. Set time aside to check these things.
• Make to-do lists. These lists can be daily, weekly, or monthly. Organizing in this way will help you
keep track of tasks and deadlines. However, note that a study by the Wall Street Journal suggested 30
percent of people spend more time managing their to-do list than actually doing the work on
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them.[6] To-do lists can help manage time but should not be a hindrance to actually getting things
done!
• Don’t overwork yourself. Schedule time for breaks and spend time doing things you enjoy.
• Be organized. Make sure your workspace, computer, and home are organized so you can find things
easier. Much time is wasted looking for a file on a computer or a specific item you misplaced.
• Understand your work style, a self-awareness skill. Some people work better in the morning, while
others work better at night. Schedule important tasks for times when you are at your peak.
• Don’t say yes to everything. Everyone has a limit, and being able to say no is an important part of
managing time.
• Find ways to improve concentration. Learning how to meditate for twenty minutes a day or
exercising, for example, can help focus your energy.
Effective time management can help us manage stress better but also ensures we can have time to relax,
too! Making time management a priority can assist us in meeting our goals. Another important part of
career success and personal success is the ability to deal with change, another aspect to emotional
intelligence.
Dealing with Change
As we discussed, the ability to set goals is part of emotional intelligence. Perhaps equally as important,
being flexible with our goals and understanding that things will change—which can affect the direction of
our goals—is part of being emotionally intelligent.
Dealing with change can be difficult. Since most businesses are always in a state of flux, for career success,
it is important we learn how to handle change effectively. But first, why do people tend to resist change?
There are many reasons why:
1. People are afraid the change will affect the value of their skills. For example, if people are
afraid of new technology, this could be because they are nervous their skills on the old technology will
no longer be useful to the company. To combat this concern, use a can-do attitude about these kinds
of changes. Be the first to sign up for training, since we know technological change is a constant.
2. People are concerned about financial loss. Many people worry about how the change will affect
them from a financial perspective. Will it result in lost hours, lost income? If a change is introduced
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and you aren’t sure how it will affect these things—and it is not effectively communicated—the best
course of action is to talk with your supervisor to clarify how exactly this change will affect you.
3. Status quo is easier. People get comfortable. Because of this comfort level, change and the
unknown seem scary. Try to always look for new ways to enhance and improve the workplace. For
example, revisiting and improving the process for scheduling can help us from becoming stagnant.
4. Group norms exist. Sometimes team members are happy to change, but the company does not
have a culture that embraces change. Listening to people’s ideas and reacting positively to them can
help create a climate of change. Avoiding defensiveness and “going along with the crowd” can help
combat this reason for not embracing change.
5. Leadership is required. The leadership in our organizations may not provide all of the
information we need, or we may not trust them enough to lead us through a change. Despite this,
change is inevitable, so obtaining clarification around the change expectations can be an important
step to not only understanding the change, but helping the leader become a better leader.
When a change occurs or is occurring, people are likely to experience four phases associated with that
change. First, they may experience denial. In this phase, they do not want to accept the change nor do they
want to move on to the future. In the resistance phase, people may feel angry or hurt. They may wistfully
think about how great things were before the change. In the third phase, exploration, the person may
begin to accept the change but with some reservations. In this phase there may be confusion as people
start to clarify expectations. In the commitment phase, people have accepted the change, understand how
they fit with the change, know how the change will affect them, and begin to embrace it. For example,
assume Alan is an expert on the company’s most popular product offering, a special computer program
used for accounting purposes. He is the organization’s top seller, with many of his commissions coming
from this product. However, the company has just developed new accounting software, which has much
better features for customers. He might find this adjustment difficult because he is comfortable with the
current software, and it has been lucrative for him to sell it. Here is how he might go through the phases:
1. Denial. Alan does nothing. He continues about his job and ignores e-mails about the new product.
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2. Resistance. Alan tells his coworkers that the change is unnecessary and wonders why they can’t
continue selling the old product. He discusses why the old product is much better than the new one.
He may complain to his manager and find reasons why the change is a bad idea.
3. Exploration. Alan is still nervous about the change but begins to use the new software and realizes it
may have some worthwhile features. He wonders how that affects his ability to sell the product, and
he begins to think about how he might sell the new software.
4. Commitment. Alan takes some training classes on the new product and realizes how much better it
is. He talks with his coworkers about the new product and helps them understand how it works. He
sends an e-mail to his customers introducing the new software and all of its benefits.
As you can see in this example, Alan’s resistance to the change was because he didn’t understand the need
to change at first and he was worried about how this change would affect the value of his skills.
Because of technology changes and the fact that many companies have global operations and the need for
businesses to be agile, change is a constant force affecting business. Be positive about change and accept it
as a necessary part of our work life. We cannot expect things to stay the same for very long. The better we
can get at accepting change, the more successful we will likely be in our career.
Figure 2.2
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This figure depicts the common process people go through when experiencing change. At each
phase, the employee will have a different set of feelings. Leadership can go a long way to
helping people understand the need for change, the reason for change, and explaining how the
change will affect the employee.
Many a theory has been written about how people undergo change, but one of the more popular
models is Lewin’s Model on Change. [7] His model proposes three main phases to handling change:
1. Unfreezing. Friction causes change and reduction of forces cause a change to happen. For example,
suppose Gillian has been unhappy in her job for three years. She recently gets a new manager who she
doesn’t like, and a friend tells her about a job at a competing company. In this case, friction occurred
(the new manager). In addition, Gillian was worried she wouldn’t be able to find another job, but now
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that she knows about a new job, that reduces the forces that prevented her from changing to begin
with.
2. Change. Now that motivations to change have occurred, the change needs to actually occur. Change
is a process, not one event at one time. For example, assume Gillian realized taking the new job makes
sense, but even though she knows this, accepting the offer and going to her new job on the first day is
still scary!
3. Refreezing. Once the change has been made, the refreezing process (which can take years or
days, depending on the change) is where the change is the new “normal.” People form new
relationships and get more comfortable with their routines. Gillian, for example, likely felt
odd taking a different way to her new job and didn’t know where to have lunch. Gradually,
though, she began to meet people, got used to her new commute, and settled in.
Figure 2.3
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Lewin’s Change Model suggests there must be a motivation to change before a change can take
place.
When we become comfortable with change, we are able to allow change into our professional lives.
Often, people are too afraid for various reasons to go after that promotion or a new job.
K E Y T A K E A W A Y S
1. Goal setting is a necessary aspect to career success. We must set goals in order to have a map for our life.
2. When we set goals, we should use the SMART goals format. This asks us to make sure our goals are
specific, measurable, attainable, realistic, and time-oriented.
3. When setting goals, we will also use objectives. Objectives are the shorter-term things we must do in
order to meet our goals.
4. Time management is also a factor to goal setting. Developing good time management skills can bring us
closer to our goals.
5. Learning how to deal with change is another way to ensure career success. Many people are adverse to
change for a variety of reasons. For example, sometimes it is easier to maintain status quo because we
know what to expect. Other reasons may include concern about financial loss and job security, unclear
leadership communication, and the existence of group norms.
6. Besides attitude and behavior, career promotion means being uncomfortable with possible changes.
People resist change because of fear of job security, fear of the unknown, fear of failure, their individual
personality, and bad past experience with change.
7. Lewin’s model suggests three phases of change, which include unfreezing, change, and refreezing. These
changes indicate that some motivation must occur for the change to happen (unfreeze). Once the change
occurs, there can still be discomfort while people get used to the new reality. Finally, in the refreezing
part, people are beginning to accept the change as the new normal.
E X E R C I S E S
1. Using the SMART model for setting goals, create at least three long-term goals, along with objectives.
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2. As you learned in this chapter, time management is an important part of meeting goals. Take this time
management quiz to determine how well you currently manage your
time:http://psychologytoday.tests.psychtests.com/take_test.php?idRegTest=3208. Do you feel the test
results were accurate? Why or why not?
Next
[1] Locke, Edwin A., Shaw, Karyll N., Saari, Lise M., & Latham, Gary P. (1981). Goal setting and task performance:
1969–1980. Psychological Bulletin, 90(1), 125–52.
[2] Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (1990). A theory of goal-setting and task performance. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice Hall.
[3] Shalley, Christina E. (1995, April). Effects of coaction, expected evaluation, and goal setting on creativity and
productivity. Academy of Management Journal, 38(2), 483–503.
[4] Why Goal Setting can Lead to Disaster. (2012, May 15). Forbes Magazine, accessed May 15,
2012, http://www.forbes.com/2009/02/19/setting-goals-wharton-entrepreneurs-management_wharton.html
[5] Knight, Jennifer. (2005). Exploring emotional intelligence and IQ: Comparing violent and non-violent criminal
offenders. Dissertation, accessed May 16, 2012,http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?did=913522881&Fmt=7&clientId
=79356&RQT=309&VName=PQD
[6] Sandberg, Jared. (2004, September 10). Though time-consuming, to-do lists are a way of life. The Wall Street
Journal. Accessed March 18, 2012,http://www.careerjournal.com/columnists/cubicleculture/20040910-
cubicle.html
[7] Lewin, Kurt. (n.d.). Frontiers of group dynamics. Human Relations, 1, 5–41.
2.3 Continuous Learning
L E A R N I N G O B JE C T I V E
1. Understand how continuous learning can help you achieve career and personal success.
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Continuous learning involves the process of constantly trying to update skills and learn new ones.
This shows high emotional intelligence in the area of self-awareness and self-management (“I know I
need to learn this new skill to be more valuable to my employee or to be more productive in my
personal life”). Having self-awareness, or knowing our strengths and weaknesses, is the first step in
improving our chances for career and personal success. Once we are aware (self-aware) of our
weaknesses, we can better choose areas in which we would like to learn. For example, if Anton knows
he isn’t very good at giving presentations, being able to recognize this is self-awareness. Then,
finding opportunities to work on this, such as joining a Toastmasters club, shows emotional
intelligence in the area of self-management. Anton recognized his weakness and finds ways to
improve his abilities.
People who often learn new skills tend to be happier individuals and more value to their
organizations. For example, Zappos, a shoe retailer based in Seattle, Washington, maintains a
“Wishez” list. Employees post things they are interested in learning, such as how to cook an ethnic
dish, and they are connected with other members in the organization who have these skills. This
focus on continuous learning makes for happier employees, which makes for more productive
workers. In a study by Kansas State University, it was estimated that happy workers are in fact, more
productive. The study found that employees who are psychologically distressed cost $75+ per week
to the organization. [1]
Learning new skills such as taking a pottery class or learning to ski or surf can help people increase
happiness, which in turn can build self-confidence. This confidence can result in a richer and more
fulfilling life since we learn new things that we enjoy doing.
Most people who find career success have a habit of being curious and interested in a variety of
topics that can enhance their personal lives but also their professional lives, too. As management
guru Brian Tracy points out, continuous learning is one of the “nine disciplines” to being
successful. [2] But what does it mean to learn continuously? There are several ways we can learn, as
depicted in Figure 2.4 "Some Suggestions for Continual Learning".
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Figure 2.4 Some Suggestions for Continual Learning
From a career perspective, if we choose not to learn continuously, we end up being stale in both our
skills and abilities. Since most industries change so quickly, it is likely our current skills will be
outdated in five to ten years. This means we need to constantly update to understand the next set of
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skills we need to be successful. In addition, sometimes we have to “unlearn” skills as new and better
ways evolve. For example, if you have golfed before, you may mimic the golf swings you see on
television when you go out to play. Although this swing may work for you for some time, you may get
to a point where you want to improve, so you take a lesson from a golf pro. The golf pro looks at your
swing and offers advice on how to improve distance and accuracy. In this case, you may have to
“unlearn” your old swing in order to improve your golf game. Unlearning can apply to all aspects of
our life, not just sports. When things in an organization change, it can be challenging to unlearn the
old way and be comfortable with the new way of doing things. Unlearning means you may have to let
go of an old way of doing something that may have worked for a long period of time. For example,
Parelli Natural Horsemanship program requires training participants to start from square one when
learning how to train their horse. [3] The idea is they need to “unlearn” their old ways of training their
horse in order to become effective at the sport. So no matter if someone has ten years of experience
with horses or zero years, everyone goes back to basics. This can happen in organizations, too. For
example, an organization that had high sales in 2007 had to unlearn their way of doing business
before the recession in order to continue being successful. A new economy has required relearning of
how to operate with many economic changes. In society today, the ability to learn, unlearn, and then
learn again can happen over a span of a few months rather than many years. For example, many
organizations get “stuck” on a specific way of doing things, and when those things are unlearned, the
company can begin to move forward and learn the new way of doing things.
Many organizations value people who can show their focus and dedication to continually learning
and unlearning. For example, the Office of Personnel Management of the US Fish and Wildlife
Service employs over 9,000 [4] people. Because of their large staff, they have identified twenty-eight
leadership competencies, one of which is continual learning. Continual learning is important because
it makes us more valuable to our employers, which can result in promotions, higher salary, and more
responsibility as we grow our career. Continual Learning Continual learning is valued and expected at all levels with the Fish and Wildlife department. [5]
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Continual Learning Element Distinguishing behaviors for employees, supervisors, and
upper-level management
Values learning and takes initiative to build knowledge and skills.
For All Employees:
Strives for continuous improvement and is actively engaged in exploring new ideas and concepts.
Seeks out and engages in self-improvement activities.
Spends time learning from others.
Creates time within and away from the job to learn.
Seeks challenging assignments and unfamiliar tasks.
Seeks out new developments, techniques, and advances in knowledge and ideas.
Seeks out new approaches, tools, and methods in their own field of expertise.
Maintains professional certification or license, if appropriate.
Additional for First Appointment Leaders and Above:
Encourages and supports professional growth including pursuit of appropriate certifications and licenses.
Gives others the autonomy to approach issues in their own way, including the opportunity to make and learn from mistakes.
Additional for Midlevel Leaders and Above:
Invests in the further development of personal supervisory skills, in better understanding the issues and needs that affect customers, and in their own field-specific expertise.
Reinforces knowledge, skills, and new behaviors gained through training and development by helping employees apply them on the job.
Additional for Senior Leaders and Above:
Models continuous self-development.
Adds to managerial knowledge, strategic thinking, financial planning and analysis, as well as skills in supporting a learning organization.
Additional for Executives:
Continually updates their own and others’ awareness of the organization and the big picture context within which we work.
Is reflective and learns from mistakes. For All Employees:
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Continual Learning Element Distinguishing behaviors for employees, supervisors, and
upper-level management
Analyzes both successes and failures for clues to improvement.
Is resilient toward setbacks and failures, analyzing them for lessons learned and building on them.
Confronts problems instead of avoiding them.
Additional for First Appointment Leaders and Above:
Uses after-action reviews to assess performance.
Additional for Midlevel Leaders and Above:
Uses a variety of approaches to analyze and understand how actions led to certain outcomes and how to improve one’s approach to similar situations in the future.
Is open about mistakes and failure with self and others.
Contributes to procedures that enable the organization to learn from past actions.
Additional for Senior Leaders and Above:
Plans, implements, and learns from program and policy evaluation strategies.
Additional for Executives:
Ensures that new organizational policies, programs, procedures, and services are built to incorporate and profit from lessons learned.
Ensures that stakeholders understand results of policy and program evaluation.
Assesses gaps in knowledge and skill in self and in others.
For All Employees:
Assesses their own strengths and weaknesses.
Actively seeks feedback on their performance.
Understands their strengths and potential “fatal flaws” in knowledge and performance.
Additional for First Appointment Leaders and Above:
Recognizes and addresses team and team member strengths and potential “fatal flaws” in knowledge and performance.
Draws on individual team member strengths rather than weaknesses to fashion assignments and help develop others in the team.
Gives decision making authority to the team, where
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Continual Learning Element Distinguishing behaviors for employees, supervisors, and
upper-level management
appropriate. Avoids taking over all decisions.
Rewards and recognizes the good use of team skills, not just individual contributions.
Additional for Midlevel Leaders and Above:
Measures current skills and knowledge against competencies needed for continuing success and to meet future problems.
Evaluates the impact of training on performance.
Understands the value of knowledge sharing.
For All Employees:
Actively seeks learning in areas beyond their own technical expertise in order to become a broader resource.
Participates actively in professional associations(s).
Additional for First Appointment Leaders and Above:
Networks with others and supports team networking to share resources and knowledge and builds upon rather than replicate the work of others.
Additional for Midlevel Leaders and Above:
Coaches and mentors employees.
Fosters knowledge sharing and learning across units.
Actively engages in partnering activities that align common goals and services.
Serves as a source of wisdom and expertise on technical and organizational matters for employees.
Additional for Senior Leaders and Above:
Applies tools and techniques of knowledge management to share learning widely across the organization.
Identifies best practices from high-performance organizations with similar missions.
Helps the organization learn from customers and stakeholders and translates that learning into improved ways of performing.
Additional for Executives:
Develops processes and/or systems to ensure that what is learned in training or practice is shared throughout the organization and applied to work activities and strategic planning.
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Continual Learning Element Distinguishing behaviors for employees, supervisors, and
upper-level management
Cooperates and/or networks across disciplinary, organizational, agency and public/private boundaries to establish and reach common understanding on issues and opportunities.
Promotes benchmarking and other techniques that help an agency build upon best practices.
Broadly communicates throughout the organization the need to understand others’ viewpoints, agendas, values, constraints, and behaviors and be willing to take others’ ideas into consideration.
Demonstrates knowledge of learning styles and uses a variety of strategies to close learning gaps.
For All Employees:
Crafts and uses for their own development a variety of learning approaches, including formal course work, reading, talking with others, attending formal training, shadowing, detail assignments, and on-the-job experiences.
Understands their preferred learning style and methods.
Uses the IDP to link assessments, career goals, and organizational strategies to personal development plans.
Works to deploy strengths.
Additional for First Appointment Leaders and Above:
Supports the team’s use of a variety of learning methods, including reading, talking with others, after-action reviews, attending formal training, and on-the-job experiences.
Shows insight into individuals’ learning profiles and styles when making assignments or devising developmental strategies.
Identifies and makes assignments that challenge team members to stretch their abilities and self-confidence.
Additional for Midlevel Leaders and Above:
Creates and makes developmental assignments to stretch and foster learning and development in employees.
Delegates responsibility and decision making to lower levels to develop employees.
Ensures that all employees have an IDP (individual development plan). Links IDPs and developmental assignments to current and future organizational needs.
Understands the concept of knowledge management and leads knowledge
For Senior Leaders and Executives:
Creates an environment that facilitates knowledge sharing,
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Continual Learning Element Distinguishing behaviors for employees, supervisors, and
upper-level management
management efforts. learning, and networking, which can support change.
Builds the organization’s capacity to learn, improve, anticipate, and meet new challenges.
Designs, implements, and orchestrates knowledge management strategies and initiatives throughout the organization.
Integrates the development of human capital into strategic planning and creates an integrated approach to address current problems and meet emerging demands.
For Senior Leaders and Above:
Assesses organizational skills and strengths against current and future requirements.
Manages expenditures for training and development as investments that maximize the value of human capital plans strategically for changing organizational needs in skills and knowledge.
Everyone should consider creating a plan to help them develop their talents and create new skills. The
plan might include the following:
• What skill(s) do I want to develop?
• What time frame will I give myself to develop them?
• How much time per week/month can I devote?
• What methods will I use? For example, seminars, classes, and so on.
As we learned in the earlier section on goal setting, being specific and writing down those new skills and
abilities you want to develop can tend to make it more of a priority, which can result in more personal and
career success.
K E Y T A K E A W A Y S
1. Continuous learning is the process of learning new things to enhance yourself professionally and
personally.
2. Continuous learning can help increase personal happiness and career success.
3. One can engage in continuous learning by taking seminars, workshops, reading, working with a mentor,
attending conventions, socializing, and traveling.
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4. Some organizations, such as the Department of Fish and Wildlife, make continuous learning a part of
leadership career pathways.
E X E R C I S E
1. What new skills would you like to learn? Write down at least five new skills you would like to learn
personally. Then write down five new skills you would like to learn for your career. Identify all of the
options that can help you develop these new skills.
Next
[1] Hodges, Kristin. (2009, February 3). K-state researcher says happy employees are critical for an organization’s
success. Accessed March 21, 2012, http://www.k-state.edu/media/newsreleases/feb09/wellbeing20309.html
[2] Korn, Marc. (2011, December 8). Self-discipline: The art of continuous learning. Accessed March 6,
2012, http://marckornblog.com/discipline-of-continuous-learning/
[3] Parelli Natural Horse Training website. Accessed May 18,
2012,http://www.parellinaturalhorsetraining.com/natural-horsemanship/
[4] US Fish and Wildlife homepage. Accessed March 6, 2012,http://www.fws.gov/help/about_us.html
[5] US Fish and Wildlife Service, National Conservation Training Center website. Accessed March 6,
2012,http://nctc.fws.gov/led/competencymodel/Foundational/continuallearning.html
2.4 Chapter Summary and Case
C H A P T E R S U M M A R Y
• Emotional intelligence (EQ) is different from intelligence quotient (IQ) in that EQ can help predict
career success and can be improved over time, whereas IQ is stable over time.
• Emotional intelligence consists of four main components. Self-awareness is the first. This level of
intelligence comprises the ability to understand one’s own emotions and reactions to those emotions.
• Self-management refers to the ability to manage one’s reactions and emotions.
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• Social awareness refers to one’s ability to read body language and social cues to develop positive
relationships both professionally and personally.
• Relationship management skills require all of the three mentioned skills. This skill allows us to handle
conflict and get along with others.
• EQ is important because the majority of successful people have both appropriate IQ levels for their
job but also EQ skills.
• Goal setting is a necessary aspect to career success. We must set goals in order to have a map for our
life.
• When we set goals, we should use the SMART goals format. This asks us to make sure our goals are
specific, measurable, attainable, realistic, and have timelines associated with them.
• When setting goals, we will also use objectives. Objectives are the shorter-term things we must do in
order to meet our goals. Time management is also a factor to goal setting. Developing good time
management skills can bring us closer to our goals.
• Managing our time efficiently is a good way to help us achieve our goals. By looking at time
management, we can make sure the time we spend on activities is geared toward meeting our end
goals.
• Learning how to deal with change is another way to ensure career success. Many people are adverse
to change for a variety of reasons. For example, sometimes it is easier to maintain the status quo
because we know what to expect. Other reasons may include concern about financial loss and job
security, unclear leadership communication, and the existence of group norms.
• Besides attitude and behavior, career promotion means being uncomfortable with possible changes.
People resist change because of fear of job security, fear of the unknown, fear of failure, their
individual personality, and bad past experience with change.
• Lewin’s model suggests three phases of change, which include unfreezing, change, and refreezing.
These changes indicate that some motivation must occur for the change to happen (unfreeze). Once
the change occurs, there can still be discomfort while people are getting used to the new reality.
Finally, in the refreezing part, people are beginning to accept the change as the new normal.
• Continual learning is an important part of personal development as well as professional development.
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• People who engage in continual learning tend to experience more personal happiness and career
success.
• One can engage in continuous learning by taking seminars, workshops, reading, working with a
mentor, attending conventions, socializing, and traveling.
C H A P T E R C A SE
Overall, do you feel like you use your time wisely? Think about the ways you have spent your time over the
last week. Write down the amount of time you spend doing the following things on an average week:
• Human needs activities (sleeping, cooking, and eating):
• School-related activities:
• Activities geared toward my specific long- and short-term goals:
• Transportation (commuting) activities:
• Continuous learning:
• Facebook, Twitter, other social media, or texting:
• Time-wasting activities:
• Activities for stress management:
1. When you look at how you spent your time, are there any areas where you could manage your time
better?
2. Are there any areas you feel like you are spending the perfect amount of time doing?
3. What strategies do you need to implement to manage time better?
4. In our opening case, what emotional intelligence qualities is Reegan lacking? Does this have anything to
do with her time management ability? What are some tips that could be used to improve emotional
intelligence?
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Chapter 3 Manage Your Stress
Some of the secret joys of living are not found by rushing from point A to point B, but by inventing some
imaginary letters along the way.
- Douglas Pagels
When I look back on all these worries, I remember the story of the old man who said on his deathbed
that he had had a lot of trouble in his life, most of which had never happened.
- Winston Churchill
Stressed Out
You are exhausted. When you get home, you drop your work bag and realize you forgot to send an e-
mail to your supervisor about an upcoming project. You groan as you run downstairs to your
computer. The clock says 7:03 p.m. and you feel like you haven’t had a minute to yourself since this
morning. As you think about your day, you realize, you haven’t! It is your company’s busy time so the
last few days have been booked with meetings and a huge project, with a Friday deadline. You send
the e-mail, make a quick sandwich for dinner, and sit back down at your computer. You are hoping to
get a few more things done on the project before tomorrow morning. As you work, you receive text
messages from a colleague who is working on one portion of the project. You answer her texts and
think about checking Facebook but decide against it as you just have too much to do. Your status
update meeting is at 9 a.m. and you want to be able to show extensive progress on the project. At
10:30 p.m., you shut your computer, go to bed, and have a hard time falling asleep because you are
thinking about everything you need to finish this week.
Does this sound like someone you know? Many people today are struggling with the ability to
manage time with so much work to do and personal/family lives to manage. Technology has certainly
made working longer hours easier, as we are always in touch with the office. What we can tend to
forget is the importance of managing our stress levels so we can function more effectively. In this
situation, having no free time during the day may work for a few days but isn’t a healthy long-term
solution. This chapter will discuss some types of stress, the effects of stress, and what you can do to
reduce stress.
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3.1 Types of Stress
L E A R N I N G O B JE C T I V E
1. Be able to define stress and the types of stress that can impact your human relations.
Stress can be challenging to explain, because it means different things to different people. For
example, going swimming might be stressful to some, but for others, it might be enjoyable. Stress
affects our ability to relate to others because too much stress cause us to be irritable, which affects
our communication skills. We will discuss more later on the effects of stress and human relations.
Hans Selye [1] defined stress as the nonspecific response of the body to a demand for a change. In
1936, Selye researched this topic and discovered something surprising. When subjecting lab animals
to acute but noxious physical and emotional stimuli—such as blaring light, loud noises, extreme heat
or cold, or frustration—they all experienced the same physical symptoms of stress, such as the
enlargement of the adrenal glands. He saw that these intense stresses over long periods of time
caused other issues such as heart attacks, strokes, and kidney disease. His conclusion was that stress
actually caused these conditions, [2] not the stimuli themselves. Today, we usually define stress as the
body’s way of responding to a demand. For example, if you are stuck in traffic and are going to be
late for school, this may create stress. Having two tests in one day may cause stress as you try to find
time to study for both. Likewise, you can feel stress in a difficult personal relationship with a family
member or a significant other. Other definitions of stress include the internal reaction to a situation
that could disturb a person’s well-being.
There are four types of stress. The first type of stress is called acute stress. This is the most common
form of stress and normally comes from demands and pressures of the past and future. [3] This kind
of stress tends to be short term. For example, suppose you have a busy day. You have to drop your
niece and nephew at school, stop by the post office, go to class, take a quiz, get an oil change, pick
your niece and nephew up from school, drive home through traffic, and make dinner. A busy day
such as this can create stress, but it is short term, because perhaps tomorrow you are less busy or are
looking forward to the weekend where you don’t have as much to do. Every person experiences this
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kind of stress. Acute stress is a laundry list of the things we must do or a list of the things that didn’t
go right. For example, if your car breaks down on the way to the post office, this creates a certain
amount of acute stress, but once the car is fixed there is no stress associated with it.
Episodic acute stress is a more serious form of acute stress. In this type of stress, the person feels
stress on a daily basis and rarely gets relief. [4] Unlike acute stress, where there may be one or two
busy, stressful days, episodic acute stress happens on a daily basis. The person who suffers from
episodic acute stress feels stressed constantly with little relief. You have probably met these people.
They may constantly complain about how much work they have and may be constantly late or always
in a rush and may be anxious and irritable on a regular basis. Often, a person who suffers from this
type of stress may have taken on too much and created self-imposed demands.
Chronic stress is the type of stress that happens month after month, year after year. This is long-
term stress where people see little way out of a situation. [5]Sometimes, chronic stress begins with
traumatic experiences such as Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) or childhood experiences. In
others, chronic stress can occur in response to everyday stressors that are ignored or not managed
well. [6] For example, someone may have episodic acute stress, but over a long period of time, this can
become chronic stress. With this type of stress, the person has given up looking for solutions to the
stress and tends to just live with it. For example, consider a couple who is very unhappy in their
relationship. While at one point in time in their relationship they may have experienced acute stress
when arguing, this could have turned into episodic acute stress as the arguing occurred more
frequently. Then when that type of stress was unrelieved for a long time, it became chronic stress. It
becomes chronic because the couple took no steps to repair their relationship.
We tend to think of all stress as negative, but as Seyle pointed out in his early research, some types of
stress can actually cause us to challenge ourselves and work at a higher level. [7] For example, if you
want to run a marathon, at some point you may have to physically challenge yourself to keep running
even when you are exhausted. This type of stress—positive stress to help us achieve at a higher
level—is called eustress. It can motivate us to reach goals. For example, we may experience eustress
before a job interview. This eustress can be positive if it helps us achieve success in the interview.
Some people may view positive stress as negative stress and vice versa. For example, if I were told I
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needed to run a marathon, this would most definitely create negative stress for me. However, for
others, this might be an enjoyable experience that generates eustress.
The Human Function Curve, originally developed by Peter Nixon, says there are different levels of
stress that we may experience and our stress level affects our level of performance. He calls any state
where we are awake and reacting to stimuli an arousal state, such as being at work. If we compare
the amount of stress to our performance, our performance actually improves when we experience
eustress. However, according to this model, there is a point where chronic stress can impede our
performance. Looking at Figure 3.1 "The Human Function Curve", you can see in the drone zone, for
example, that our performance is low. We may be bored and not have enough positive stress for us to
perform at a higher level. In the C zone, for example, we may experience eustress, which raises our
performance. However, when we reach the fatigue zone, we could be experiencing chronic stress,
which impedes our performance.
Figure 3.1 The Human Function Curve
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As you can see, performance is actually improved with a certain amount of stress, but once that stress becomes
episodic or chronic, our performance actually goes down.
Another important thing to remember about stress is that it varies from one person to another. One
person may feel intense acute stress when asked to give a speech in front of the class, while someone may
feel eustress if asked to give the same speech. Likewise, it may take one person much longer—and more
stress than another—to reach the C zone of performance. When dealing with stress, finding the ideal
stress level—the one that creates eustress and gets you ready for challenges—is the goal. [8]
K E Y T A K E A W A Y S
• Stress is the body’s response to change. Stress is defined in many different ways and stress and the
types of things that cause stress can vary from person to person. Today, we generally say that stress
is the body’s way of responding to a demand.
• Acute stress is the type of stress we experience on a day-to-day basis—for example, the stress of
getting our to-do list finished or the stress of unplanned setbacks.
• When a person rarely gets relief from stress, this is called episodic acute stress. This type of stress
usually goes on for longer periods of time with little relief.
• Chronic stress is characterized as long-term stress, where there is little hope for relief. These are long-
term situations where the person has given up trying to find a solution.
• Not all stress is bad; some stress can actually help us to perform at a higher level and challenge us.
This type of stress is called eustress.
E X E R C I S E S
1. Take the quiz listed at http://www.arc.sbc.edu/stressquiz.html and then answer the following
questions:
a. What was your score on the test? Do you feel this is accurate?
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b. What are some ways you handle stress in your life? Are these methods effective? Why or why
not?
2. Discuss which types of stress these situations might be:
a. Michael has a project due on Monday.
b. Tara just can’t seem to like her job over the last few years.
c. Mika puts a lot of pressure on herself to get everything done on her to-do list every day.
d. Franc is nervous about his presentation in class tomorrow.
e. Jacob has a long list of things that are due today.
f. Karen has been struggling with financial issues her whole adult life.
Next
[1] The American Institute of Stress, “Stress, Definition of Stress,” accessed February 15,
2012, http://www.stress.org/daily-life/
[2] The American Institute of Stress, “Stress, Definition of Stress,” accessed February 15,
2012, http://www.stress.org/daily-life/
[3] American Psychological Association, “Stress: The Different Kinds,” accessed February 15,
2012, http://www.apa.org/helpcenter/stress-kinds.aspx
[4] American Psychological Association, “Stress: The Different Kinds,” accessed February 15,
2012, http://www.apa.org/helpcenter/stress-kinds.aspx
[5] American Psychological Association, “Stress Won’t Go Away?” accessed February 15,
2012, http://www.apa.org/helpcenter/chronic-stress.aspx
[6] American Psychological Association, “Understanding Chronic Stress,” accessed February 15,
2012, http://www.apa.org/helpcenter/understanding-chronic-stress.aspx
[7] Laura Schenck, “Eustress vs Distress,” June 26, 2011, accessed February 15,
2012,http://www.mindfulnessmuse.com/stress-reduction/eustress-vs-distress
[8] Hans Selye, “The Nature of Stress,” The International Institute of Stress, accessed February 15,
2012, http://www.icnr.com/articles/the-nature-of-stress.html
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3.2 Symptoms of Stress
L E A R N I N G O B JE C T I V E S
1. Be able to explain the physiological changes our body goes through when experiencing stress.
2. Identify the results when we have too much stress in our life.
Our bodies go through a number of changes when we are faced with a stressor. From prehistoric
times, physical changes in our body had to occur in order to prepare us to handle the stress. For
example, we needed to be able to run fast to get away from something that could hurt us or we
needed the energy to obtain food. This is called the fight or flight response. This concept was
developed by Walter Cannon in the 1920s, and he believed that these reactions in the body enabled
us to mobilize to deal with a stressful situation. [1] More recent research has shown the addition of
“freeze” to the response. This occurs when the fight or flight response didn’t work—or we were
unable to react quickly enough to fight or flight, and we “play dead” or become immobilized. This
response is as natural as fight or flight in our body chemistry. Consider the person attacked by a bear
who plays dead and survives. The person couldn’t run (flight) and couldn’t effectively fight against
the bear, so the freeze reaction (or the “do nothing,” play dead) reaction can sometimes work. We use
the freeze reaction in response to stress triggers at work. For example, we can’t just leave (flight), as
we typically need the job to pay our bills; it also may not be worth it to fight, so we freeze in response
to the situation. Although this is an oversimplification of the body’s chemistry, it illustrates the point
that the flight-fight-freeze response is actually a very prehistoric event. Today, even though our
stresses may be different, our body still reacts the same way as it did in prehistoric times. To fully
understand how stress impacts us, we need to understand how our bodies handles stress. When our
brains initially perceive a threat, a few physiological effects, Figure 3.2 "Physiological Effects of
Stress", occur within each system of our bodies.
Figure 3.2 Physiological Effects of Stress
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Physically our bodies go through various changes to prepare us for a flight or fight response.
Courtesy of The American Institute of Stress, www.stress.org.
According to a survey of the American Psychological Association, 44 percent of Americans lie awake
at night because of stress. [2] This is one example of how prolonged episodic stress can affect our
personal life and our productivity at work. It is a positive thing for our body to get ready for acute
stress. It prepares our body to perform at a higher level. However, long-term chronic stress or
episodic acute stress can cause a variety of problems. Those problems are listed in Table 3.1
"Common Effects of Stress on Our Bodies, Moods, and Behaviors".
Table 3.1 Common Effects of Stress on Our Bodies, Moods, and Behaviors
On Your Body On Your Mood On Your Behavior
Headache Anxiety Overeating or undereating
Muscle tension or pain Restlessness Angry outbursts
Chest pain Lack of motivation or focus Drug or alcohol abuse
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On Your Body On Your Mood On Your Behavior
Fatigue Irritability or anger Tobacco use
Disinterest in things we normally enjoy Sadness or depression Social withdrawal
Stomach upset
Sleep problems
Source: Mayo Clinic Staff, “Stress Symptoms, Effects on Body, Feelings and Behavior,” February 19, 2011,
accessed February 16, 2012,http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/stress-symptoms/SR00008_D
In the 2011 American Psychological Association Stress survey, [3] 42 percent of Americans report
anger as a result of stress, while 37 percent report fatigue as a result of stress. Lack of interest,
motivation, and energy is reported by 35 percent of Americans. Digestion issues and changes in
appetite are also reported. With these being fairly common occurrences, we can see the importance
of learning how to manage stress. These symptoms can affect our ability to communicate well and be
productive at work. If we do not get enough sleep, we lose interest and motivation and we are not our
best at work, which can result in poor human relations with our coworkers, friends, and family. In
Section 3.3 "Sources of Stress", we will look at some possible causes of stress and discuss some of the
ways we can learn to better handle stress.
Why Human Relations? Stress can shut down our ability to think rationally and feel emotions. As you know from Chapter 2
"Achieve Personal Success", these two abilities are part of emotional intelligence (self-management and
self-awareness). These abilities allow us to identify and then manage our emotions. When we identify our
stressor and our emotion around that stressor, we can begin to make plans on how to handle it. Without
the ability to identify this emotion, we are not as well equipped to handle the emotions that may come
with stress. Without these stress-management skills, we can let our stress get out of control. When
stress occurs, the shutting down of our emotions doesn’t allow us to make rational
decisions, nor does it allow us to be emotionally available to others. Because of this, stress can
affect our ability to communicate and work effectively with people at work. People who are stressed often
are impatient, poor listeners, and may lose their sense of humor. These temporary behaviors that occur
when we are stressed can impact how others see us, and how well we interact with them. Also consider the
effect stress may have on our ability to manage conflict.[4] If someone is stressed about day-to-day
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frustrations, such as traffic, bills, workload, and to-do lists, the stress does not allow him or her to manage
conflict, as emotions are in a state of confusion. This can lead to poor decision making and thus result in
the inability to interact effectively with others. Everyone has stress in both their personal and professional
lives. Learning how to manage this stress is one of the first steps in making sure we are
mentally prepared to nurture our relationships at work and at home.
K E Y T A K E A W A Y S
• The flight or fight response is our body’s physiological response to perceived threats. The basic
physiological function is the same today as it was in prehistoric times.
• Having too much stress can cause many issues—like headaches, sleeplessness, and irritability—that can
affect our human relations ability.
E X E R C I S E
1. Think of a time when you felt very stressed. What kinds of physiological effects occurred? How did you
handle these situations?
Next
[1] Brian Luke Seaward, Managing Stress: Principles and Strategies (Jones and Bartlett Publishing), 6.
[2] American Psychological Association, “Stress in America: Our Health at Risk,” 2011, accessed February 16,
2012,http://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/stress/2011/impact.aspx
[3] American Psychological Association, “Stress in America: Our Health at Risk,” 2011, accessed February 16,
2012,http://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/stress/2011/impact.aspx
[4] Stresshacker, “Stress and Emotional Intelligence,” 2012, accessed May 31,
2012,http://www.stresshacker.com/2010/09/eclass-5-stress-and-emotional-intelligence/
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3.3 Sources of Stress
L E A R N I N G O B JE C T I V E
1. Explain the sources of stress we can experience, both personally and professionally.
Work Stress
As we have studied so far in this chapter, we can experience a number of possible stressors. We can divide
these stressors into personal stresses and work stresses. Although we divide them for purposes of ease, it
is intuitive that if someone is experiencing personal stress, he or she will also experience it at work, which
will result in lessened workplace performance. In fact, the American Institute of Stress estimates that
workplace stress costs companies $300 billion annually. This cost is a result of increased absenteeism,
employee turnover, and higher medical and insurance costs due to stress related illness and worker
productivity. [1]
According to the American Institute of Stress, [2] some of the common causes of workplace stress include
the following:
1. Long hours and increased demands. The average American works forty-six hours per
week. [3] Much of this is due to increased technology and expectations that employees will be available
to answer e-mail on weekends and evenings. As a result of this added work time, employees find less
time to engage in leisure and household activities such as grocery shopping and cleaning.
2. Being treated unfairly. Workplace issues such as harassment and bullying (both discussed
in Chapter 10 "Manage Diversity at Work") can cause people to feel stress at work. Additional issues
such as feeling overlooked for promotions can also cause workplace stress. In extreme cases,
perceived workplace unfairness can result in violence. For example, Matthew Beck shot and killed
four supervisors in a Connecticut lottery office because he felt he had been unfairly overlooked for a
promotion. [4] Many organizations offer Employee Assistance Programs that can offer services, such as
counseling, to help deal with workplace stress and other personal issues.
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3. Little or no acknowledgment or reward. People can feel stress when they do not feel they are
being recognized for the work they do. This kind of workplace stress can cause people to become
withdrawn, unmotivated, or unfocused on being productive for the organization. This type of behavior
can also materialize at home with people experiencing this stress being more irritable, cranky, and
moody. At work, these feelings can negatively affect our ability to relate to our coworkers and
manager.
4. Lack of control. Micromanagement refers to excessive control of work details by a supervisor. For
example, a micromanager might tell an employee specific tasks should be worked on in a given day
and give specific instructions on how those tasks should be accomplished. This type of situation can
create stress, as the employee feels he or she has little control of their own work.
5. Lack of job security. In the last quarter of 2011 (October, November, December), 266,971
employees were subjected to mass company layoffs, [5]and for obvious reasons, this creates stress
upon the workers who had to leave and for those workers who stay. Those workers who have been laid
off may experience financial hardship, and the workers who haven’t been laid off may need to perform
extra work and can suffer from physiological issues even if their jobs were not eliminated. This
phenomenon is calledlayoff survivor syndrome. [6] Many of the stressors caused by layoffs can include
increased workloads, increased anxiety, and lower morale.
6. Office politics. Dealing with difficult coworkers or supervisors and different personalities (Chapter
9 "Handle Conflict and Negotiation") and communication styles (Chapter 4 "Communicate
Effectively") can create stress at work. Conflicts, disagreements, and misunderstandings are common
in today’s workplace, especially with the use of technology. All of these factors, which we call office
politics, can create stress, which results in lost sleep, productivity, and motivation—obviously
affecting our ability to relate to others.
Figure 3.3 Some of the Reasons Cited for Workplace Stress
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Figure 3.4 Time Use on an Average Work Day for Employed Persons Ages Twenty-five to Fifty-four with
Children
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Data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics shows how much time we spend at work. Since we spend
more time at work than doing anything else, learning how to manage stress at work is an
important part to our personal well-being and productivity.
Personal Stress
While job stress is important to consider, stresses in our personal life can cause issues in our job. In this
section, we will discuss some of the major personal stressors.
1. Everyday challenges. Getting caught in traffic or a leaky water heater would be examples of things
that cause stress in our personal lives. Luckily, most of us have the abilities to cope with these daily
stresses. However, too many of these types of stressors in one day can build up and cause major issues
at work or in our personal life.
2. Personality. Our individual personalities (Chapter 1 "What Is Human Relations?") can impact our
ability to handle stress. Research published by Meyer Freidman in the 1950s [7] characterized two
main personality types, type A and type B. People with a type A personality tend to be more time
conscious, impatient, and preoccupied with tasks. A Type A Behavior Pattern (TABP) is characterized
by impatience, aggressiveness, a sense of time urgency, and the desire to achieve recognition and
advancement. People with a type A pattern may have a hyperawareness of time and, as a result,
perform tasks quickly. Because of these patterns, the person with TABP may feel constantly rushed as
they strive to be constantly competitive, causing stress and related health issues. Type A personalities
are not viewed as a fixed trait but rather a set of predispositions that may occur in certain situations
only. For example, Amiee may exhibit a type A personality at work but at home may not be as time
sensitive and impatient. Type B personalities are more focused on the here and now and are much
more laid back. Type B personalities do not normally experience as much stress as their type A
counterparts because their viewpoint on time and achievement is different.
3. Work-life balance. Everyone must manage multiple roles in their life. The roles of mother or
father, boss, employee, spouse, sister, or brother have their own unique demands that can create
stress at home and at work. When we have challenges at work, this can affect our roles at home and
vice versa. Although many organizations promote a work-life balance and create a culture that allows
people to have a “home life,” easy access to send that “one last e-mail” at 9 p.m. for work creates a
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blurred line between home and work. This creates an even greater need for our emotional intelligence
skills (self-awareness and self-management) in that we must be aware of our emotions and handle
them when they come—rather than just going about our day and plowing ahead.
4. Life changes. There are forty-three life changes that are characterized as creating stress. These life
changes are measured on a scale called life change units, created by Thomas H. Holmes and Richard
Rahe. The life changes are said to cause stress in one’s personal life. However, personality type and
situational factors may affect how much a particular event affects a person. For example, suppose a
major life change such as the death of a spouse occurs. This would cause an immense amount of
stress, but assume the spouse was very ill for a long period of time. In this situation, the latter could
have caused stress as well. So while the scale has value in terms of determining what life changes
cause the most stress, it is also important to consider the other factors around the life change, along
with a person’s personal coping ability.
Figure 3.5
Thomas H. Holmes and Richard Rahe measured personal stress by Life Change Units.
According to their research, the more “major changes” one experiences, the higher chance a
person will end up with a stress-induced illness. Someone with a score of 300 or more is said to
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be at a high risk of illness. [8] If you look at the events of your life over the last year, what is
your score?
5. Financial issues. Tough economic times, combined with increasing costs of fuel and other living
expenses, create great stress on individuals and families. Not having enough money to buy basic
needs and lacking the ability to buy the wants we have can lead to anxiety, tension, and depression.
These emotions can carry over into our work life, resulting in lowered productivity and lowered
human relations with our coworkers.
6. Friends and family issues. Challenges with family, in-laws, and friends create a great source of
stress as well. While most of us depend on friends and family for support, tension and disagreements
can cause stress.
Now that we have discussed the things that cause stress, Section 3.4 "Reducing Stress" will address
some ways we can relieve stress in our lives.
Stress Quiz: How Stressed Are You? [9] Understanding your own stress level is an emotional intelligence skill (self-awareness). Take this quiz, and
rate how you typically react in each of the situations listed below.
4 = Always
3 = Frequently
2 = Sometimes
1 = Never
Enter the appropriate number in the blank for each question below, and then add up your numbers to
determine your stress level.
1. _____ Do you try to do as much as possible in the least amount of time?
2. _____ Do you become impatient with delays or interruptions?
3. _____ Do you always have to win at games to enjoy yourself?
4. _____ Do you find yourself speeding up the car to beat the red light?
5. _____ Are you unlikely to ask for or indicate you need help with a problem?
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6. _____ Do you constantly seek the respect and admiration of others?
7. _____ Are you overly critical of the way others do their work?
8. _____ Do you have the habit of looking at your watch or clock often?
9. _____ Do you constantly strive to better your position and achievements?
10. _____ Do you spread yourself “too thin” in terms of your time?
11. _____ Do you have the habit of doing more than one thing at a time?
12. _____ Do you frequently get angry or irritable?
13. _____ Do you have little time for hobbies or time by yourself?
14. _____ Do you have a tendency to talk quickly or hasten conversations?
15. _____ Do you consider yourself hard-driving?
16. _____ Do your friends or relatives consider you hard-driving?
17. _____ Do you have a tendency to get involved in multiple projects?
18. _____ Do you have a lot of deadlines in your work?
19. _____ Do you feel vaguely guilty if you relax and do nothing during leisure?
20. _____ Do you take on too many responsibilities?
Total: _____
If your score is between 20 and 30, chances are you are nonproductive or your life lacks stimulation.
A score between 31 and 50 designates a good balance in your ability to handle and control stress.
If you tallied up a score ranging between 51 and 60, your stress level is marginal and you are bordering on
being excessively tense.
If your total number of points exceeds 60, you may be a candidate for heart disease and need to
immediately find ways to relieve your stress.
Source: http://www.arc.sbc.edu/stressquiz.html
K E Y T A K E A W A Y S
• Workplace stress costs companies as much as $300 billion annually. Stress experienced at work can come
from higher demands, layoffs, conflicts among coworkers, or office politics.
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• Many people also can experience personal stresses, which affect workers’ abilities to be productive.
Personal stress can come from life changes, financial issues, family and friend issues, or our
personality. Type A personalities tend to experience more stress as a result of their high need for
achievement.
E X E R C I S E S
1. Type A personalities tend to experience more stress than their type B personality counterpart. Take this
quiz online athttp://cl1.psychtests.com/take_test.php?idRegTest=2986 to see what type you fall into. How
do you think your personality contributes (or not) to stress?
2. Do you agree or disagree with this statement? My personality contributes to the amount of stress I have in
my life. Please explain in two to four paragraphs.
Next
[1] The American Institute of Stress, “Stress in the Workplace,” accessed February 19,
2012, http://www.stress.org/workplace-stress/
[2] The American Institute of Stress, “Stress in the Workplace,” accessed February 19,
2012, http://www.stress.org/workplace-stress/
[3] The Library Spot, “National Sleep Foundation Study,” accessed February 19,
2012,http://www.libraryspot.com/know/workweek.htm
[4] Johnathan Rabinnoviz, “Lottery Personnel Shows Lottery Killer Came Back Early from Leave,” New York Times,
March 12, 1988, accessed February 19, 2012,http://www.nytimes.com/1998/03/12/nyregion/lottery-personnel-
file-shows-killer-came-back-to-work-early-from-a-leave.html? ref=matthewbeck
[5] The Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Economic News Release: Mass Layoffs,” accessed February 19,
2012, http://www.bls.gov/news.release/mslo.nr0.htm
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[6] JoNel Aleccia, “Guilty and Stressed, Layoff Survivors Suffers, Too,” MSNBC, accessed February 19,
2012, http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/28196734/ns/health-behavior/t/guilty-stressed-layoff-survivors-suffer-too/
[7] Entrepreneurs Lounge, “Type A Personality Traits versus Type B Personality,” accessed February 20,
2012, http://entrepreneurslounge.org/type-a-personality-traits-vs-type-b-personality/
[8] H. Thomas Holmes and Richard H. Rahe, “The Social Readjustment Rating Scale”,Journal of Psychosomatic
Research 11, no. 2, (August 1967): 213–18.
[9] Sweet Briar College, “How Stressed Are You? Quiz,” accessed June 2,
2012,http://www.arc.sbc.edu/stressquiz.html
3.4 Reducing Stress
L E A R N I N G O B JE C T I V E
1. Explain techniques that can help us better cope with stress.
We all experience stress at one time or another. However, we can take action to assess and relieve the
stress in our life. First, we do some self-analysis to determine the stressors in our life and how we
handle it. This emotional intelligence skill (self-awareness) allows us to see what we need to improve
upon. Then, we can apply self-management tools to help us manage the stress in our lives. The
benefit of this identification and management is that it allows us to relate better to others both in our
work life and personal life.
Look at your habits and emotions and really think about what is causing the stress. For example,
Julie may be stressed about a project due on Friday, but the real stress may be because she
procrastinated in starting the project, and now there isn’t enough time to complete it. Or perhaps
Gene is stressed because his personality type causes him to put too many things on his to-do list, and
he isn’t able to get them done. Accepting responsibility for the role we play in our own stresses can be
the first step in maintaining a life with mostly positive stress!
Next, we can look at the way we currently deal with stress. For example, when Emily is feeling
stressed, she smokes a pack of cigarettes and tends to have several glasses of wine at night.
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When she isn’t stressed, she doesn’t smoke and may limit herself to just one or two glasses of
wine every few days. Some people smoke marijuana or use other drugs to cope with the stress of
everyday life. These substances seemingly help for a period of time but prevent us from actually
dealing with the stress—and doesn’t help us to gain skills in self-awareness. Understanding your
current coping mechanisms for stress can help you determine what works to manage stress—and
what doesn’t.
Figure 3.6 The Four As for Dealing with Stress
Once we do some self-analysis, we can use a method called the four As. The four As gives us four choices
for dealing with a stressor:
1. Avoid the stressor. We can try to avoid situations that stress us out. If watching certain television
programs causes stress, stop watching them! Spend time with people who help you relax. We can
also look at saying no more often if we do not have the time necessary to complete everything we are
doing.
2. Alter the stressor. Another option in dealing with stress is to try to alter it, if you can’t avoid it.
When changing a situation, you can be more assertive, manage time better, and communicate your
own needs and wants better. For example, Karen can look at the things causing her stress, such as
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her home and school commitments; while she can’t change the workload, she can examine ways to
avoid a heavy workload in the future. If Karen is stressed about the amount of homework she has
and the fact that she needs to clean the house, asking for help from roommates, for example, can
help alter the stressor. Often this involves the ability to communicate well.
3. Adapt to the stressor. If you are unable to avoid or change the stressor, getting comfortable with
the stressor is a way to handle it. Creating your own coping mechanisms for the stress and learning
to handle it can be an effective way to handle the stress. For example, we can try looking at stressful
situations in a positive light, consider how important the stressor is in the long run, and adjust our
standards of perfectionism.
4. Accept the stressor. Some stressors are unavoidable. We all have to go to work and manage our
home life. So, learning to handle the things we cannot change by forgiving, developing tolerances,
and letting going of those things we cannot control is also a way to deal with a stressor. For example,
if your mother-in-law’s yearly visits and criticisms cause stress, obviously you are not able to avoid
or alter the stress, but you can adapt to it and accept it. Since we cannot control another person,
accepting the stressor and finding ways of dealing with it can help minimize some negative effects of
the stress we may experience.
When your roommate borrowed your car without asking, you need to pick up a friend from the airport,
and you have friends coming over for dinner—all on the same night, finding a way to reduce stress is
important. Reducing stress for every person is going to be different. Being able to recognize what helps
you personally reduce stress is an important part to a healthy work and home life. For example, exercising
may be a great stress reducer for Duana, but for Lisa, finding time to exercise might cause more stress
than the actual exercise helps!
Researchers have found the following activities cut stress significantly: [1]
• Meditating
• Listening to music
• Getting enough sleep
• Drinking black tea
• Spending time with a funny friend
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• Pampering, such as a massage
• Doing something spiritual
• Chewing gum
Other ways to reduce stress might include the following: [2]
• Exercising
• Developing good time management skills
• Eating a healthy diet
• Organization such as keeping workspace organized
• Picturing yourself relaxed
• Breathing deeply
• Social interaction such as spending time with family and friends
• Positive thinking
As this chapter has addressed, stress can be a positive motivator in our lives, but too much stress can
create human relations issues, productivity, and other serious health issues. By practicing self-awareness
and then self-management, we can begin to realize those things that cause us stress and deal with them in
a healthier manner.
K E Y T A K E A W A Y S
• The four As of stress reduction can help us reduce stress. They include: avoid, alter, adapt, and accept.
By using the four As to determine the best approach to deal with a certain stressor, we can begin to
have a more positive outlook on the stressor and learn to handle it better.
• There are a variety of things we can do to reduce stress. Exercise, a healthy diet, meditation, music,
and social interaction can help reduce stress. Also, getting better at time management and
organization can help reduce our stress.
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E X E R C I S E
1. Of the ways to handle stress listed in this chapter, which ones do you already integrate in your life? Do
you engage in other methods not listed here? Share your ideas for stress reduction in small groups.
Next
[1] Elizabeth Sboboda, “Feeling Frazzled? 8 Ways to Decrease Stress,” MSNBC, February 15, 2009, accessed
February 22, 2012, http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/28719686/ns/health-behavior/t/feeling-frazzled-ways-
decrease-stress/
[2] Jenny Kovacs Stamos, “Blissing Out,” WebMD, accessed February 22,
2012,http://www.webmd.com/balance/stress-management/features/blissing-out-10-relaxation-techniques-
reduce-stress-spot
3.5 Chapter Summary and Case
C H A P T E R S U M M A R Y
• Stress is defined as the body’s response to change. Stress is defined in many different ways and stress and
the types of things that cause stress can vary from person to person. Today, we generally say that stress is
the body’s way of responding to a demand.
• Acute stress is the type of stress we experience on a day-to-day basis, for example, the stress of finishing
our to-do list or the stress of unplanned setbacks.
• When a person rarely gets relief from stress, this is called episodic acute stress. This type of stress usually
goes on for longer periods of time with little relief.
• Chronic stress is characterized as long-term stress, where there is little hope for relief. These are long-
term situations where the person has given up trying to find a solution.
• Not all stress is bad; some stress can actually help us to perform at a higher level and challenge us. This
type of stress is called eustress.
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• The flight or fight response is our body’s physiological response to perceived threats. The basic
physiological function is the same today as it was in prehistoric times.
• Having too much stress can cause many issues—such as headaches, sleeplessness, and irritability—that
can affect our human relations ability.
• Workplace stress costs companies as much as $300 billion annually. Stress experienced at work can come
from higher demands, layoffs, conflicts among coworkers, or office politics.
• Many people also experience personal stresses, which affect their ability to be productive at work.
Personal stress can come from life changes, financial issues, family and friend issues, or our
personality. Type A personalities tend to experience more stress as a result of their high need for
achievement.
• The four As of stress reduction can help us reduce stress. They include avoid, alter, adapt, and accept. By
using the four As to determine the best approach to deal with a certain stressor, we can begin to have a
more positive outlook on the stressor and learn to handle it better.
• There are a variety of things we can do to reduce stress. Exercise, a healthy diet, meditation, music, and
social interaction can help reduce stress. Also, getting better at time management and organization can
help reduce the stress we feel.
C H A P T E R C A SE
Mandy feels like she can’t deal with the stress anymore. First, her mother moved into her house for two
months because of major home renovations. Mandy feels like her mother is constantly critical of the way she
keeps her house and handles her life. While Mandy knows helping her mom for the next couple of months is
the right thing to do, she can’t help being annoyed. Mandy is also having trouble at her job. Her job in the
medical lab is usually fun, but the organization laid off three workers recently and Mandy finds her workload
has been too much to handle. It is the hospital’s busy time, too, so Mandy often works late to get the work
done. On top of all that, Mandy had lent her best friend, Sylvia, $200 last month for rent, and Sylvia hasn’t
paid it back. Mandy not only needs the money but also feels that Sylvia was disrespectful when Mandy asked
for the money back. Mandy is afraid this will affect their ten-year friendship.
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1. Identify Mandy’s stressors.
2. What type of stress is Mandy experiencing?
3. Using the four As model, how can Mandy go through the process to resolve her stress? Discuss in detail
Mandy’s options.
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Chapter 4 Communicate Effectively
Significant portions of this chapter were adapted from Scott McLean’s Business Communication for
Success textbook with permission of the author. [1]
The most important thing in communication is hearing what isn’t said.
- Peter F. Drucker
Electric communication will never be a substitute for the face of someone who with their soul
encourages another person to be brave and true.
- Charles Dickens
Improving Communication
When you walked into work this morning, you said your normal "good mornings" and everyone cheerfully
said good morning back to you but one coworker. This is a coworker you have had problems with for quite
some time.
The problems seem to stem from your two different styles of communication. You like to be quick and to
the point, so you find yourself e-mailing a lot. Your coworker, Nanci, prefers to have every conversation in
person. You feel that while talking in person is nice, it can also be difficult since everyone has such a hectic
schedule. Your workstyle is focused on saving time and using time as wisely as possible. For example,
Nanci asked you to give her a client's e-mail address. You copied and pasted it from an earlier e-mail and
e-mailed it to Nanci. Nanci got very upset at this and commented about your need to always e-mail things
instead of talking in person. You told her it was easier to do it that way, plus it prevented the chance that
you would write the address down wrong. Nanci did not accept this response.
In another example, Nanci stopped by your office to ask about your willingness to help set up for the
company holiday party. Nanci starting talking with you about the decorations and you interrupted and
told her you would be happy to do so and asked her what time you should be there. Nanci again got upset
and told you she had no idea. Her body language showed frustration and you couldn't understand why, as
you were only asking a reasonable question about timing.
Finally, you decide to talk with your supervisor about these issues. The supervisor gives you some
information that was hard to take but also very valuable in the development of a good communication
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style. "Andree," she said, "while people in the office really like you, they don't find you very warm. People
say that your facial expressions and the fact you don't smile very often makes you difficult to approach. To
make matters worse, your one- and two-line e-mail responses are sometimes off-putting."
In your defense, you say that you are very busy and often don't have time to answer an e-mail with
another line. You also say that you are there to work, not to make friends.
"Yes, this is true," says your supervisor, "but it is important to establish good relationships, which is
something you have not seemed to make an effort to do. Good relationships happen with good
communication."
As you leave, you understand that you will need to improve on this area. The first thing you do is stop by
Nanci's office to hear about the decorations she wanted to tell you about for the company party. You feel
this is a good start to creating better communication between her and your other coworkers. Next
4.1 Verbal and Written Communication Strategies
L E A R N I N G O B JE C T I V E S
1. Explain the concept of emotional intelligence.
2. Describe the four types of communication in the workplace.
3. Explain the various communication styles and identify your own style.
Communication, as you see in our opening scenario, is key to any successful career. While
communication is likely discussed in several of your other classes, it should also be addressed in an
human relations book, since much of what we do at work is based on effective communication.
How many times do miscommunications happen on a daily basis, either in your personal life or at
your job? The good news is that we can all get better at communication. The first thing we need to do
is learn how we can better communicate with others. Then we will want to look at our own
communication style and compare that with other styles. Have you ever spoken with someone you
just didn’t “get”? It is probably because you have different communication styles. Body language is
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also a key contributor to communication; in fact, as was suggested in the late 1960s by researcher
Albert Mehrabian, body language makes up 93 percent of our communication. [1]
One of the most important aspects to good communication is emotional intelligence
(EI). Emotional intelligence, as we discussed in Chapter 2 "Achieve Personal Success" is the ability
to know and manage our emotions, motivate ourselves, understand others’ emotions, and manage
relationships. Without EI, it would be impossible to effectively communicate with people.
Communication Directions
In addition to the communication that occurs within organizations, each of us has our own individual
communication style. Many organizations give tests that may indicate their candidate’s preferred style,
providing information on the best job fit.
As you already know, communication in companies is key to having a successful organization. Of course,
learning how to communicate better, as a result, is the cornerstone of a successful career. Likewise,
understanding how companies communicate with employees can result in employees who are more loyal
and motivated.
Those that don’t communicate well, though, see increased turnover, absenteeism, dissatisfied customers,
higher product defect rates, lack of focus on business objectives, and lack of innovation. [2]
Four main types of communications occur within a company: upward communication, downward
communication, diagonal communication, and horizontal communication. Each type of communication
can serve a different purpose in human resources, and many messages may be sent in a variety of ways.
Upward communication is when the lower levels of an organization communicate with the upper
levels of an organization. Some examples might be an employee satisfaction survey using online survey
tools such as SurveyMonkey. These kinds of tools can be used to determine the changes that should occur
in a company. Oftentimes human resource departments may develop a survey such as this to find out how
satisfied the employees are with things such as benefits. Then the organization can make changes based
on the satisfaction level of the employees. Employees might also engage in upward communication in a
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given work situation. They might tell their manager their plate is full and they can’t take on any new
projects. This is considered upward communication, too.
Downward communication is the opposite of upward communication, in that the communication
occurs from the upper levels of an organization down to the lower levels of the organization. A manager
explaining how to do a task to an employee would be considered downward communication. Development
of training programs to communicate safety in the organization might be another example. A change in a
pay or bonus structure would be communicated using the downward approach as well.
Figure 4.1 Types of Communication Flow in Organizations
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A diagonal communication approach occurs when interdepartmental communication occurs with
people at different levels of the organization. When the human resources assistant speaks with the
marketing manager about the hiring of a new employee in marketing, this would be considered diagonal
communication.
Horizontal communication occurs when people of the same level in an organization—for example, a
marketing manager and a human resource manager, communicate usually to coordinate work between
departments. An accounting manager might share information with a production manager so the
production manager knows how much budget they have left.
Within all the communication methods we discussed, there are a variety of approaches. Of course, the
most obvious is the informal communication that occurs. An e-mail may be sent or a phone call made.
Meetings are another way to communicate information. Companies can also use more formal means to
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communicate. A blog would be an example. Many companies use blogs to communicate information such
as financial numbers, changes to policy, and other “state of the business” information. This type of
information is often downward communication. However, blogs are not just for upper management
anymore. Companies are using microblogs more and more to ensure that people in various departments
stay connected with each other, especially when tasks tend to be very interdependent.
Companies also use social networking sites to keep in touch, such as Twitter and Facebook. For example,
Alcatel-Lucent, a 77,000-employee telecommunications company in Europe, found that using social
media keeps a large number of employees connected and tends to be a low or no-cost method of
communicating. Rather than sending e-mail to their employees telling them to expect updates via these
methods, the news is spread via word of mouth as most of the employees blog or use Facebook or other
social media to communicate. In fact, Alcatel-Lucent has over eight hundred groups in its system, ranging
from business related to ones social in nature. [3] Use of this type of technology can result in upward,
downward, horizontal, and diagonal communication all at once.
Companies also use intranets to communicate information to their employees. An intranet is an internal
website, meaning that others generally cannot log in and see information there. The intranet may include
information on pay and vacation time as well as recent happenings, awards, and achievements. No matter
how the company chooses to communicate with you, understanding these variety of methods can help
make you a better employee. Now that we have discussed communication from the company perspective,
we should discuss communication from the personal perspective.
Communication Styles
In addition to the communication that occurs within organizations, each of us has our own individual
communication style. Many organizations give tests that may indicate their candidate’s preferred style,
providing information on the best job fit.
Our communication styles can determine how well we communicate with others, how well we are
understood, and even how well we get along with others. As you can imagine, our personality types and
our communication styles are very similar. Keep in mind, though, that no one person is “always” one style.
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We can change our style depending on the situation. The more we can understand our own dominant
communication style and pinpoint the styles of others, the better we can communicate. The styles are
expresser, driver, relater, and analytical. Let’s discuss each of these styles next.
People with an expresser communication style tend to get excited. They like challenges and rely
heavily on hunches and feelings. Depending on the type of business, this can be a downfall as sometimes
hard data should be used for decision-making purposes. These people are easily recognized because they
don’t like too many facts or boring explanations and tend to be antsy if they feel their time is being
wasted.
People with a driver style like to have their own way and tend to be decisive. They have strong
viewpoints, which they are not afraid to share with others. They like to take charge in their jobs but also in
the way they communicate. Drivers usually get right to the point and not waste time with small talk.
People with a relater style like positive attention and want to be regarded warmly. They want others to
care about them and treat them well. Because relaters value friendships, a good way to communicate well
with them is to create a communication environment where they can feel close to others.
People with an analytical communication style will ask a lot of questions and behave methodically.
They don’t like to be pressured to make a decision and prefer to be structured. They are easily recognized
by the high number of questions they ask.
Table 4.1 Which One of These Communication Styles Do You Tend to Use?
Factors Expresser Driver Relater Analytical
How to recognize They get excited.
They like their own way; decisive and strong viewpoints.
They like positive attention, to be helpful, and to be regarded warmly.
They seek a lot of data, ask many questions, behave methodically and systematically.
Tends to ask Who? (the personal dominant question)
What? (the results-oriented question)
Why? (the personal nongoal question)
How? (the technical analytical question)
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Factors Expresser Driver Relater Analytical
Dislikes
Boring explanations/wasting time with too many facts.
Someone wasting their time trying to decide for them.
Rejection, being treated impersonally, uncaring and unfeeling attitudes.
Making an error, being unprepared, spontaneity.
Reacts to pressure and tension by
“Selling” their ideas or becoming argumentative.
Taking charge, taking more control.
Becoming silent, withdrawn, introspective.
Seeking more data and information.
Best way to deal with
Get excited with them, show emotion.
Let them be in charge.
Be supportive; show you care.
Provide lots of data and information.
Likes to be measured by
Applause, feedback, recognition.
Results, meeting goals.
Friends, close relationships.
Activity and business that lead to results.
Must be allowed to
Get ahead quickly. Likes challenges.
Get into a competitive situation. Likes to win.
Relax, feel, care, know you care.
Make decisions at own pace, not feel cornered or pressured.
Will improve with
Recognition and some structure with which to reach the goal.
A position that requires cooperation with others.
A structure of goals and methods for achieving each goal.
Further development of interpersonal and communication skills.
Likes to save
Effort. They rely heavily on hunches, intuition, feelings.
Time. They like to be efficient, get things done now.
Relationships. Friendship means a lot to them.
Face. They hate to make an error, be wrong, or get caught without enough info.
For best results:
Inspire them to bigger and better accomplishments.
Allow them freedom to do things their own way.
Care and provide detail, specific plans, and activities to be accomplished.
Structure a framework or "track" to follow.
Let’s discuss an example of how these communication styles might interact. Let’s assume an analytical
communicator and a relater are beginning a meeting where the purpose is to develop a project timeline.
The analytical communicator will be focused on the timeline and not necessarily the rapport building that
the relater would be focused on. The conversation might go something like this:
Relater: What are you doing this weekend? I am going to my son’s baseball game. It is supposed to be hot—I am looking forward to it.
Analytical: That’s great. OK, so I was thinking a start date of August 1st for this project. I can get Kristin started on a to-do list for the project.
Relater: That would be great. Kristin is a really hard worker, and I’m sure she won’t miss any details.
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How do these two personality styles walk away from this conversation? First, the relater may feel ignored
or rejected, because the analytical communicator didn’t want to discuss weekend details. The analytical
communicator may feel annoyed that the relater is wasting time talking about personal things when they
have a goal to set a project timeline. These types of small miscommunications in business are what can
create low morale, absenteeism, and other workplace issues. Understanding which style we tend to use
can be the key in determining how we communicate with others. Here is another, personal example of
these communication styles and how a conversation might go:
Expresser, to his partner: I am really excited for our hiking trip this weekend.
Driver: I still think we should leave on Thursday night rather than Friday.
Expresser:
I told you, I don’t think I can get all day Friday off. Besides, we won’t have much time to explore anyway if we get there on Thursday; it will already be dark.
Driver: It won’t be dark; we will get there around seven, before anyone else, if we leave after work.
Expresser: I planned the trip. I am the one who went and got our food and permits. I don’t see why you have to change it.
Driver: You didn’t plan the trip; I am the one who applied for the permits.
In this situation, you can see that the expresser is just excited about the trip and brings up the
conversation as such. The driver has a tendency to be competitive and wants to win, hence his willingness
to get there Thursday before everyone else. The expresser, on the other hand, tried to sell his ideas and
didn’t get the feedback he felt he deserved for planning the trip, which made the communication start to
go south.
Analytical: Yes, she’s OK. So your team will need to start development now with a start day coming up. How are you going to go about this?
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In addition to our communication personalities, people tend to communicate based on one of three styles.
First, a passive communicator tends to put the rights of others before his or her own. Passive
communicators tend to be apologetic or sound tentative when they speak. They do not speak up if they
feel like they are being wronged.
An aggressive communicator, on the other hand, will come across as standing up for his or her rights
while possibly violating the rights of others. This person tends to communicate in a way that tells others
they don’t matter or their feelings don’t matter.
An assertive communicator respects his rights and the rights of others when communicating. This
person tends to be direct but not insulting or offensive. The assertive communicator stands up for his or
her own rights but makes sure the rights of others aren’t affected.
Table 4.2 Which One of These Communication Styles Do You Tend to Use?
Passive Assertive Aggressive
Definition
Communication style in which you put the rights of others before your own, minimizing your own self-worth
Communication style in which you stand up for your rights while maintaining respect for the rights of others
Communication style in which you stand up for your rights but you violate the rights of others
Implications to others
My feelings are not important We are both important Your feelings are not important
I don't matter We both matter You don't matter
I think I'm inferior I think we are equal I think I'm superior
Verbal styles Apologetic I statements You statements
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Passive Assertive Aggressive
Overly soft or tentative voice Firm voice Loud voice
Nonverbal styles
Looking down or away Looking direct Staring, narrow eyes
Stooped posture, excessive head nodding
Relaxed posture, smooth and relaxed movements
Tense, clenched fists, rigid posture, pointing fingers
Potential consequences
Lowered self-esteem Higher self-esteem Guilt
Anger at self Self-respect Anger from others
False feelings of inferiority Respect from others Lowered self-esteem
Disrespect from others
Respect of others
Disrespect from others
Pitied by others Feared by others
Have you heard of a passive-aggressive communicator? This person tends to be passive but later
aggressive by perhaps making negative comments about others or making snide or underhanded
comments. This person might express his or her negative feelings in an indirect way instead of being
direct. For example, you are trying to complete a project for a client and the deadline is three days away.
You and your team are working frantically to finish. You ask one of your employees to come in to work on
Saturday morning to finish up the loose ends so the project will be ready to present to the client on
Monday. Your employee agrees, but when you show up on Monday, the project isn’t ready to present. You
find out that this person had plans on Saturday but wasn’t direct with you about this. So the project didn’t
get completed, and you had to change the appointment with the client. Later, you also find out that this
employee was complaining to everyone else that you had asked her to come in on Saturday. As you can see
from this example, passive-aggressive behavior doesn’t benefit anyone. The employee should have been
direct and simply said, “I can’t come in on Saturday, but I can come in Sunday or work late Friday night.”
Ideally, we want to be assertive communicators, as this shows our own self-esteem but at the same time
respects others and isn’t misleading to others, either.
When dealing with someone who exhibits passive-aggressive behavior, it is best to just be direct with
them. Tell that person you would rather she be direct than not show up. Oftentimes passive-aggressive
people try to play the martyr or the victim. Do not allow such people to press your buttons and get you to
feel sorry for them. This gives them control and can allow them to take advantage.
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Listening
Listening is obviously an important part of communication. There are three main types of
listening. Competitive or combative listening happens when we are focused on sharing our own
point of view instead of listening to someone else. In passive listening, we are interesting in hearing the
other person and assume we hear and understand what the person says correctly without verifying.
In active listening, we are interested in what the other person has to say and we are active in checking
our understanding with the speaker. For example, we may restate what the person has said and then
verify our understanding is correct. The feedback process is the main difference between passive listening
and active listening.
Figure 4.2
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Active listening involves four phases.
Source: Steil, L., Barker, L., & Watson, K. (n.d.). SIER hierarchy of active listening. Provenmodels,
accessed August 1, 2011,http://www.provenmodels.com/554.
Written Communication
Besides verbal communication, much of our communication at work may happen in the written form,
such as e-mail. When using e-mail as a communication tool, we should consider the four Cs:
• Complete. We want to make sure that all facts are included in the e-mail. When responding to an e-
mail, also make sure all questions have been answered.
• Concise. Try to make e-mails as concise as possible. If your e-mail becomes long, it may be better to
have a personal conversation rather than an e-mail to make sure the message gets across in the
appropriate way.
• Correct. Be sure to check e-mail, grammar, and spelling. E-mails should always have a greeting,
body, and closing.
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• Clear. Is your writing easy to understand? Does it flow well?
When considering the four Cs, we also want to consider the following e-mail tips:
• Make sure the subject line is descriptive.
• Use upper and lower case letters. Using all uppercase would be like shouting your message.
• Do not use the “reply all” function if it isn't necessary.
• Make sure to sign your e-mail.
• Before sending, always reread your message to make sure you are conveying your message clearly.
• Do not send e-mails when you are angry or upset. Use a twenty-four-hour rule before replying to an e-
mail that gave you this type of emotional response.
• Try to avoid “text message” writing in e-mails—for example, shortening of words such as LMK (let me
know).
• Do not forward jokes.
• Limit your use of emoticons.
Following these e-mail tips will ensure your communication is clear and concise. It saves time in the long
run to spend time writing a good e-mail rather than trying to e-mail back and forth with someone who did
not understand your message the first time.
One of the challenges of written communication is the inability to see the receivers reaction to your e-
mail. In other words, e-mail does not allow us to see the nonverbal responses from our receivers. The
nonverbal aspects of communication will be the next topic in this chapter.
K E Y T A K E A W A Y S
• Emotional intelligence can be improved over time, unlike IQ, which stays stable throughout life.
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• Emotional intelligence includes knowing and managing your emotions, motivating yourself, recognizing
and understanding other people’s emotions, and managing relationships.
• There are four types of communication at work: downward, upward,horizontal, and diagonal. All types of
communication can happen at once, especially with the use of blogs and social networking sites.
• Companies that use good communication tend to have less turnover and less absenteeism.
• There are four main types of communication styles: expresser, driver, relater, and analytical. The better
we can understand our own style of communication and the communication styles of others, the easier it
will be to communicate with them.
• Passive, aggressive, and passive-aggressive behaviors are not healthy ways of communicating. Assertive
behavior, on the other hand, respects one’s own rights and the rights of others.
• Nonverbal communication is one of the most important tools we can use to communicate how we feel.
Watching others’ body language can give us signals as to how they may really feel.
• Listening is also an important part of communication. Active listening occurs when we are interested in
what the other person has to say, and we check with the speaker to make sure we understand what they
have said. Competitive or combative listening is when we are focused on sharing our own point of
view. Passive listening is when we listen to someone but do not verify that we understand what someone
is saying.
• When sending e-mails, follow the four Cs: complete, concise, correct and clear.
E X E R C I S E S
1. Learn more about your EI by going to
http://www.queendom.com/tests/access_page/index.htm?idRegTest=1121 and taking the test. Then
answer the following questions:
a. What did the test say about your EI?
b. What are some things you can do to improve your EI? What strategies might you use to improve
your EI?
2. Which communication style, the expresser, driver, relater, or analytical, do you typically use? How can you
get better at understanding other people’s style and get comfortable communicating in their style?
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3. Do you tend to be passive, assertive, or aggressive? Give an example of when you used each style and
discuss the result.
Next
[1] Mehrabian, A., & Ferris, S. R. (1967). Inference of attitudes from nonverbal communication in two
channels, Journal of Consulting Psychology 31(3): 248–58.
[2] Business Performance. (n.d.). Effective communication in the workplace, accessed July 19,
2010, http://www.businessperform.com/workplace-communication/workplace_communication.html.
[3] Gaudin, S. (n.d.). Alcatel-Lucent gets social with company communication. Computerworld, accessed July 19,
2010,
http://www.computerworld.com/s/article/9179169/Alcatel_Lucent_gets_social_with_company_communication?t
axonomyId=209&page Number=3.
4.2 Principles of Nonverbal Communication
L E A R N I N G O B JE C T I V E S
1. Explain how your nonverbal communication can impact communication with others.
2. Explain how the principles of nonverbal communication should be considered when you communicate
with others.
How do you know when your boss or instructors are pleased with your progress (or not)? You might
know from the smiles on their faces; from the time and attention they give you; or perhaps in other
nonverbal ways, like a raise, a bonus, or a good grade. Whether the interaction takes place face-to-
face or at a distance you can still experience and interpret nonverbal responses.
Sometimes we place more emphasis on nonverbal aspects of communication that they warrant.
Suppose you have just gotten home from your first date with Amanda and you feel it went very well.
How soon should afterward should you call Amanda? There are lots of advice columns, informal
rules and customs, and friends with opinions to offer you suggestions, but you know what is right for
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you. You also know that texting her at five o’clock the next morning might be a bit early. You may
choose to wait until a coffee break around 10 a.m. to send a short text message and realize that you
might not get a response until later that afternoon.
Does the lack of an immediate response have any meaning? Does it mean Amanda is less interested
in you than you are in her? While you might give it more attention than it deserves, and maybe let it
weigh on your mind and distract you from other tasks, the time interval for responding may not have
as much intentional meaning as you think. It might mean that Amanda has a different sense of time
urgency than you do or that she simply didn’t receive your message until later.
Timing is an important aspect of nonverbal communication, but trying to understand what a
single example of timing means is challenging. Context may make a difference. For example, if
you have known someone for years who has always responded promptly to your e-mails or texts,
but now that person hasn’t responded in over a day, you may have reason for concern. That
person’s behavior doesn’t match what you are familiar with, and this sudden, unexplained
change in the established pattern may mean that you need to follow up.
Nonverbal Communication Is Fluid
Figure 4.3
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What are each of these images telling us?
Chances are you have had many experiences where words were misunderstood or where the meaning of
words was unclear. When it comes to nonverbal communication, meaning is even harder to discern. We
can sometimes tell what people are communicating through their nonverbal communication, but there is
no foolproof “dictionary” of how to interpret nonverbal messages. Nonverbal communication is the
process of conveying a message without the use of words. It can include gestures and facial expressions,
tone of voice, timing, posture, and where you stand as you communicate. It can help or hinder the clear
understanding of your message, but it doesn’t reveal (and can even mask) what you are really thinking.
Nonverbal communication is far from simple, and its complexity makes our study and our understanding
a worthy but challenging goal.
Where does a wink start and a nod end? Nonverbal communication involves the entire body, the space it
occupies and dominates, the time it interacts, and not only what is not said, but how it is not said. Try to
focus on just one element of nonverbal communication and it will soon get lost among all the other
stimuli. Let’s consider eye contact. What does it mean by itself without context, chin position, or eyebrows
to flag interest or signal a threat? Nonverbal action flows almost seamlessly from one to the next, making
it a challenge to interpret one element or even a series of elements.
We perceive time as linear, flowing along in a straight line. We did one task, we’re doing another task now,
and we are planning on doing something else all the time. Sometimes we place more emphasis on the
future, or the past, forgetting that we are actually living in the present moment whether we focus on “the
now” or not. Nonverbal communication is always in motion, as long as we are, and is never the same
twice.
Nonverbal communication is irreversible. In written communication, you can write a clarification,
correction, or retraction. While it never makes the original statement go completely away, it does allow for
correction. Unlike written communication, oral communication may allow “do-overs” on the spot: you can
explain and restate, hoping to clarify your point. You can also dig the hole you are in just a little bit
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deeper. The old sayings “When you find yourself in a hole, stop digging” and “Open mouth, insert foot”
can sometimes apply to oral communications. We’ve all said something we would give anything to take
back, but we all know we can’t. Oral communication, like written communication, allows for some
correction, but it still doesn’t erase the original message or its impact. Nonverbal communication takes it
one step further. You can’t separate one nonverbal action from the context of all the other verbal and
nonverbal communication acts, and you can’t take it back.
In a speech, nonverbal communication is continuous in the sense that it is always occurring, and because
it is so fluid, it can be hard to determine where one nonverbal message starts and another stops. Words
can be easily identified and isolated, but if we try to single out a speaker’s gestures, smile, or stance
without looking at how they all come together in context, we may miss the point and draw the wrong
conclusion. You need to be conscious of this aspect of your nonverbal behavior, to quote another old
saying, “actions speak louder than words.” This is true in the sense that people often pay more attention to
your nonverbal expressions more than your words. As a result, nonverbal communication is a powerful
way to contribute to (or detract from) your success in communicating your message to others.
Nonverbal Communication Is Fast
Let’s pretend you are at your computer at work. You see that an e-mail has arrived, but you are right in the
middle of tallying a spreadsheet whose numbers just don’t add up. You see that the e-mail is from a
coworker and you click on it. The subject line reads “pink slips.” You could interpret this to mean a
suggestion for a Halloween costume or a challenge to race for each other’s car ownership, but in the
context of the workplace you may assume it means layoffs.
Your emotional response is immediate. If the author of the e-mail could see your face, they would know
that your response was one of disbelief and frustration, even anger, all via your nonverbal
communication. In the same way, you express yourself via nonverbal communication all the time without
much conscious thought at all. You may think about how to share the news with your partner and try to
display a smile and a sense of calm when you feel like anything but smiling.
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Nonverbal communication gives our thoughts and feelings away before we are even aware of what we are
thinking or how we feel. People may see and hear more than you ever anticipated. Your nonverbal
communication includes both intentional and unintentional messages, but since it all happens so fast, the
unintentional ones can contradict what you know you are supposed to say or how you are supposed to
react.
Nonverbal Communication Can Add to or Replace Verbal Communication
People tend to pay more attention to how you say it than what you actually say. In presenting a speech
this is particularly true. We communicate nonverbally more than we engage in verbal communication and
often use nonverbal expressions to add to, or even replace, words we might otherwise say. We use a
nonverbal gesture called an illustrator to communicate our message effectively and reinforce our point.
Your coworker Andrew may ask you, “Barney’s Bar after work?” as he walks by, and you simply nod and
say “yeah.” Andrew may respond with a nonverbal gesture, called an emblem, by signaling with the “OK”
sign as he walks away.
In addition to illustrators or emblematic nonverbal communication, we also use regulators.
“Regulators are nonverbal messages which control, maintain or discourage interaction.” [1] For example,
if someone is telling you a message that is confusing or upsetting, you may hold up your hand, a
commonly recognized regulator that asks the speaker to stop talking.
Let’s say you are in a meeting presenting a speech that introduces your company’s latest product. If your
audience members nod their heads in agreement on important points and maintain good eye contact, it is
a good sign. Nonverbally, they are using regulators encouraging you to continue with your presentation.
In contrast, if they look away, tap their feet, and begin drawing in the margins of their notebook, these are
regulators suggesting that you better think of a way to regain their interest or else wrap up your
presentation quickly.
“Affect displays are nonverbal communication that express emotions or feelings.” [2] An affect display
that might accompany holding up your hand for silence would be to frown and shake your head from side
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to side. When you and Andrew are at Barney’s Bar, smiling and waving at coworkers who arrive lets them
know where you are seated and welcomes them.
“Adaptors are displays of nonverbal communication that help you adapt to your environment and each
context, helping you feel comfortable and secure.” [3] A self-adaptor involves you meeting your need for
security (e.g., playing with your hair) by adapting something about yourself in way for which it was not
designed or for no apparent purpose. Combing your hair would be an example of a purposeful action,
unlike a self-adaptive behavior. An object-adaptor involves the use of an object in a way for which it was
not designed. You may see audience members tapping, chewing, or playing with their pencils while
ignoring you and your presentation. Or perhaps someone pulls out a comb and repeatedly rubs a
thumbnail against the comb’s teeth. They are using the comb or the pencil in a way other than its intended
design, an object-adaptor that communicates a lack of engagement or enthusiasm in your speech.
Intentional nonverbal communication can complement, repeat, replace, mask, or contradict what we say.
When Andrew invited you to Barney’s, you said, “Yeah” and nodded, complementing and repeating the
message. You could have simply nodded, effectively replacing the “yes” with a nonverbal response. You
could also have decided to say no but did not want to hurt Andrew’s feelings. Shaking your head “no”
while pointing to your watch, communicating work and time issues, may mask your real thoughts or
feelings. Masking involves the substitution of appropriate nonverbal communication for nonverbal
communication you may want to display. [4] Finally, nonverbal messages that conflict with verbal
communication can confuse the listener. Table 4.3 "Some Nonverbal Expressions" summarizes these
concepts.
Table 4.3 Some Nonverbal Expressions
Term Definition
Adaptors Help us feel comfortable or indicate emotions or moods
Affect displays Express emotions or feelings
Complementing Reinforcing verbal communication
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Term Definition
Contradicting Contradicting verbal communication
Emblems Nonverbal gestures that carry a specific meaning and can replace or reinforce words
Illustrators Reinforce a verbal message
Masking Substituting more appropriate displays for less appropriate displays
Object-adaptors Using an object for a purpose other than its intended design
Regulators Control, encourage, or discourage interaction
Repeating Repeating verbal communication
Replacing Replacing verbal communication
Self-adaptors Adapting something about yourself in a way for which it was not designed or for no apparent purpose
Nonverbal Communication Is Universal
Consider the many contexts in which interaction occurs during your day. In the morning, at work, after
work, at home, with friends, with family, and our list could go on for quite a while. Now consider the
differences in nonverbal communication across these many contexts. When you are at work, do you jump
up and down and say whatever you want? Why or why not? You may not engage in that behavior because
of expectations at work, but the fact remains that from the moment you wake until you sleep, you are
surrounded by nonverbal communication.
If you had been born in a different country, to different parents, and perhaps as a member of the opposite
sex, your whole world would be quite different. Yet nonverbal communication would remain a universal
constant. It may not look the same, or get used in the same way, but it will still be nonverbal
communication in its many functions and displays.
Nonverbal Communication Is Confusing and Contextual
Nonverbal communication can be confusing. We need contextual clues to help us understand, or begin to
understand, what a movement, gesture, or lack of display means. Then we have to figure it all out based
on our prior knowledge (or lack thereof) of the person and hope to get it right. Talk about a challenge.
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Nonverbal communication is everywhere, and we all use it, but that doesn’t make it simple or
independent of when, where, why, or how we communicate.
Nonverbal Communication Can Be Intentional or Unintentional
Suppose you are working as a salesclerk in a retail store, and a customer communicated frustration to you.
Would the nonverbal aspects of your response be intentional or unintentional? Your job is to be pleasant
and courteous at all times, yet your wrinkled eyebrows or wide eyes may have been unintentional. They
clearly communicate your negative feelings at that moment. Restating your wish to be helpful and
displaying nonverbal gestures may communicate “no big deal,” but the stress of the moment is still
“written” on your face.
Can we tell when people are intentionally or unintentionally communicating nonverbally? Ask ten people
this question and compare their responses. You may be surprised. It is clearly a challenge to understand
nonverbal communication in action. We often assign intentional motives to nonverbal communication
when in fact their display is unintentional and often hard to interpret.
Nonverbal Messages Communicate Feelings and Attitudes
Steven Beebe, Susan Beebe, and Mark Redmond offer us three additional principals of interpersonal
nonverbal communication that serve our discussion. One is that you often react faster than you think.
Your nonverbal responses communicate your initial reaction before you can process it through language
or formulate an appropriate response. If your appropriate, spoken response doesn’t match your nonverbal
reaction, you may give away your true feelings and attitudes. [5]
Albert Mehrabian asserts that we rarely communicate emotional messages through the spoken word.
According to Mehrabian, 93 percent of the time we communicate our emotions nonverbally, with at least
55 percent associated with facial gestures. Vocal cues, body position and movement, and normative space
between speaker and receiver can also be clues to feelings and attitudes.[6]
Is your first emotional response always an accurate and true representation of your feelings and attitudes,
or does your emotional response change across time? We are all changing all the time, and sometimes a
moment of frustration or a flash of anger can signal to the receiver a feeling or emotion that existed for a
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moment but has since passed. Their response to your communication will be based on that perception,
even though you might already be over the issue. This is where the spoken word serves us well. You may
need to articulate clearly that you were frustrated, but not anymore. The words spoken out loud can serve
to clarify and invite additional discussion.
We Believe Nonverbal Communication More than Verbal
Building on the example of responding to a situation with facial gestures associated with frustration
before you even have time to think of an appropriate verbal response, let’s ask the question, what would
you believe, someone’s actions or their words? According to William Seiler and Melissa Beall, most people
tend to believe the nonverbal message over the verbal message. People will often answer that “actions
speak louder than words” and place a disproportionate emphasis on the nonverbal response. [7] This is
why it is important for us to be aware of our own nonverbal communication and ensure we are
communicating what we mean. In our next section, we will discuss some of the specific types of nonverbal
communication.
• Reduction in eye contact while engaged in a conversation
• Awkward pauses in conversation
• Higher pitch in voice
• Deliberate pronunciation and articulation of words
• Increased delay in response time to a question
• Increased body movements like changes in posture
• Decreased smiling
• Decreased rate of speech
K E Y T A K E A W A Y S
• Nonverbal communication is the process of conveying a message without the use of words; it relates
to the dynamic process of communication, the perception process and listening, and verbal
communication.
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• Nonverbal communication is fluid and fast, universal, confusing, and contextual. It can add to or
replace verbal communication and can be intentional or unintentional.
• Nonverbal communication communicates feelings and attitudes, and people tend to believe
nonverbal messages more than verbal ones.
E X E R C I S E S
1. Does it limit or enhance our understanding of communication to view nonverbal communication as that
which is not verbal communication? Explain your answer and discuss with the class.
2. Choose a television personality you admire. What do you like about this person? Watch several minutes of
this person with the sound turned off, and make notes of the nonverbal expressions you observe. Turn the
sound back on and make notes of their tone of voice, timing, and other audible expressions. Discuss your
results with a classmate.
3. Create a survey that addresses the issue of which people trust more, nonverbal or verbal messages. Ask an
equal number of men and women and compare your results with those of your classmates.
Next
[1] McLean, S. (2003). The basics of speech communication. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
[2] McLean, S. (2003). The basics of speech communication (p. 77). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
[3] McLean, S. (2003). The basics of speech communication (p. 77). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
[4] McLean, S. (2003). The basics of speech communication (p. 77). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
[5] Beebe, S. [Steven], Beebe, S. [Susan], & Redmond, M. (2002). Interpersonal communication relating to
others (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
[6] Mehrabian, A. (1972). Nonverbal communication. Chicago, IL: Aldine Atherton.
[7] Seiler, W., & Beall, M. (2000). Communication: Making connections (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
4.3 Nonverbal Communication Strategies
L E A R N I N G O B JE C T I V E
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1. Describe the similarities and differences among eight general types of nonverbal communication.
Now that we have discussed the general principles that apply to nonverbal communication, let’s
examine eight types of nonverbal communication to further understand this challenging aspect of
communication:
1. Space
2. Time
3. Physical characteristics
4. Body movements
5. Touch
6. Paralanguage
7. Artifacts
8. Environment
Space
When we discuss space in a nonverbal context, we mean the space between objects and people. Space is
often associated with social rank and is an important part of business communication. Who gets the
corner office? Why is the head of the table important and who gets to sit there?
People from diverse cultures may have different normative space expectations. If you are from a large
urban area, having people stand close to you may be normal. If you are from a rural area or a culture
where people expect more space, someone may be standing “too close” for comfort and not know it.
Edward T. Hall, serving in the European and South Pacific Regions in the Corps of Engineers during
World War II, traveled around the globe. As he moved from one place to another, he noticed that people
in different countries kept different distances from each other. In France, they stood closer to each other
than they did in England. Hall wondered why that was and began to study what he called proxemics, or
the study of the human use of space and distance in communication. [1]
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In The Hidden Dimension, he indicated there are two main aspects of space: territory and personal space.
Hall drew on anthropology to address the concepts of dominance and submission and noted that the more
powerful person often claims more space. This plays an important role in modern society, from who gets
the corner office to how we negotiate space between vehicles. Road rage is increasingly common where
overcrowding occurs, and as more vehicles occupy the same roads, tensions over space are predictable.
Territory is related to control. As a way of establishing control over your own room, maybe you painted it
your favorite color or put up posters that represent your interests or things you consider unique about
yourself. Families or households often mark their space by putting up fences or walls around their houses.
This sense of a right to control your space is implicit in territory. Territory means the space you claim as
your own, are responsible for, or are willing to defend.
The second aspect Hall highlights is personal space, or the “bubble” of space surrounding each
individual. As you walk down a flight of stairs, which side do you choose? We may choose the right side
because we’ve learned that is what is expected, and people coming up the same stair choose their right.
The right choice insures that personal space is not compromised. But what happens when some comes up
the wrong side? They violate the understood rules of movement and often correct themselves. But what
happens if they don’t change lanes as people move up and down the stairs? They may get dirty looks or
even get bumped as people in the crowd handle the invasion of “their” space. There are no lane markers,
and bubbles of space around each person move with them, allowing for the possibility of collision.
We recognize the basic need for personal space, but the normative expectations for space vary greatly by
culture. You may perceive that in your home people sleep one to each bed, but in many cultures people
sleep two or more to a bed and it is considered normal. If you were to share that bed, you might feel
uncomfortable, while someone raised with group sleeping norms might feel uncomfortable sleeping alone.
From where you stand in an aerobics class in relation to others, to where you place your book bag in class,
your personal expectations of space are often at variance with others.
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As the context of a staircase has norms for nonverbal behavior, so does the public speaking context. In
North America, eye contact with the audience is expected. Big movements and gestures are not generally
expected and can be distracting. The speaker occupies a space on the “stage,” even if it’s in front of the
class. When you occupy that space, the audience will expect to behave in certain ways. If you talk to the
screen behind you while displaying a PowerPoint presentation, the audience may perceive that you are not
paying attention to them. Speakers are expected to pay attention to, and interact with, the audience, even
if in the feedback is primarily nonverbal. Your movements should coordinate with the tone, rhythm, and
content of your speech. Pacing back and forth, keeping your hands in your pockets, or crossing your arms
may communicate nervousness, or even defensiveness, and detract from your speech.
As a general rule, try to act naturally, as if you were telling a friend a story, so that your body will
relax and your nonverbal gestures will come more naturally. Practice is key to your level of comfort;
the more practice you get, the more comfortable and less intimidating it will seem to you.
Hall articulated four main categories of distance used in communication as shown in Figure 4.5
"Space: Four Main Categories of Distance". [2]
Figure 4.5 Space: Four Main Categories of Distance
Time
Do you know what time it is? How aware you are of time varies by culture and normative expectations of
adherence (or ignorance) of time. Some people, and the communities and cultures they represent, are very
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time-oriented. The Euro Railways trains in Germany are famous for departing and arriving according to
the schedule. In contrast, if you take the train in Argentina, you’ll find that the schedule is more of an
approximation of when the train will leave or arrive.
“Time is money” is a common saying across many cultures and reveals a high value for time. In social
contexts, it often reveals social status and power. Who are you willing to wait for? A doctor for an office
visit when you are sick? A potential employer for a job interview? Your significant other or children?
Sometimes we get impatient, and our impatience underscores our value for time.
When you give a presentation, does your audience have to wait for you? Time is a relevant factor of the
communication process in your speech. The best way to show your audience respect is to honor the time
expectation associated with your speech. Always try to stop speaking before the audience stops listening;
if the audience perceives that you have “gone over time,” they will be less willing to listen. This in turn will
have a negative impact on your ability to communicate your message.
Suppose you are presenting a speech that has three main points. Your audience expects you to regulate
the time and attention to each point, but if you spend all your time on the first two points and rush
through the third, your speech won’t be balanced and will lose rhythm. The speaker occupies a position of
some power, but it is the audience that gives them that position. By displaying respect and maintaining
balance, you will move through your points more effectively.
Chronemics is the study of how we refer to and perceive time. Tom Bruneau at Radford University has
spent a lifetime investigating how time interacts in communication and culture. [3], [4], [5] As he notes, across
Western society, time is often considered the equivalent of money. The value of speed is highly prized in
some societies. [6] In others, there is a great respect for slowing down and taking a long-term view of time.
When you order a meal at a fast food restaurant, what are your expectations for how long you will have to
wait? When you order a pizza online for delivery, when do you expect it will arrive? If you order cable
service for your home, when do you expect it might be delivered? In the first case, you might measure the
delivery of a hamburger in a matter of seconds or minutes, and perhaps thirty minutes for pizza delivery,
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but you may measure the time from your order to working cable in days or even weeks. You may even
have to be at your home from 8 a.m. to noon, waiting for its installation. The expectations vary by context,
and we often grow frustrated in a time-sensitive culture when the delivery does not match our
expectations.
In the same way, how long should it take to respond to a customer’s request for assistance or information?
If they call on the phone, how long should they be on hold? How soon should they expect a response to an
e-mail? As a skilled business communicator, you will know to anticipate normative expectations and do
your best to meet those expectations more quickly than anticipated. Your prompt reply or offer of help in
response to a request, even if you cannot solve the issue on the spot, is often regarded positively,
contributing to the formation of positive communication interactions.
Across cultures the value of time may vary. Some Mexican American friends may invite you to a barbecue
at 8 p.m., but when you arrive you are the first guest, because it is understood that the gathering actually
doesn’t start until after 9 p.m. Similarly in France, an 8 p.m. party invitation would be understood to
indicate you should arrive around 8:30, but in Sweden 8 p.m. means 8 p.m., and latecomers may not be
welcome. Some Native Americans, particularly elders, speak in well-measured phrases and take long
pauses between phrases. They do not hurry their speech or compete for their turn, knowing no one will
interrupt them. [7] Some Orthodox Jews observe religious days when they do not work, cook, drive, or use
electricity. People around the world have different ways of expressing value for time.
Physical Characteristics
You didn’t choose your birth, your eye color, the natural color of your hair, or your height, but people
spend millions every year trying to change their physical characteristics. You can get colored contacts; dye
your hair; and if you are shorter than you’d like to be, buy shoes to raise your stature a couple of inches.
You won’t be able to change your birth, and no matter how much you stoop to appear shorter, you won’t
change your height until time and age gradually makes itself apparent. If you are tall, you might find the
correct shoe size, pant length, or even the length of mattress a challenge, but there are rewards. Have you
ever heard that taller people get paid more? [8] There is some truth to that idea. There is also some truth to
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the notion that people prefer symmetrical faces (where both sides are equal) over asymmetrical faces
(with unequal sides; like a crooked nose or having one eye or ear slightly higher than the other). [9]
We often make judgments about a person’s personality or behavior based on physical characteristics, and
researchers are quick to note that those judgments are often inaccurate. [10], [11] Regardless of your eye or
hair color, or even how tall you are, being comfortable with yourself is an important part of your
presentation. Act naturally and consider aspects of your presentation you can control in order to
maximize a positive image for the audience.
Body Movements
The study of body movements, called kinesics, is key to understanding nonverbal communication. Since
your actions will significantly contribute to the effectiveness of your business interactions, let’s examine
four distinct body movements that complement, repeat, regulate, or replace your verbal messages.
Body movements can complement the verbal message by reinforcing the main idea. For example, you may
be providing an orientation presentation to a customer about a software program. As you say, “Click on
this tab,” you may also initiate that action. Your verbal and nonverbal messages reinforce each other. You
can also reinforce the message by repeating it. If you first say, “Click on the tab,” and then motion with
your hand to the right, indicating that the customer should move the cursor arrow with the mouse to the
tab, your repetition can help the listener understand the message.
In addition to repeating your message, body movements can also regulate conversations. Nodding your
head to indicate that you are listening may encourage the customer to continue asking questions. Holding
your hand up, palm out, may signal them to stop and provide a pause where you can start to answer.
Body movements also substitute or replace verbal messages. Ekman and Friesen found that facial features
communicate to others our feelings, but our body movements often reveal how intensely we experience
those feelings. [12] For example, if the customer makes a face of frustration while trying to use the software
program, they may need assistance. If they push away from the computer and separate themselves
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physically from interacting with it, they may be extremely frustrated. Learning to gauge feelings and their
intensity as expressed by customers takes time and patience, and your attention to them will improve your
ability to facilitate positive interactions.
Touch
Touch in communication interaction is called haptics, and William Seiler and Melissa Beall [13] identify
five distinct types of touch, from impersonal to intimate, as listed in Table 4.4 "Types of Touch".
Table 4.4 Types of Touch
Term Definition
1. Functional-professional touch Medical examination, physical therapy, sports coach, music teacher
2. Social-polite touch Handshake
3. Friendship-warmth touch Hug
4. Love-intimacy touch Kiss between family members or romantic partners
5. Sexual-arousal touch Sexual caressing and intercourse
Touch can show warmth, love and caring for another. In a workplace setting, a social-polite touch, such as
a handshake, shows you are friendly and open to doing business with the other person.
Paralanguage
Paralanguage is the exception to the definition of nonverbal communication. You may recall that we
defined nonverbal communication as not involving words, but paralanguage exists when we are speaking,
using words. Paralanguage involves verbal and nonverbal aspects of speech that influence meaning,
including tone, intensity, pausing, and even silence.
Perhaps you’ve also heard of a pregnant pause, a silence between verbal messages that is full of
meaning. The meaning itself may be hard to understand or decipher, but it is there nonetheless. For
example, your coworker Jan comes back from a sales meeting speechless and with a ghost-white
complexion. You may ask if the meeting went all right. “Well, ahh…” may be the only response you get.
The pause speaks volumes. Something happened, though you may not know what. It could be personal if
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Jan’s report was not well received, or it could be more systemic, like the news that sales figures are off by
40 percent and pink slips may not be far behind.
Silence or vocal pauses can communicate hesitation, indicate the need to gather thought, or serve as a sign
of respect. Keith Basso quotes an anonymous source as stating, “It is not the case that a man who is silent
says nothing.” [14]Sometimes we learn just as much, or even more, from what a person does not say as
what they do say. In addition, both Basso and Susan Philips found that traditional speech among Native
Americans places a special emphasis on silence. [15]
Artifacts
Do you cover your tattoos when you are at work? Do you know someone who does? Or perhaps you know
someone who has a tattoo and does not need to cover it up on their job? Expectations vary a great deal,
but body art or tattoos are still controversial in the workplace. According to the San Diego Union-
Tribune, [16]
• 20 percent of workers indicated their body art had been held against them on the job,
• 42 percent of employers said the presence of visible body art lowered their opinion of workers,
• 44 percent of managers surveyed have body art,
• 52 percent of workers surveyed have body art,
• 67 percent of workers who have body art or piercings cover or remove them during work hours.
In your line of work, a tattoo might be an important visual aid, or it might detract from your effectiveness
as a business communicator. Body piercings may express individuality, but you need to consider how they
will be interpreted by employers and customers.
Artifacts are forms of decorative ornamentation that are chosen to represent self-concept. They can
include rings and tattoos but may also include brand names and logos. From clothes to cars, watches,
briefcases, purses, and even eyeglasses, what we choose to surround ourselves with communicates
something about our sense of self. They may project gender, role or position, class or status, personality,
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and group membership or affiliation. Paying attention to others’ artifacts can give you a sense of the self
they want to communicate.
Why Human Relations? How many times do we hear “we didn’t communicate” or “it was a miscommunication”? Even though we
are all aware of the importance communication plays in our work-life, somehow these types of issues still
happen. Communication applies to human relations in that communication is really the
only means we have of expressing ourselves to others. In other words, every relationship you
have built has relied on communication for it to be successful. Those relationships that may have been
unsuccessful could have resulted from not understanding each other’s communication style. As you
already know from this chapter, communication relates to relationship management skills
as well as social awareness skills, which are part of emotional intelligence. These are the skills
that allow us to communicate with others and handle various personalities and work styles. For example,
when your roommate or significant other comes home from work, it doesn’t take but a second or two to
see this person has had a bad day. Their facial expressions and the way they talk all point to a challenge at
work. Social awareness skills help you understand this, empathize with that person, and bring up bad
news—such as the fact rent is due—at a later time. These types of skills, or ability to handle social
situations well, is what creates positive communication in our relationships.
The first step to applying communication skills is to first understand your own style. Are
you direct or indirect? Do you know how your facial expressions and other nonverbal language impact
your verbal communication? When you write an e-mail, how does your communication style come across
to others? Understanding (self-awareness emotional intelligence skill) our own style can help us
understand our strengths and weaknesses and become better communicators. Every successful
relationship—work or personal—relies on good, open, and honest communication.
Environment
Environment involves the physical and psychological aspects of the communication context. More than
the tables and chairs in an office, environment is an important part of the dynamic communication
process. The perception of one’s environment influences one’s reaction to it. For example, Google is
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famous for its work environment, with spaces created for physical activity and even in-house food service
around the clock. The expense is no doubt considerable, but Google’s actions speak volumes. The results
produced in the environment, designed to facilitate creativity, interaction, and collaboration, are worth
the effort.
K E Y T A K E A W A Y
• Nonverbal communication can be categorized into eight types: space, time, physical characteristics, body
movements, touch, paralanguage, artifacts, and environment.
E X E R C I S E S
1. Do a Google search on space and culture. Share your findings with your classmates.
2. Note where people sit on the first day of class and each class session thereafter. Do students return to the
same seat? If they do not attend class, do the classmates leave their seat vacant? Compare your results.
3. To what degree is time a relevant factor in communication in the information age? Give some examples.
Discuss your ideas with a classmate.
Next
[1] Hall, E. T. (1963). Proxemics: The study of man’s spacial relations and boundaries. In I. Galdston (Ed.), Man’s
image in medicine and anthropology (pp. 422–45). New York, NY: International Universities Press.
[2] Hall, E. (1966). The hidden dimension. New York, NY: Doubleday.
[3] Bruneau, T. (1974). Time and nonverbal communication. Journal of Poplular Culture, 8, 658–66.
[4] Bruneau, T. (1990). Chronemics: The study of time in human interaction. In J. DeVito & M. Hecht (Eds.), The
nonverbal reader (pp. 301–11). Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press.
[5] Bruneau, T., & Ishii, S. (1988). Communicative silence: East and west. World Communication, 17, 1–33.
[6] Schwartz, T. (1989, January/February). Acceleration syndrome: Does everyone live in the fast lane? Utne
Reader, 31, 36–43.
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[7] McLean, S. (1998). Turn-taking and the extended pause: A study of interpersonal communication styles across
generations on the Warm Springs Indian reservation. In K. S. Sitaram & M. Prosser (Eds.), Civic discourse:
Multiculturalsim, cultural diversity, and global communication (pp. 213–27). Stamford, CT: Ablex Publishing
Company.
[8] Burnham, T., & Phelan, J. (2000). Mean genes: From sex to money to food: Taming our primal instincts.
Cambridge, MA: Perseus.
[9] Burnham, T., & Phelan, J. (2000). Mean genes: From sex to money to food: Taming our primal instincts.
Cambridge, MA: Perseus.
[10] Wells, W., & Siegel, B. (1961). Stereotypes somatypes. Psychological Reports, 8, 77–78.
[11] Cash, T., & Kilcullen, R. (1985). The eye of the beholder: Susceptibility to sexism and beautyism in the
evaluation of managerial applicants. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 15, 591–605.
[12] Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. (1967). Head and body cures in the judgment of emotions: A
reformulation. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 24, 711–24.
[13] Seiler, W., & Beall, M. (2000). Communication: Making connections (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
[14] Basso, K. A. (1970). To give up on words: Silence in western Apache culture. In D. Carbaugh (Ed.), Cultural
communication and intercultural contact (pp. 301–18). Hillsdale, NJ: Laurence Erlbaum.
[15] Philips, S. (1983). The invisible culture: Communication in the classroom and community on the Warm Springs
Indian Reservation. Chicago, IL: Waveland Press.
[16] Kinsman, M. (2001, August 20). Tattoos and nose rings. San Diego Union-Tribune, p. C1.
4.4 Public Speaking Strategies
L E A R N I N G O B JE C T I V E
1. Demonstrate how to use movement to increase the effectiveness of your presentation.
At some point in your career you will be called upon to give a speech. It may be to an audience of one
on a sales floor or to a large audience at a national meeting. You already know you need to make a
positive first impression, but do you know how to use movement in your presentation? In this
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section we’ll examine several strategies for movement and their relative advantages and
disadvantages.
Customers and audiences respond well to speakers who are comfortable with themselves.
Comfortable doesn’t mean overconfident or cocky, and it doesn’t mean shy or timid. It means that an
audience is far more likely to forgive the occasional “umm” or “ahh,” or the nonverbal equivalent of a
misstep, if the speaker is comfortable with themselves and their message.
Let’s start with behaviors to avoid. Who would you rather listen to, a speaker who moves confidently
across the stage or one who hides behind the podium; one who expresses herself nonverbally with
purpose and meaning or one who crosses his arms or clings to the lectern?
Audiences are most likely to respond positively to open, dynamic speakers who convey the feeling of
being at ease with their bodies. The setting, combined with audience expectations, will give a range
of movement. If you are speaking at a formal event, or if you are being covered by a stationary
camera, you may be expected to stay in one spot. If the stage allows you to explore, closing the
distance between yourself and your audience may prove effective. Rather than focus on a list of
behaviors and their relationship to environment and context, give emphasis to what your audience
expects and what you yourself would find more engaging instead.
Novice speakers are often told to keep their arms at their sides or to restrict their movement to only
that which is absolutely necessary. If you are in formal training for a military presentation or a
forensics (speech and debate) competition, this may hold true. But in business and industry,
“whatever works” rules the day. You can’t say that expressive gestures—common among many
cultural groups, like arm movement while speaking—are not appropriate when they are, in fact,
expected.
The questions are, again, what does your audience consider appropriate and what do you feel
comfortable doing during your presentation? Since the emphasis is always on meeting the needs of
the customer, whether it is an audience of one on a sales floor or a large national gathering, you may
need to stretch outside your comfort zone. On that same note, don’t stretch too far and move yourself
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into the uncomfortable range. Finding balance is a challenge, but no one ever said giving a speech
was easy.
Movement is an important aspect of your speech and requires planning, the same as the words you
choose and the visual aids you design. Be natural, but do not naturally shuffle your feet, pace back
and forth, or rock on your heels through your entire speech. These behaviors distract your audience
from your message and can communicate nervousness, undermining your credibility.
Positions on the Stage
In a classical speech presentation, positions on the stage serve to guide both the speaker and the audience
through transitions. The speaker’s triangle (see Figure 4.6 "Speaker’s Triangle") indicates where the
speaker starts in the introduction, moves to the second position for the first point, across for the second
point, then returns to the original position to make the third point and conclusion. This movement
technique can be quite effective to help you remember each of your main points. It allows you to break
down your speech into manageable parts, and putting tape on the floor to indicate position is a common
presentation trick. Your movement will demonstrate purpose and reinforce your credibility.
Figure 4.6 Speaker’s Triangle
Gestures
Gestures involve using your arms and hands while communicating. Gestures provide a way to channel
your nervous energy into a positive activity that benefits your speech and gives you something to do with
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your hands. For example, watch people in normal, everyday conversations. They frequently use their
hands to express themselves. Do you think they think about how they use their hands? Most people do
not. Their arm and hand gestures come naturally as part of their expression, often reflecting what they
have learned within their community.
For professional speakers this is also true, but deliberate movement can reinforce, repeat, and even
regulate an audience’s response to their verbal and nonverbal messages. You want to come across as
comfortable and natural, and your use of your arms and hands contributes to your presentation. We can
easily recognize that a well-chosen gesture can help make a point memorable or lead the audience to the
next point.
As professional speakers lead up to a main point, they raise their hand slightly, perhaps waist high, often
called an anticipation step. The gesture clearly shows the audience your anticipation of an upcoming
point, serving as a nonverbal form of foreshadowing.
The implementation step, which comes next, involves using your arms and hands above your waist. By
holding one hand at waist level pointing outward and raising it up with your palm forward, as in the
“stop” gesture, you signal the point. The nonverbal gesture complements the spoken word, and as
students of speech have noted across time, audiences respond to this nonverbal reinforcement. You then
slowly lower your hand down past your waistline and away from your body, letting go of the gesture and
signaling your transition.
The relaxation step, where the letting go motion complements your residual message, concludes the
motion.
Facial Gestures
As you progress as a speaker from gestures and movement, you will need to turn your attention to facial
gestures and expressions. Facial gestures involve using your face to display feelings and attitudes
nonverbally. They may reinforce, or contradict, the spoken word, and their impact cannot be
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underestimated. As we have discussed, people often focus more on how we say something than what we
actually say and place more importance on our nonverbal gestures. [1] As in other body movements, your
facial gestures should come naturally, but giving them due thought and consideration can keep you aware
of how you are communicating the nonverbal message.
Facial gestures should reflect the tone and emotion of your verbal communication. If you are using humor
in your speech, you will likely smile and wink to complement the amusement expressed in your words.
Smiling will be much less appropriate if your presentation involves a serious subject such as cancer or car
accidents. Consider how you want your audience to feel in response to your message, and identify the
facial gestures you can use to promote those feelings. Then practice in front of a mirror so that the
gestures come naturally.
The single most important facial gesture (in mainstream US culture) is eye contact. [2] Eye contact refers
to the speaker’s gaze that engages the audience members. It can vary in degree and length and, in many
cases, is culturally influenced. Both in the speaker’s expectations and the audience member’s notion of
what is appropriate will influence normative expectations for eye contact. In some cultures, there are
understood behavioral expectations for male gaze directed toward females, and vice versa. In a similar
way, children may have expectations of when to look their elders in the eye, and when to gaze down.
Depending on the culture, both may be nonverbal signals of listening. Understanding your audience is
critical when it comes to nonverbal expectations.
When giving a presentation, avoid looking over people’s heads, staring at a point on the wall, or letting
your eyes dart all over the place. The audience will find these mannerisms unnerving. They will not feel as
connected, or receptive, to your message, and you will reduce your effectiveness. Move your eyes
gradually and naturally across the audience, both close to you and toward the back of the room. Try to
look for faces that look interested and engaged in your message. Do not to focus on only one or two
audience members, as audiences may respond negatively to perceived favoritism. Instead, try to give as
much eye contact as possible across the audience. Keep it natural, but give it deliberate thought.
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K E Y T A K E A W A Y
• To use movement strategically in your presentation, keep it natural and consider using the speaker’s
triangle, the three-step sequence, facial gestures, and eye contact.
E X E R C I S E S
1. Think of a message you want to convey to a listener. If you were to dance your message, what would the
dance look like? Practice in front of a mirror.
2. Ask a friend to record you while you are having a typical conversation with another friend or family
member. Watch the video and observe your movements and facial gestures. What would you do
differently if you were making a presentation? Discuss your thoughts with a classmate.
3. Play “Lie to Me,” a game in which each person creates three statements (one is a lie) and tells all three
statements to a classmate or group. The listeners have to guess which statement is a lie.
Next
[1] Mehrabian, A. (1981). Silent messages: Implicit communication of emotions and attitudes(2nd ed.). Belmont,
CA: Wadsworth.
[2] Seiler, W., & Beall, M. (2000). Communication: Making connections (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
4.5 Chapter Summary and Case
C H A P T E R S U M M A R Y
• There are four types of communication at work: downward, upward, horizontal, and diagonal. All types of
communication can happen at once, especially with the use of blogs and social networking sites.
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• Companies that use good communication tend to have less turnover and less absenteeism.
• There are four main types of communication styles: expresser, driver, relater, and analytical. The better
we can understand our own style of communication and the communication styles of others, the easier it
will be to communicate with them.
• Passive, aggressive, and passive-aggressive behaviors are not healthy ways of communicating. Assertive
behavior, on the other hand, respects one’s own rights and the rights of others.
• Listening is also an important part of communication. Active listening occurs when we are interested in
what the other person has to say, and we check with the speaker to make sure we understand what they
have said. Competitive or combative listening is when we are focused on sharing our own point of
view. Passive listening is when we listen to someone but do not verify that we understand what someone
is saying.
• When sending e-mails, make sure to follow the four Cs: Clear, correct, concise, and complete.
• Nonverbal communication is the process of conveying a message without the use of words; it relates to
the dynamic process of communication, the perception process and listening, and verbal communication.
• Nonverbal communication is fluid and fast, universal, confusing, and contextual. It can add to or replace
verbal communication and can be intentional or unintentional.
• Nonverbal communication communicates feelings and attitudes, and people tend to believe nonverbal
messages more than verbal ones.
• Nonverbal communication can be categorized into eight types: space, time, physical characteristics, body
movements, touch, paralanguage, artifacts, and environment.
C H A P T E R C A SE
In each of the situations, identify the type of communication used (upward, downward, or horizontal). Then
address the issues with the communication and strategies to improve the communication.
1. Joey is the branch manager and sends an e-mail to all of his employees, notifying them of a vacation
time policy change. Employees are disappointed with this communication, as they felt they should
have had some say in the way the policy has changed.
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2. Mariette works on the factory floor and notified her supervisor verbally of some safety concerns. The
supervisor is busy and forgets to follow up on the safety concerns.
3. Kashia works in the hospital’s mental health unit and notifies her colleague via e-mail about the status
of three patients. Her colleague doesn’t see the e-mail until later in the day.
4. Amiee is the manager of an electronics store and leaves notes for her morning opening shift about
what is expected for the day. The morning supervisor doesn’t understand one of the notes, so the work
does not get done.
5. At a car dealership, the parts manager and service manager need to work together to order parts
needed for services scheduled the following week. This is done via a weekly meeting. However, last
week’s meeting was canceled, so all of the parts aren’t in stock to complete the service jobs.
6. The chief executive officer used a survey to determine employee satisfaction. Only 10 percent of
employees responded to the survey.
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Chapter 5 Be Ethical at Work
You can fool some of the people all of the time, and all of the people some of the time, but you cannot fool
all of the people all the time.
- Abraham Lincoln
Integrity is doing the right thing, even if nobody is watching.
- Unknown author
Unethical or the “Way We Do Business”?
As the assistant manager at an automotive parts department, Jeremy has lots of experience with cars
and the automotive parts business. Everyone has their own preference for car part brand, including
him. When he works with customers, he might show them the other brand but tends to know more
about his favorite brands and shows those brands more often. However, at the new product training
seminar three weeks ago, all managers were told they will receive a bonus for every DevilsDeat brake
pad they or their employees sell. Employees would also receive a bonus. Furthermore, it was
recommended that managers train their employees only on the DevilsDeat products, so the
managers and employees alike could earn a higher salary. Personally, Jeremy feels DevilsDeat brake
pads are inferior and has had several products malfunction on him. But the company ordered this to
be done, so Jeremy trained his employees on the products when he returned to the store.
Last week, a customer came in and said his seventeen-year-old daughter had been in an accident.
The store had sold a defective DevilsDeat brake pad, and his daughter was almost killed. Jeremy
apologized profusely and replaced the part for free. Three more times that week customers came in
upset their DevilsDeat products had malfunctioned. Jeremy replaced them each time but began to
feel really uncomfortable with the encouragement of selling an inferior product.
Jeremy called to discuss with the district manager, who told him it was just a fluke, so Jeremy
continued on as usual. Several months later, a lawsuit was filed against DevilsDeat and Jeremy’s
automotive parts chain because of three fatalities as a result of the brake pads.
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This story is a classic one of conflicting values between a company and an employee. This chapter
will discuss some of the challenges associated with conflicting values, social responsibility of
companies, and how to manage this in the workplace.
5.1 An Ethics Framework
L E A R N I N G O B JE C T I V E S
1. Be able to define ethics and give examples of ethical decisions you make in your daily life.
2. Explain the levels of ethics and how they relate to human relations.
3. Explain how your ethics are developed both personally and in the workplace.
What Is Ethics?
Before we begin our conversation on ethics, it is important to note that making ethical decisions is an
emotional intelligence skill, specifically self-management. We know that our emotional intelligence skills
contribute to our career success, so learning how to make ethical decisions is imperative to development
of this human relations skill.
First, though, what exactly is ethics? Ethics is defined as a set of values that define right and wrong. Can
you see the challenge with this ambiguous definition? What exactly is right and wrong? That obviously
depends on the person and the individual situation, which is what makes ethics difficult to more
specifically define. Values are defined as principles or standards that a person finds desirable. So we can
say that ethics is a set of principles that a person or society finds desirable and help define right and
wrong. Often people believe that the law defines this for us. To an extent it does, but there are many
things that could be considered unethical that are not necessarily illegal. For example, take the
popularized case where a reality production crew was filming about alcoholism—a show
called Intervention. They followed one woman who got behind the wheel to drive and obviously was in no
state to do so. The television crew let her drive. People felt this was extremely unethical, but it wasn’t
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illegal because they were viewed as witnesses and therefore had no legal duty to intervene. [1] This is the
difference between something ethical and illegal. Something may not necessarily be illegal, but at the
same time, it may not be the right thing to do.
Levels of Ethics: An Organizational Framework
While there may appear to be a difference in ethics between individuals and the organization, often
individuals’ ethics are shown through the ethics of an organization, since individuals are the ones who set
the ethics to begin with. [2]In other words, while we can discuss organizational ethics, remember that
individuals are the ones who determine organizational ethics, which ties the conversation of
organizational ethics into personal ethics as well. If an organization can create an ethically oriented
culture, [3] it is more likely to hire people who behave ethically. This behavior is part of human relations, in
that having and maintaining good ethics is part of emotional intelligence. Of our four levels of ethics
discussed next, the first two may not apply to us directly as individuals in the company. As possible
leaders of an organization, however, presenting all four in this section is necessary for context.
There are four main levels of ethical levels within organizations. [4] The first level is societal issues. These
are the top-level issues relating to the world as a whole, which deal with questions such as the morality of
child labor worldwide. Deeper-level societal issues might include the role (if any) of capitalism in poverty,
for example. Most companies do not operate at this level of ethics, although some companies, such as
Tom’s Shoes, feel it is their responsibility to ensure everyone has shoes to wear. As a result, their “one for
one” program gives one pair of shoes to someone in need for every pair of shoes purchased. Concern for
the environment, for example, would be another way a company can focus on societal-level issues. This
level of ethics involves areas of emotional intelligence we have discussed, specifically, an individual’s
empathy and social awareness. Many companies take a stand on societal ethics in part for marketing but
also in part because of the ethics the organization creates due to the care and concern for individuals.
Our second level of ethics is stakeholder’s issues. A stakeholder is anyone affected by a company’s
actions. In this level, businesses must deal with policies that affect their customers, employees, suppliers,
and people within the community. For example, this level might deal with fairness in wages for employees
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or notification of the potential dangers of a company’s product. For example, McDonald’s was sued in
2010 because the lure of Happy Meal toys were said to encourage children to eat unhealthy food. [5] This is
a stakeholder issue for McDonald’s, since it affects customers. Although the case was dismissed in April
2012, [6] the stakeholder issue revolves around the need for companies to balance healthy choices and its
marketing campaigns.
The third level is the internal policy issue level of ethics. In this level, the concern is internal relationships
between a company and employees. Fairness in management, pay, and employee participation would all
be considered ethical internal policy issues. If we work in management at some point in our careers, this is
certainly an area we will have extensive control over. Creation of policies that relate to the treatment of
employees relates to human relations—and retention of those employees through fair treatment. It is in
the organization’s best interests to create policies around internal policies that benefit the company, as
well as the individuals working for them.
The last level of ethical issues is personal issues. These deal with how we treat others within our
organization. For example, gossiping at work or taking credit for another’s work would be considered
personal issues. As an employee of an organization, we may not have as much control over societal and
stakeholder issues, but certainly we have control over the personal issues level of ethics. This includes
“doing the right thing.” Doing the right thing affects our human relations in that if we are shown to be
trustworthy when making ethical decisions, it is more likely we can be promoted, or at the very least, earn
respect from our colleagues. Without this respect, our human relations with coworkers can be impacted
negatively.
One of the biggest ethical challenges in the workplace is when our company’s ethics do not meet our own
personal ethics. For example, suppose you believe strongly that child labor should not be used to produce
clothing. You find out, however, that your company uses child labor in China to produce 10 percent of
your products. In this case, your personal values do not meet the societal and stakeholder values you find
important. This kind of difference in values can create challenges working in a particular organization.
When choosing the company or business we work for, it is important to make sure there is a match
between our personal values and the values within the organization.
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Figure 5.1 The Four Levels of Ethics in Organizations
How important is it for you to work for an organization that has values and ethics similar to
yours?
Sources of Personal Ethics
People are not born with a set of values. The values are developed during the aging process. We can gain
our values by watching others, such as parents, teachers, mentors, and siblings. The more we identify with
someone, say, our parents, the more likely we are to model that person’s behavior. For example, if Jenny
sees her father frequently speed when driving on the highway, there is a good chance she will model that
behavior as an adult. Or perhaps because of this experience, Jenny ends up doing the exact opposite and
always drives the speed limit. Either way, this modeling experience affected her viewpoint. Likewise, if
Jenny hears her mother frequently speak ill of people or hears her lying to get out of attending events,
there is a good chance Jenny may end up doing the same as an adult—or the opposite. Besides our life
models, other things that can influence our values are the following:
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1. Religion. Religion has an influence over what is considered right and wrong. Religion can be the
guiding force for many people when creating their ethical framework.
2. Culture. Every culture has a societal set of values. For example, in Costa Rica living a “pure life” (Pura
Vita) is the country’s slogan. As a result of this laid back attitude, the culture focuses on a loose concept
of time compared to the United States, for example. Similar to our models, our culture tells us what is
good, right, and moral. In some cultures where corruption and bribery is the normal way of doing
business, people in the culture have the unspoken code that bribery is the way to get what you want.
For example, in India, China, and Russia, exporters pay bribes more often than companies from other
countries, according to the New York Times. [7] In Europe, Italian businesses are more apt to pay
bribes compared to other European Union countries. While bribery of a government official is illegal in
many countries, it can happen anyway. For example, the government officials, such as police, may view
themselves as underpaid and therefore find it acceptable to accept bribes from people who have
broken the law.
3. Media. Advertising shows us what our values “should” be. For example, if Latrice watches TV on a
Thursday night, advertisements for skin creams and hair products might tell her that good skin and
shiny hair are a societal value, so she should value those things, too.
4. Models. Our parents, siblings, mentors, coaches, and others can affect our ethics today and later in
life. The way we see them behave and the things they say affect our values.
5. Attitudes. Our attitudes, similar to values, start developing at a young age. As a result, our
impression, likes, and dislikes affect ethics, too. For example, someone who spends a lot of time
outdoors may feel a connection to the environment and try to purchase environmentally friendly
products.
6. Experiences. Our values can change over time depending on the experiences we have. For example,
if we are bullied by our boss at work, our opinion might change on the right way to treat people when
we become managers.
Our personality affects our values, too. For example, in Chapter 3 "Manage Your Stress", we discussed
type A personalities and their concern for time. Because of this personality trait, the type A person may
value using their time wisely.
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Why Human Relations? While companies may have codes of ethics and policies in place, there is no doubt that behaving
ethically—with or without these codes—is a key ingredient to successful human relationships with others.
As we have discussed so far throughout the book, emotional intelligence is a key component to career
success. Aspects of emotional intelligence, which relate to ethics, include self-management, social
awareness, and empathy. Lacking social awareness and empathy when it comes to ethics can
have disastrous effects. For example, after the 2010 BP oil spill in the Gulf, former CEO of BP Tony
Hayward said, “I’d like my life back,” [8] but later watched yacht races, showing a lack in social awareness
(how our actions affect others) and empathy. As he said this, thousands of gallons of oil leaked into the
Gulf, affecting thousands of people living in the area. Even though Hayward apologized later, the damage
had been done, as he showed his lack of social awareness and empathy for the situation. This can be taken
for a sign of lack of ethics. Learning how to make ethical decisions makes us more trustworthy, honest,
and caring of how our decisions affect others. When we make ethical decisions and are viewed as ethical
individuals, our career can begin to grow and so can our relationships with others.
Sources of Company Ethics
Since we know that everyone’s upbringing is different and may have had different models, religion,
attitudes, and experiences, companies create policies and standards to ensure employees and managers
understand the expected ethics. These sources of ethics can be based on the levels of ethics, which we
discussed earlier. Understanding our own ethics and company ethics can apply to our emotional
intelligence skills in the form of self-management and managing our relationships with others. Being
ethical allows us to have a better relationship with our supervisors and organizations.
For example, companies create values statements, which explain their values and are tied to company
ethics. A values statement is the organization’s guiding principles, those things that the company finds
important. The following are examples:
Coca-Cola [9]
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• Leadership: The courage to shape a better future
• Collaboration: Leverage collective genius
• Integrity: Be real
• Accountability: If it is to be, it’s up to me
• Passion: Committed in heart and mind
• Diversity: As inclusive as our brands
• Quality: What we do, we do well
Whole Foods [10]
• Selling the highest quality natural and organic products available
• Satisfying and delighting our customers
• Supporting team member happiness and excellence
• Creating wealth through profits and growth
• Caring about our communities and our environment
• Creating ongoing win-win partnerships with our suppliers
• Promoting the health of our stakeholders through healthy eating education
Banner Bank’s Values: [11] “Do The Right Thing”
• Honesty and integrity
• Mutual respect
• Quality
• Trust
• Teamwork
Examples of Ethical Situations Have you found yourself having to make any of these ethical choices within the last few weeks?
• Cheating on exams
• Downloading music and movies from share sites
• Plagiarizing
• Breaking trust
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• Exaggerating experience on a resume
• Using Facebook or other personal websites during company or class time
• Taking office supplies home
• Taking credit for another’s work
• Gossiping
• Lying on time cards
• Conflicts of interest
• Knowingly accepting too much change
• Calling in sick when you aren’t really sick
• Discriminating against people
• Taking care of personal business on company or class time
• Stretching the truth about a product’s capabilities to make the sale
• Divulging private company information
A company publicizes its values statements but often an internal code of conduct is put into place
in order to ensure employees follow company values set forth and advertised to the public. The code
of conduct is a guideline for dealing with ethics in the organization. The code of conduct can outline
many things, and often companies offer training in one or more of these areas:
• Sexual harassment policy
• Workplace violence
• Employee privacy
• Misconduct off the job
• Conflicts of interest
• Insider trading
• Use of company equipment
• Company information nondisclosures
• Expectations for customer relationships and suppliers
• Policy on accepting or giving gifts to customers or clients
• Bribes
• Relationships with competition
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Some companies have 1-800 numbers, run by outside vendors, that allow employees to anonymously
inform about ethics violations within the company. Someone who informs law enforcement of ethical
or illegal violations is called a whistleblower. For example, Dr. Mitchell Magid worked as an oral
surgeon for Sanford Health in North Dakota. When he reported numerous safety violations, he
claimed he was fired from his job. In an initial ruling, Dr. Magid was awarded $900,000 for the
firing, although Sanford Health claims he was fired for other reasons and will appeal the case. [12] In
the United States, several laws protect whistleblowers. For example, the Occupational Health and
Safety Act (OSHA) protects whistleblowers when they report safety violations. The Sarbanes-Oxley
Act of 2002 has a whistleblower statute, which protects employees who whistleblows on wrongful
financial dealings within an organization. [13]
Figure 5.2
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Verizon, for example, has a forty-page code of conduct that outlines ethical expectations. This is an excerpt
from that code of conduct. [14]
Like a person, a company can have ethics and values that should be the cornerstone of any successful
person. Understanding where our ethics come from is a good introduction into how we can make good
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personal and company ethical decisions. Ethical decision making ties into human relations through
emotional intelligence skills, specifically, self-management and relationship management. The ability to
manage our ethical decision-making processes can help us make better decisions, and better decisions
result in higher productivity and improved human relations. We will discuss ethical decision making and
self-management in Section 5.2 "Making Ethical Decisions".
K E Y T A K E A W A Y S
• Ethics is defined as a set of values that define right and wrong. Values are standards or principles that a
person finds desirable.
• There are four levels of ethical issues. First, societal issues deal with bigger items such as taking care of
the environment, capitalism, or embargos. Sometimes companies get involved in societal-level ethics
based on their company policies—for example, not using child labor in overseas factories.
• The second level of ethical issues is stakeholder issues. These are the things that a stakeholder might care
about, such as product safety.
• Internal policy issues are the third level of ethical issues. This includes things like pay and how employees
are treated.
• Personal issues, our last level of ethical issues, refer to how we treat others within our organization.
• There are sources of personal ethics and sources of company ethics. Our personal sources of ethics may
come from the models we had in our childhood, such as parents, or from experiences, religion, or culture.
Companies use values statements and codes of ethics to ensure everyone is following the same ethical
codes, since ethics vary from person to person.
E X E R C I S E S
1. Provide an example of each level of ethical issue and describe.
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2. Create a personal values statement. This should include five to ten things you find important. Now assess
your close relationships. Do they match? What can occur when your personal values do not match the
values of another person?
3. Find a code of conduct online and write three paragraphs on some of the main areas of focus. Be prepared
to present in small groups.
4. In our opening case, what do you think Jeremy should do and why?
Next
[1] Weinstein, B. (2007, October 15). If it’s ethical, it’s legal, right? Businessweek, accessed February 24,
2012,http://www.businessweek.com/managing/content/oct2007/ca20071011_458606.htm
[2] Brown, M. (2010). Ethics in organizations. Santa Clara University, accessed June 2,
2012, http://www.scu.edu/ethics/publications/iie/v2n1/
[3] Sims, R. R. (1991). Journal of Business Ethics, 10(7), 493–506
[4] Rao Rama, V. S. (2009, April 17). Four levels of ethics. Citeman Network, accessed February 24,
2012, http://www.citeman.com/5358-four-levels-of-ethical-questions-in-business.html
[5] Jacobson, M. (2010, June 22). McDonald’s lawsuit: Using toys to sell Happy Meals, accessed February 24,
2012, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/michael-f-jacobson/mcdonalds-lawsuit-manipul_b_621503.html
[6] The Associated Press. (2012, April 5). Calif. judge dismisses suit against McDonald’s toys. USA Today, accessed
June 4, 2012,http://www.usatoday.com/money/industries/food/story/2012-04-05/mcdonalds-happy-meals-toys-
lawsuit/54040390/1
[7] New York Times. (n.d.). Bribe study singles out 3 countries, accessed June 4,
2012,http://www.nytimes.com/2006/10/04/business/worldbusiness/04iht-bribes.3031969.html?_r=1
[8] Durando, J. (2010, June 1). BP’s Tony Hayward: I’d like my life back, USA Today, accessed June 3,
2012,http://content.usatoday.com/communities/greenhouse/post/2010/06/bp-tony-hayward-apology/1
[9] The Coca Cola Company website, accessed February 25, 2012, http://www.thecoca-
colacompany.com/ourcompany/mission_vision_values.html
[10] Whole Foods Markets website, accessed February 25,
2012,http://www.wholefoodsmarket.com/company/corevalues.php
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[11] Banner Bank website, accessed February 25,
2012,http://www.bannerbank.com/ABOUTUS/VISION/Pages/default.aspx
[12] Outpatient Surgery. (n.d.). Whistle blowing surgeon awarded $900,000, accessed February 24,
2012, http://www.outpatientsurgery.net/news/2012/02/32-Whistleblowing-Surgeon-Awarded-900-000
[13] Sarbanes Oxley Act, 2002, section 806.
[14] Verizon Code of Conduct, accessed February 24,
2012,https://www22.verizon.com/about/careers/pdfs/CodeOfConduct.pdf
5.2 Making Ethical Decisions
L E A R N I N G O B JE C T I V E
1. Be able to explain the models you can use for ethical decision making.
Now that we have working knowledge of ethics, it is important to discuss some of the models we can
use to make ethical decisions. Understanding these models can assist us in developing our self-
management skills and relationship management skills. These models will give you the tools to make
good decisions, which will likely result in better human relations within your organization.
Note there are literally hundreds of models, but most are similar to the ones we will discuss. Most
people use a combination of several models, which might be the best way to be thorough with ethical
decision making. In addition, often we find ethical decisions to be quick. For example, if I am given
too much change at the grocery store, I may have only a few seconds to correct the situation. In this
case, our values and morals come into play to help us make this decision, since the decision making
needs to happen fast.
The Twelve Questions Model
Laura Nash, an ethics researcher, created the Twelve Questions Model as a simple approach to
ethical decision making. [1] In her model, she suggests asking yourself questions to determine if you
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are making the right ethical decision. This model asks people to reframe their perspective on ethical
decision making, which can be helpful in looking at ethical choices from all angles. Her model
consists of the following questions: [2]
1. Have you defined the problem accurately?
2. How would you define the problem if you stood on the other side of the fence?
3. How did this situation occur in the first place?
4. To whom and what do you give your loyalties as a person and as a member of the company?
5. What is your intention in making this decision?
6. How does this intention compare with the likely results?
7. Whom could your decision or action injure?
8. Can you engage the affected parties in a discussion of the problem before you make your decision?
9. Are you confident that your position will be as valid over a long period of time as it seems now?
10. Could you disclose without qualms your decision or action to your boss, your family, or society as a
whole?
11. What is the symbolic potential of your action if understood? If misunderstood?
12. Under what conditions would you allow exceptions to your stand?
Consider the situation of Catha and her decision to take home a printer cartilage from work, despite
the company policy against taking any office supplies home. She might go through the following
process, using the Twelve Questions Model:
1. My problem is that I cannot afford to buy printer ink, and I have the same printer at home. Since I do
some work at home, it seems fair that I can take home the printer ink.
2. If I am allowed to take this ink home, others may feel the same, and that means the company is
spending a lot of money on printer ink for people’s home use.
3. It has occurred due to the fact I have so much work that I need to take some of it home, and often I
need to print at home.
4. I am loyal to the company.
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5. My intention is to use the ink for work purposes only.
6. If I take home this ink, my intention may show I am disloyal to the company and do not respect
company policies.
7. The decision could injure my company and myself, in that if I get caught, I may get in trouble. This
could result in loss of respect for me at work.
8. Yes, I could engage my boss and ask her to make an exception to the company policy, since I am doing
so much work at home.
9. No, I am not confident of this. For example, if I am promoted at work, I may have to enforce this rule
at some point. It would be difficult to enforce if I personally have broken the rule before.
10. I would not feel comfortable doing it and letting my company and boss know after the fact.
11. The symbolic action could be questionable loyalty to the company and respect of company policies.
12. An exception might be ok if I ask permission first. If I am not given permission, I can work with my
supervisor to find a way to get my work done without having a printer cartridge at home.
As you can see from the process, Catha came to her own conclusion by answering the questions
involved in this model. The purpose of the model is to think through the situation from all sides to
make sure the right decision is being made.
As you can see in this model, first an analysis of the problem itself is important. Determining your
true intention when making this decision is an important factor in making ethical decisions. In other
words, what do you hope to accomplish and who can it hurt or harm? The ability to talk with affected
parties upfront is telling. If you were unwilling to talk with the affected parties, there is a chance
(because you want it kept secret) that it could be the wrong ethical decision. Also, looking at your
actions from other people’s perspectives is a core of this model.
Figure 5.3
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Some of the possible approaches to ethical decision making. No one model is perfect, so understanding all of
the possibilities and combining them is the best way to look at ethical decision making.
Josephson Institute of Ethics’ Model
Josephson Institute of Ethics uses a model that focuses on six steps to ethical decision making. The
steps consist of stop and think, clarify goals, determine facts, develop options, consider
consequences, choose, and monitor/modify.
As mentioned, the first step is to stop and think. When we stop to think, this avoids rash decisions
and allows us to focus on the right decision-making process. It also allows us to determine if the
situation we are facing is legal or ethical. When we clarify our goals, we allow ourselves to focus on
expected and desired outcomes. Next, we need to determine the facts in the situation. Where are we
getting our facts? Is the person who is providing the facts to us credible? Is there bias in the facts or
assumptions that may not be correct? Next, create a list of options. This can be a brainstormed list
with all possible solutions. In the next step, we can look at the possible consequences of our actions.
For example, who will be helped and who might be hurt? Since all ethical decisions we make may not
always be perfect, considering how you feel and the outcome of your decisions will help you to make
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better ethical decisions in the future. Figure 5.4 "An Example of Josephson’s Model when Dealing
with the Ethical Situation of Downloading Music from Share Websites." gives an example of the
ethical decision-making process using Josephson’s model.
Figure 5.4 An Example of Josephson’s Model when Dealing with the Ethical Situation of Downloading Music
from Share Websites.
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Steps to Ethical Decision Making
There are many models that provide several steps to the decision-making process. One such model was
created in the late 1990s for the counseling profession but can apply to nearly every profession from
health care to business. [3] In this model, the authors propose eight steps to the decision-making process.
As you will note, the process is similar to Josephson’s model, with a few variations:
1. Step 1: Identify the problem. Sometimes just realizing a particular situation is ethical can be the
important first step. Occasionally in our organizations, we may feel that it’s just the “way of doing
business” and not think to question the ethical nature.
2. Step 2: Identify the potential issues involved. Who could get hurt? What are the issues that
could negatively impact people and/or the company? What is the worst-case scenario if we choose to
do nothing?
3. Step 3: Review relevant ethical guidelines. Does the organization have policies and procedures
in place to handle this situation? For example, if a client gives you a gift, there may be a rule in place as
to whether you can accept gifts and if so, the value limit of the gift you can accept.
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4. Step 4: Know relevant laws and regulations. If the company doesn’t necessarily have a rule
against it, could it be looked at as illegal?
5. Step 5: Obtain consultation. Seek support from supervisors, coworkers, friends, and family, and
especially seek advice from people who you feel are moral and ethical.
6. Step 6: Consider possible and probable courses of action. What are all of the possible
solutions for solving the problem? Brainstorm a list of solutions—all solutions are options during this
phase.
7. Step 7: List the consequences of the probable courses of action.What are both the positive
and negative benefits of each proposed solution? Who can the decision affect?
8. Step 8: Decide on what appears to be the best course of action. With the facts we have and
the analysis done, choosing the best course of action is the final step. There may not always be a
“perfect” solution, but the best solution is the one that seems to create the most good and the least
harm.
Most organizations provide such a framework for decision making. By providing this type of framework,
an employee can logically determine the best course of action. The Department of Defense uses a similar
framework when making decisions, as shown in Note 5.14 "Department of Defense Decision-Making
Framework".
Department of Defense Decision-Making Framework The Department of Defense uses a specific framework to make ethical decisions. [4]
1. Define the problem.
a. State the problem in general terms.
b. State the decisions to be made.
2. Identify the goals.
a. State short-term goals.
b. State long-term goals.
3. List appropriate laws or regulations.
4. List the ethical values at stake.
5. Name all the stakeholders.
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a. Identify persons who are likely to be affected by a decision.
b. List what is at stake for each stakeholder.
6. Gather additional information.
a. Take time to gather all necessary information.
b. Ask questions.
c. Demand proof when appropriate.
d. Check your assumptions.
7. State all feasible solutions.
a. List solutions that have already surfaced.
b. Produce additional solutions by brainstorming with associates.
c. Note how stakeholders can be affected (loss or gain) by each solution.
8. Eliminate unethical options.
a. Eliminate solutions that are clearly unethical.
b. Eliminate solutions with short-term advantages but long-term problems.
9. Rank the remaining options according to how close they bring you to your goal, and solve the
problem.
10. Commit to and implement the best ethical solution.
Philosopher’s Approach
Philosophers and ethicists believe in a few ethical standards, which can guide ethical decision making.
First, the utilitarian approach says that when choosing one ethical action over another, we should
select the one that does the most good and least harm. For example, if the cashier at the grocery store
gives me too much change, I may ask myself, if I keep the change, what harm is caused? If I keep it, is any
good created? Perhaps the good created is that I am not able to pay back my friend whom I owe money to,
but the harm would be that the cashier could lose his job. In other words, the utilitarian approach
recognizes that some good and some harm can come out of every situation and looks at balancing the two.
In the rights approach, we look at how our actions will affect the rights of those around us. So rather
than looking at good versus harm as in the utilitarian approach, we are looking at individuals and their
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rights to make our decision. For example, if I am given too much change at the grocery store, I might
consider the rights of the corporation, the rights of the cashier to be paid for something I purchased, and
the right of me personally to keep the change because it was their mistake.
The common good approach says that when making ethical decisions, we should try to benefit the
community as a whole. For example, if we accepted the extra change in our last example but donated to a
local park cleanup, this might be considered OK because we are focused on the good of the community, as
opposed to the rights of just one or two people.
The virtue approach asks the question, “What kind of person will I be if I choose this action?” In other
words, the virtue approach to ethics looks at desirable qualities and says we should act to obtain our
highest potential. In our grocery store example, if given too much change, someone might think, “If I take
this extra change, this might make me a dishonest person—which I don’t want to be.”
The imperfections in these approaches are threefold:[5]
• Not everyone will necessarily agree on what is harm versus good.
• Not everyone agrees on the same set of human rights.
• We may not agree on what a common good means.
Because of these imperfections, it is recommended to combine several approaches discussed in this
section when making ethical decisions. If we consider all approaches and ways to make ethical decisions,
it is more likely we will make better ethical decisions. By making better ethical decisions, we improve our
ability to self-manage, which at work can improve our relationships with others.
K E Y T A K E A W A Y S
• We can use a variety of models and frameworks to help us in ethical decision making. For example, one
such model is the Twelve Questions Model. This model encourages us to ask questions such as who this
decision affects to determine the best ethical choice.
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• Josephson’s model consists of six steps. They include stop and think, clarify goals, determine facts,
develop options, consider consequences, choose, and monitor/modify.
• Another model discussed has the following steps: identify the problem, identify the potential issues
involved, review relevant ethical guidelines, know relevant laws and regulations, obtain consultation,
consider possible and probable courses of action, list the consequences of the probable courses of action,
and decide on what appears to be the best course of action.
• Philosophers look at ethical frameworks following a utilitarian approach, common good approach, rights
approach, and the virtue approach. These approaches provide a framework for sound ethical decision
making.
E X E R C I S E S
1. Think of a recent ethical decision you have made. Using the model or framework of your choice, discuss
how you went through the process of making a sound ethical decision.
2. What are the strengths and weaknesses of each model presented in this section? How can you combine
them all to make ethical decisions?
Next
[1] Nash, L. (1981). Ethics without the sermon. Howard Business Review, 59 79–90, accessed February 24,
2012, http://www.cs.bgsu.edu/maner/heuristics/1981Nash.htm
[2] Nash, L. (1981). Ethics without the sermon. Howard Business Review, 59 79–90, accessed February 24,
2012, http://www.cs.bgsu.edu/maner/heuristics/1981Nash.htm
[3] Corey, G., Corey, M . S., & Callanan, P. (1998). Issues and ethics in the helping professions.Toronto: Brooks/Cole
Publishing Company; Syracuse School of Education. (n.d.). An ethical decision making model, accessed February 24,
2012,http://soe.syr.edu/academic/counseling_and_human_services/modules/Common_Ethical_Issues/ethical_de
cision_making_model.aspx
[4] United States Department of Defense. (1999). Joint Ethics Regulation DoD 5500.7-R., accessed February 24,
2012,http://csweb.cs.bgsu.edu/maner/heuristics/1999USDepartmentOfDefense.htm andhttp://ogc.hqda.pentago
n.mil/EandF/Documentation/ethics_material.aspx
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[5] Santa Clara University. (n.d.). A framework for thinking ethically, accessed February 24,
2012, http://www.scu.edu/ethics/practicing/decision/framework.html
5.3 Social Responsibility
L E A R N I N G O B JE C T I V E
1. Explain and give examples of the levels of social responsibility in your professional and personal life.
No chapter on ethics would be complete without a discussion on social responsibility. People, not
only companies, can engage in social responsibility. Being socially responsible shows both social
awareness and self-management skills—that is, an awareness of how our decisions affect others. This
section will first discuss social responsibility on the corporate level and then social responsibility on
the individual level. As we discussed with ethical company standards, it is difficult to separate
corporate ethics and corporate social responsibility from individual ethics and social responsibility,
since people are the ones making the corporate policies. For purposes of this section, we will first
discuss social responsibility on the corporate level and then on the individual level.
Since social responsibility was first mentioned in the 1960s, companies have felt pressure from
society to behave in a more socially responsible manner. Social responsibility is the duty of
business to do no harm to society. In other words, in their daily operations, businesses should be
concerned about the welfare of society and mindful of how its actions could affect society as a whole.
We know that social responsibility doesn’t always happen, despite the seemingly best efforts of a
company. For example, court papers accuse British Petroleum (BP) of gross negligence for safety
violations and knowingly failing to maintain the oil rig, which caused the death of eleven workers
and leaked oil in the Gulf of Mexico for eighty-seven days. [1] In this case, and others like it, people
question the ability of companies to fulfill their duty to society. Ideally, companies should look at
four main areas of social responsibility and act ethically in all four areas. In fact, even as individuals
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we should be aware of these areas of social responsibility, which we will discuss in this section. Those
four areas are the following: [2]
1. Economic aspects. Companies need to maintain strong economic interests so they can stay in
business. Being profitable and providing value to shareholders is part of a company being socially
responsible.
2. Legal aspects. A company must follow the law and have a legal obligation to do so. For example, car
companies are required to meet a certain level of emissions standards in car production.
3. Ethical aspects. Acting ethically means going above and beyond the legal requirements and meeting
the expectations of society. In a recent example, Apple Inc. policies were questioned when it was
discovered the high suicide rate of workers producing iPhones in the Chinese Foxxconn factory. As a
result of the newfound awareness, Foxxconn raised the salary for workers from 900 yuan ($143) to
1,800 yuan. [3] In other words, the ethical expectations (and outrage) of society can encourage
companies to act ethically.
4. Philanthropic aspects. This is the expectation that companies should give back to society in the
form of charitable donations of time, money, and goods. Some organizations, such as REI, based in
Seattle, Washington, donate 3 percent of profit and thousands of hours to nonprofit community
groups each year. [4]
Based on these areas, many believe business should go above and beyond the law to act ethically,
meet expectations of society, and even go beyond by donating profit back to the communities in
which the businesses operate. As we mentioned at the start of this section, businesses are not the
only ones who engage in social responsibility. Since people run businesses, often we see business
social responsibility initiatives that are directly related to individuals in the organization. For
example, the Body Shop founder, Anita Roddick, [5]cared deeply for the environment and for animals,
and as a result, her organization (now owned by L’Oreal) focused on environmentally friendly
products and products that did not test on animals. This is an example of how social responsibility in
organizations can be a direct result of the individual’s care and concern.
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Figure 5.5 The Four Areas of Social Responsibility
Companies should strive to meet all areas of social responsibility.
More recently, social responsibility has been looked at as going above and beyond even philanthropy.
Past ideas on social responsibility implied that businesses must trade off social responsibility for
profits—in other words, in order to make profit, businesses had to actually harm society. This way of
thinking has changed with the idea of creating shared value. This concept, created by Michael E.
Porter and Mark R. Kramer of Harvard University, attempts to dispel this myth by presenting a new
view on social responsibility.[6] Creating shared value (CSV) is the premise that companies and the
community are tied closely together, and if one benefits, they both benefit. For example, if companies
donate money to schools, it actually benefits both the community and the company in that a better
educated workforce can be profitable for the company in the long run. The idea that social
responsibility is something that costs companies money is no longer in favor. In fact, behaving
socially responsibly can help a company save money. Small things, such as turning off computers at
night, result in cost savings in electricity and are the right thing to do from a social responsibility
perspective, too. As Porter and Kramer have pointed out through their research, benefiting the
community does not have to be at the cost of the company or of society; both can work in tandem.
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As we have already discussed, even though we say companies are socially responsible (or not),
individuals in the organization are the ones who create policies surrounding social responsibility
efforts. As individuals, our emotional intelligence skills, such as social awareness and empathy, can
be shown through our use of social responsibility efforts within an organization but also through our
personal social responsibility efforts.
ISR (individual social responsibility) is defined as an individual being aware of how personal
actions have an effect on the community. ISR can include the following:
1. Charitable acts, including philanthropy such as donation of money.
2. Working for the community, such as volunteering, giving blood donations, and working at a food bank
or animal shelter.
3. Supporting issues that affect society, such as advocating political or social issues that can help others—
for example, advocating for child labor laws, purchasing fair trade products, recycling.
4. Individual ethics, such as integrity and honesty. These individual ethics can also include the “golden
rule”: treat others how you wish to be treated. This might mean with empathy and a sense of fairness.
Figure 5.6 Some Examples of Individual Social Responsibility
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Engaging in ISR activities such as these can help us develop our emotional intelligence skills through the
use of social awareness—that is, understanding how our actions can affect others and engaging in
empathy for others. In addition, we can build our self-esteem and self-perception by helping others [7]and
engaging in socially responsible activities. As we have discussed throughout the chapter, to improve
human relations skills, we must understand that ethics, social responsibility, and emotional intelligence
skills are intertwined with each other. Those who continually develop their emotional intelligence skills
will likely engage in ethical and socially responsible behavior, both personally and as leaders of their
organizations.
K E Y T A K E A W A Y S
• Social responsibility is defined as the duty of business to do no harm to society.
• There are four levels of social responsibility: economics, or the responsibility of the business to be
profitable; the responsibility to meet the legal obligations—businesses must comply with the law and
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regulations; companies have a responsibility to act ethically and morally and to choose the action that
causes the least, if any, harm; and finally, philanthropic is the idea that businesses should give back, either
in time, money, or goods, to the community in which they serve.
• People used to believe that the relationship between social responsibility and the community was an
inverse one, where if companies benefited society, it came at economic cost to them. Recent research has
pointed out that in fact creating shared value (CSV) actually benefits both parties and not at a cost to one
or the other.
• ISR or individual social responsibility refers to our awareness of how our actions affect the community as a
whole. ISR can include volunteering time, giving money, and standing up for issues that affect the rights of
others.
E X E R C I S E S
1. Name and discuss at least two companies you believe to be socially responsible. Address each of the four
areas of social responsibility in your discussion.
2. Is it possible for companies to be socially responsible in one area but not another? Provide an example and
explain.
Next
[1] United Press International. (2012, February 24). BP trial will push gross negligence claim, accessed February 24,
2012, http://www.upi.com/Business_News/2012/02/24/BP-trial-will-push-gross-negligence-claim/UPI-
22771330126860/
[2] Carroll, A. (n.d.). The pyramid of corporate social responsibility. Business Horizons, accessed February 24,
2012,http://cf.linnbenton.edu/bcs/bm/gusdorm/upload/Pyramid%20of%20Social%20Responsibility.pdf
[3] Eaton, K. (2012, February 24). Apple and Foxconn’s ethics hit your gadget prices. Fast Company, accessed
February 24, 2012, http://www.fastcompany.com/1819874/apple-and-foxconns-ethics-hit-your-gadget-
prices?partner=gnews
[4] REI Website, accessed February 25, 2012, http://www.rei.com/jobs/environ.html
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[5] Lyall, S. (2007, September 12). Anita Roddick, founder of the Body Shop, dies at 64. New York Times, accessed
June 2, 2012, http://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/11/style/11iht-obits.4.7467721.html
[6] Porter, M. E., & Kramer, M. R. (2011, January). Creating shared value. Harvard Business Review, accessed
February 24, 2012, http://hbr.org/2011/01/the-big-idea-creating-shared-value
[7] Bénabou, R. & Tirole, J (2010). Individual and corporate social responsibility.Economica, 77, 1–19.
5.4 Chapter Summary and Case
C H A P T E R S U M M A R Y
• Ethics is defined as a set of values that define right and wrong. Values are standards or principles that a
person finds desirable.
• There are four levels of ethical issues. First, societal issues deal with bigger items such as taking care of
the environment, capitalism, or embargos. Sometimes companies get involved in societal-level ethics
based on their company policies—for example, not using child labor in overseas factories.
• The second level of ethical issues is stakeholder issues. These are the things that a stakeholder might care
about, such as product safety.
• Internal policy issues are the third level of ethical issues. This includes things like pay and how employees
are treated.
• Personal-level ethical issues refer to how we treat others within our organization.
• There are sources of personal ethics and sources of company ethics. Our personal sources of ethics may
come from models we had in our childhood, such as parents, or they could come from experiences,
religion, or culture. Companies use values statements and codes of ethics to ensure everyone is following
the same ethical codes, since ethics vary from person to person.
• We can use a variety of models and frameworks to help us in ethical decision making. For example, one
such model is the Twelve Questions Model. This model encourages us to ask questions such as who this
decision affects to determine the best ethical choice.
• Josephson’s model consists of six steps. They include stop and think, clarify goals, determine facts,
develop options, consider consequences, choose, and monitor/modify.
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• Another model discussed has the following steps: identify the problem, identify the potential issues
involved, review relevant ethical guidelines, know relevant laws and regulations, obtain consultation,
consider possible and probable courses of action, list the consequences of the probable courses of action,
and decide on what appears to be the best course of action.
• Philosophers look at ethics in a framework following a utilitarian approach, common good
approach, rights approach, and the virtue approach. These approaches provide a framework for sound
ethical decision making.
• Social responsibility is defined as the duty of business to do no harm to society.
• There are four levels of social responsibility. First is economics, or the responsibility of the business to be
profitable. Second is the responsibility to meet the legal obligations. Businesses must comply with the law
and regulations. Next, companies have a responsibility to act ethically and morally, and to choose the
action that causes the least, if any, harm. Finally, philanthropic is the idea that businesses should give
back—either in time, money, or goods—to the community in which they serve.
• People used to believe that the relationship between social responsibility and the community was an
inverse one, where if companies benefited society, it came at economic cost to them. Recent research has
pointed out that in fact creating shared value (CSV) actually benefits both parties and not at a cost to one
or the other.
C H A P T E R C A SE
Damon has just been promoted to the program manager in his digital marketing agency. As program manager,
he is responsible for working with vendors to provide services to his clients. One part of his job is to screen out
potential vendors for clients and then make overall recommendations and provide project plans to the client
based on his selected vendors. This relationship is important because the client places an immense amount of
trust in the vendor choices made. Damon, with his straightforward communication style, is talented in picking
and choosing the best vendors for the client, which was one reason he was hired. The nature of the job
requires Damon to often meet with potential vendors and salespeople. One late afternoon, a vendor meeting
with Valerie runs into dinnertime. Valerie asks Damon if he wants to have a drink and some appetizers while
they continue discussing the services the vendor has to offer. They go next door to a pub and continue their
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discussion. When the check comes, Damon picks it up and the Valerie says, “No, you can’t pay for this. I got
it.” Damon hands her the check and thanks her for dinner.
Later that week, after Damon has met with all possible vendors for the project, he decides to go with Valerie’s
company. They provide the highest-quality services at the best price. In fact, their pricing is about 10 percent
less while the services they will provide get rave reviews from other clients. Damon is confident it is the right
choice. When Damon goes to the project manager with this decision, the project manager, Janet, says she
prefers not to work with that vendor, then asks, “Didn’t Valerie take you to dinner the other night?”
Damon replies, “Yes, but that isn’t why I choose them to be our vendor for this project.” Janet doesn’t
respond and turns back to her computer and asks Damon to explain why Valerie’s company is better.
1. What is the potential conflict of interest in this case?
2. How can outside perception impact our ethical choices? Should outside perception affect our choices at
work?
3. Using one of the models discussed in the chapter, address how Damon should have gone about making
this ethical choice.
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Chapter 6 Understand Your Motivations
A champion needs a motivation above and beyond winning.
- Pat Riley
Ability is what you're capable of doing. Motivation determines what you do. Attitude determines how
well you do it.
- Raymond Chandler
Brenden decided to go to college with one goal in mind: to get a job where he could make lots of
money. His hope was that the job would allow him to live in a large house, drive a nice car, and take
two nice vacations per year. Once he graduated, he accepted a sales job that afforded him these
things.
About two years into his job, he realized that while he was making a lot of money, he didn't really like
his job. It required a lot of travel and working with unhappy clients. Brenden then decided to create a
list of the most important things to him in a job. The first on the list was the fact he would feel good
about his contributions to society. The second on the list was his ability to pay his bills with a little
money left over to save. The third most important thing on the list was that he would be home during
the week so he could spend more time with his family.
The more Brenden looked at his "wish" list, he realized what he wanted wasn't lots of money, as he
had thought. Other things, as he grew in his career, were far more important to him.
Brenden's situation is common. Often, people think they are motivated by money, but when they step
back, they realize that money is just one part of a person's overall satisfaction at work. For years,
managers have tried to motivate people based on money, but research has shown this can only be
effective to an extent. Other things, such as flexible schedules or more vacation time, can motivate
people more than a pay raise. This is the topic of our chapter, human motivation and developing an
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understanding of what motivates you. Knowing what motivates you as you select a career path can
help you be a successful, happy employee later on.
6.1 Human Motivation at Work
L E A R N I N G O B JE C T I V E S
1. Be able to discuss why you or others may not be satisfied at work.
2. Be able to explain how the human motivation theories apply to you.
Theories on Job Dissatisfaction
There are a number of theories that attempt to describe what makes a satisfied employee versus an
unsatisfied employee. Knowing what motivates us—and what doesn’t—is the key to choosing the right
career path. It may be surprising, but much of what makes us satisfied or unsatisfied at work has little to
do with money. We will discuss some of these theories next.
Progression of Job Withdrawal
Have you ever felt unhappy at a job? If you have, consider how you went through the process of being
unhappy—because for most of us, we start out happy but then gradually become unhappy. One of the
basic theories is the progression of job withdrawal theory, developed by Dan Farrell and James
Petersen. [1] It says that people develop a set of behaviors in order to avoid their work situation. These
behaviors include behavior change, physical withdrawal, and psychological withdrawal.
Within the behavior change area, an employee will first try to change the situation that is causing the
dissatisfaction. For example, if the employee is unhappy with the management style, he or she might
consider asking for a department move. In the physical withdrawal phase, the employee does one of the
following:
• Leaves the job
• Takes an internal transfer
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• Starts to become absent or tardy
If an employee is unable to leave the job situation, he or she will experience psychological withdrawal.
They will become disengaged and may show less job involvement and commitment to the organization,
which can create large costs to the organization, such as dissatisfied customers, not to mention the cost to
employee and his or her unhappiness in the job.
Often, our process of job withdrawal has to do with our lack of motivation, which we will discuss in the
next section.
Figure 6.1 Process of Job Withdrawal
Theories on Human Motivation Hawthorne Studies
Between 1927 and 1932, a series of experiments were conducted by Elton Mayo in the Western Electric
Hawthorne Works company in Illinois. [2] Mayo developed these experiments to see how the physical and
environmental factors of the workplace, such as lighting and break times, would affect employee
motivation.
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This was some of the first research performed that looked at human motivation at work. His results were
surprising, as he found that no matter which experiments were performed, worker output improved. His
conclusion and explanation for this was the simple fact the workers were happy to receive attention from
researchers who expressed interest in them. As a result, these experiments, scheduled to last one year,
extended to five years to increase the knowledge base about human motivation.
The implication of this research applies to us as employees, even today. It tells us that our supervisors and
managers should try to do things that make us feel valued. If not, we need to find ways to feel we add
value to the organization.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
In 1943, Abraham Maslow developed what was known as the theory of human motivation. [3] His theory
was developed in an attempt to explain human motivation. According to Maslow, there is a hierarchy of
five needs, and as one level of need is satisfied, it will no longer be a motivator. In other words, people
start at the bottom of the hierarchy and work their way up. Maslow’s hierarchy consists of the following:
• Self-actualization needs
• Esteem needs
• Social needs
• Safety needs
• Physiological needs
Physiological needs are our most basic needs, including food, water, and shelter. Safety needs at work
might include feeling safe in the actual physical environment or job security. As humans, we have the
basic need to spend time with others. Esteem needs refer to the need we have to feel good about ourselves.
Finally, self-actualization needs are the needs we have to better ourselves.
The implications of his research tell us, for example, that as long as our physiological needs are met,
increased pay may not be a motivator. Needs might include, for example, fair pay, safety standards at
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work, opportunities to socialize, compliments to help raise our esteem, and training opportunities to
further develop ourselves.
Herzberg Two-Factor Theory
In 1959, Frederick Herzberg published The Motivation to Work, [4] which described his studies to
determine which aspects in a work environment caused satisfaction or dissatisfaction. He performed
interviews in which employees were asked what pleased and displeased them about their work. From his
research, he developed the motivation-hygiene theory to explain these results.
The things that satisfied the employees were motivators, while the dissatisfiers were the hygiene factors.
He further said the hygiene factors were not necessarily motivators, but if not present in the work
environment, they would actually cause demotivation. In other words, the hygiene factors are expected
and assumed, while they may not necessarily motivate.
His research showed the following as the top six motivation factors:
1. Achievement
2. Recognition
3. The work itself
4. Responsibility
5. Advancement
6. Growth
The following were the top six hygiene factors:
1. Company policies
2. Supervision
3. Relationship with manager
4. Work conditions
5. Salary
6. Relationship with peers
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The implication of this research is clear. Salary, for example, is on the hygiene factor list. Fair pay is
expected, but it doesn’t actually motivate us to do a better job. On the other hand, programs to further
develop us as employees, such as management training programs, would be considered a motivator.
Therefore, the actual motivators tend to be the work and recognition surrounding the work performed.
McGregor
Douglas McGregor proposed the X-Y theory in his 1960 book called The Human Side of
Enterprise. [5] McGregor’s theory gives us a starting point to understanding how management style can
impact the retention of employees. His theory suggests two fundamental approaches to managing people.
Theory X managers, who have an authoritarian management style, have the following fundamental
management beliefs:
• The average person dislikes work and will avoid it.
• Most people need to be threatened with punishment to work toward company goals.
• The average person needs to be directed.
• Most workers will avoid responsibility.
Theory Y managers, on the other hand, have the following beliefs:
• Most people want to make an effort at work.
• People will apply self-control and self-direction in pursuit of company objectives.
• Commitment to objectives is a function of expected rewards received.
• People usually accept and actually welcome responsibility.
• Most workers will use imagination and ingenuity in solving company problems.
As you can see, these two belief systems have a large variance, and managers who manage under the X
theory may have a more difficult time retaining workers.
Carrot and Stick
It is unknown for sure where this term was first used, although some believe it was coined in the 1700s
during the Seven Years’ War. In business today, the stick approach refers to “poking and prodding” to get
employees to do something. The carrot approach refers to the offering of some reward or incentive to
motivate employees. Many companies use the stick approach, as in the following examples:
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• If you don’t increase your sales by 10 percent, you will be fired.
• Everyone will have to take a pay cut if we don’t produce 15 percent more than we are currently
producing.
As you can imagine, the stick approach does little to motivate us in the long term! While it may work for
some time, constant threats and prodding do not motivate.
The carrot approach might include the following:
• If you increase sales by 10 percent, you will receive a bonus.
• If production increases by 15 percent, the entire team will receive an extra day off next month.
The carrot approach takes a much more positive approach to employee motivation but still may not be
effective. For example, this approach can actually demotivate employees if they do not feel the goal is
achievable. Has this ever happened to you at work? Some reward was offered, but you knew it wasn't
really achievable? If so, you know how this can actually be demotivating! Also, if organizations use this as
the only motivational technique, ignoring physiological rewards such as career growth, this could be a
detriment as well.
All the employee satisfaction theories we have discussed have implications for our own understanding of
what motivates us at work.
Why Human Relations? Do you know why you do the things you do? The emotional intelligence skill of self-awareness is
the key to understanding your own motivations. It isn’t until we understand our own emotions
that we can begin to understand what we need to do to motivate ourselves personally and professionally.
Of course, the more motivated we are, the more likely we are to experience career success. Most, if not all,
managers want to hire and promote people who show extensive motivation in their job. This is impossible
to do if we do not first identify what actually motivates us as individuals. If you are motivated by intrinsic
rewards, such as feeling good about your job, you are more likely to be better at your job because you
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enjoy it! Not only will we be better at our job if we like it, but it is highly likely we will be happier. When
we are happier we tend to show better human relations skills, and this happiness can come in
part from understanding our own motivations and making sure we choose a career path that matches with
our motivations.
Why Does Motivation Matter?
This section gave you some ideas on the process people go through when they are not satisfied at work. In
addition, we discussed motivation and the various motivational theories that can help us understand our
own motivations. But why is this important? As you saw in the opening story, if we understand our own
motivations, we can better choose a career path that will make us happy. Also, keep in mind that your
motivations may change over time. For example, as a college student your motivation may lie in the ability
to make money, but after working for a few years, your motivation may change to look at more flexibility
in your job. It is important to keep your motivations, needs, and wants in check, because what you want
today will change over time. Consider the recent twenty-two-year-old college graduate. What his priorities
are today will change as his life changes; for example, meeting a significant other and maybe raising a
family can make his priorities change when he is thirty-two. To continually understand our motivations, it
is important to keep track, perhaps on a yearly basis, of what our priorities are. This can help us make the
right career choices later on. K E Y T A K E A W A Y S
• The theory of job withdrawal explains the process someone goes through when they are not motivated,
or happy, at work.
• There are many motivation theories that attempt to explain people’s motivation or lack of motivation at
work.
• The Hawthorne studies were a series of studies beginning in 1927 that initially looked at physical
environments but found that people tended to be more motivated when they felt cared about. The
implications to retention are clear, in that employees should feel cared about and developed within the
organization.
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• Maslow’s theory on motivation says that if someone already has a need met, giving them something to
meet more of that need will no longer motivate. Maslow divided the needs into physiological, safety,
social, esteem, and self-actualization needs. Many companies only motivate based on the low-level
needs, such as pay. Development of training opportunities, for example, can motivate employees on high-
level self-actualization needs.
• Herzberg developed motivational theories based on actual motivation factors and hygiene factors.
Hygiene factors are those things that are expected in the workplace and will demotivate employees when
absent but will not actually motivate when present. If managers try to motivate only on the basis of
hygiene factors, turnover can be high. Motivation on both of his factors is key to a good retention plan.
• McGregor’s theory on motivation looked at managers’ attitudes toward employees. He found that theory
X managers had more of a negative view of employees, while theory Y managers had a more positive
view. Providing training to the managers in our organization can be a key retention strategy based on
McGregor’s theory.
• The carrot-and-stick approach means you can get someone to do something by prodding or by offering
some incentive to motivate them to do the work. This theory implies these are the only two methods to
motivate, which, of course, we know isn’t true. The implication of this in our retention plan is such that
we must utilize a variety of methods to retain employees.
• Finally, understanding our own motivations at work is an important step to making sure we choose the
right career path.
E X E R C I S E S
1. What types of things will motivate you in your career? Name at least five things. Where would these fit on
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and Herzberg’s two-factor theory?
2. Have you ever been unhappy at a job? Or if you haven't worked, have you ever felt unhappy in a specific
team or group? Consider this experience and write about how you went through each phase of the job
withdrawal progress.
Next
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[1] Dan Farrell and James C. Petersen, “Commitment, Absenteeism and Turnover of New Employees: A
Longitudinal Study,” Human Relations 37, no. 8 (August 1984): 681–92, accessed August 26,
2011,http://libres.uncg.edu/ir/uncg/f/J_Petersen_Commitment_1984.pdf.
[2] Elton Mayo, The Social Problems of an Industrial Civilization (1949; repr., New York: Arno Press, 2007).
[3] Abraham Maslow, Toward a Psychology of Being, 3rd ed. (New York: Wiley, 1999).
[4] Frederick Herzberg, Bernard Mausner, and Barbara Bloch Snyderman, The Motivation to Work (New Brunswick,
NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1993).
[5] Douglas McGregor, The Human Side of Enterprise (1960; repr., New York: McGraw-Hill, 2006).
6.2 Strategies Used to Increase Motivation
L E A R N I N G O B JE C T I V E
1. Explain the strategies companies use to try to retain employees.
As we have addressed so far in this chapter, human motivation is an important aspect to
understanding what makes us happy or unhappy at our jobs. Companies implement many strategies
to keep us motivated at work. This section will discuss some of those specific strategies.
Salaries and Benefits
As we know from our earlier section, our paycheck can be a motivator to a certain extent. It is important
to note that when we look at compensation, it is much more than only pay but things such as health
benefits and paid time off.
Some of the considerations companies use surrounding pay can include the following:
1. Instituting a standard process. Many organizations do not have set pay plans, which can result in
unfairness when onboarding (the process of bringing someone “on board” with the company,
including discussion and negotiation of compensation) or offering pay increases. Companies should
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make sure the process for receiving pay raises is fair and defensible, so as not to appear to be
discriminatory.
2. A pay communication strategy. Many companies work hard to make sure the fair pay process is
communicated to employees. Transparency in the process of how raises are given and then
communicated can help companies retain good employees. [1]
3. Paid time off (PTO). Companies pay us not only with our salary but also from the time off we
receive. Paid holidays and vacation time might be an example.
Training and Development
To meet our higher-level needs, we need to experience self-growth. As a result, many companies and
managers offer training programs within the organization and pay for employees to attend career skill
seminars and programs. It is a great idea to take advantage of these types of self-growth opportunities in
your current or future organization. In addition, many companies offer tuition reimbursement programs
to help you earn a degree. Dick’s Drive-In, a local fast food restaurant in Seattle, Washington, offers
$18,000 in scholarships over four years to employees working twenty hours per week. There is a six-
month waiting period, and the employee must continue to work twenty hours per week. In a high turnover
industry, Dick’s Drive-In boasts one of the highest employee retention rates around.
Performance Appraisals
The performance appraisal is a formalized process to assess how well an employee does his or her job.
The effectiveness of this process can contribute to employee retention, in that we can gain constructive
feedback on our job performance, and it can be an opportunity for the manager to work with the us to set
goals within the organization. This process can help ensure our upper-level self-actualization needs are
met, but it also can address some of the motivational factors discussed by Herzberg, such as achievement,
recognition, and responsibility.
Succession Planning
Succession planning is a process of identifying and developing internal people who have the potential
for filling positions. As we know, many people leave organizations because they do not see career growth
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or potential. Companies can combat this by having a clear career path for us to follow. For example,
perhaps you start as a sales associate, become assistant manager, and then become manager. Proper
succession planning shows what we must accomplish at each level in order to attain a higher-level
position. This type of clear career path can help with our motivation at work. If your current or future
organization does not have a succession plan, consider speaking with your manager about your own
career path and potential. The performance appraisal process might be a good time to have this
discussion.
Flextime, Telecommuting, and Sabbaticals
According to a Salary.com survey, the ability to work from home and flexible work schedules are benefits
that would entice us to stay in our job. [2] The ability to implement this type of retention strategy might be
difficult, depending on the type of business. For example, a retailer may not be able to implement this,
since the sales associate must be in the store to assist customers. However, for many professions, it is a
viable option, worth including in the retention plan and part of work-life balance.
Some companies, such as Recreational Equipment Incorporated, based in Seattle, offer twelve weeks of
unpaid leave per year (beyond the twelve weeks required under the Family and Medical Leave Act) for the
employee to pursue volunteering or traveling opportunities. In addition, with fifteen years of service with
the company, paid sabbaticals are offered, which include four weeks plus already earned vacation time.
Management Training
In a recent Gallup poll of one million workers, a poor supervisor or manager is the number one reason
why people leave their jobs. [3] Managers who bully, use the theory X approach, communicate poorly, or
are incompetent may find it difficult to motivate employees to stay within the organization. While, as
employees, we cannot control a manager’s behavior, companies can provide training to create better
management. Training of managers to be better communicators and motivators is a way to handle this
retention issue.
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Conflict Management and Fairness
Perceptions on fairness and how organizations handle conflict can be a contributing factor to our
motivation at work. Outcome fairness refers to the judgment that we make with respect to the
outcomes we receive versus the outcomes received by others with whom we associate with. When we are
deciding if something is fair, we will likely look at procedural justice, or the process used to determine
the outcomes received. There are six main areas we use to determine the outcome fairness of a conflict:
1. Consistency. We will determine if the procedures are applied consistently to other persons and
throughout periods of time.
2. Bias suppression. We perceive the person making the decision does not have bias or vested
interest in the outcome.
3. Information accuracy. The decision made is based on correct information.
4. Correctability. The decision is able to be appealed and mistakes in the decision process can be
corrected.
5. Representativeness. We feel the concerns of all stakeholders involved have been taken into
account.
6. Ethicality. The decision is in line with moral societal standards.
For example, let’s suppose JoAnn just received a bonus and recognition at the company party for her
contributions to an important company project. However, you might compare your inputs and outputs
and determine it was unfair that JoAnn was recognized because you had worked on bigger projects and
not received the same recognition or bonus. As you know from the last section, this type of unfairness can
result in being unmotivated at work. Excellent communication with your manager when dealing with
these types of situations would be imperative.
Job Design, Job Enlargement, and Empowerment
As we have discussed previously, one of the reasons for job dissatisfaction is the job itself. Ensuring our
skills set and what we enjoy doing matches with the job is important. Some companies will use a change
in job design, enlarge the job or empower employees to motivate them.
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Job enrichment means to enhance a job by adding more meaningful tasks to make our work more
rewarding. For example, if we as retail salespersons are good at creating eye-catching displays, allowing us
to practice these skills and assignment of tasks around this could be considered job enrichment. Job
enrichment can fulfill our higher level of human needs while creating job satisfaction at the same time. In
fact, research in this area by Richard Hackman and Greg Oldham [4] found that we, as employees, need the
following to achieve job satisfaction:
• Skill variety, or many different activities as part of the job
• Task identity, or being able to complete one task from beginning to end
• Task significance, or the degree to which the job has impact on others, internally or externally
• Autonomy, or freedom to make decisions within the job
• Feedback, or clear information about performance
In addition, job enlargement, defined as the adding of new challenges or responsibilities to a current
job, can create job satisfaction. Assigning us to a special project or task is an example of job enlargement.
Employee empowerment involves management allowing us to make decisions and act upon those
decisions, with the support of the organization. When we are not micromanaged and have the power to
determine the sequence of our own work day, we tend to be more satisfied than those employees who are
not empowered. Empowerment can include the following:
• Encourage innovation or new ways of doing things.
• Make sure we, as employees, have the information we need to do our jobs; for example, we are not
dependent on managers for information in decision making.
• Management styles that allow for participation, feedback, and ideas from employees.
Pay-for-Performance Strategies
Some organizations have a pay-for-performance strategy, which means that we are rewarded for meeting
preset objectives within the organization. For example, in a merit-based pay system, we might be
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rewarded for meeting or exceeding performance during a given time period. Rather than a set pay
increase every year, the increase is based on performance. Some organizations offer bonuses to employees
for meeting objectives, while some organizations offer team incentive pay if a team achieves a specific,
predetermined outcome. For example, each player on the winning team of the 2010 NFL Super Bowl
earned a team bonus of $83,000, [5] while the losing team of the Super Bowl took home $42,000. Players
also earn money for each wild card game and playoff game. Some organizations also offer profit sharing,
which is tied to a company’s overall performance. Gain sharing, different from profit sharing, focuses on
improvement of productivity within the organization. For example, the city of Loveland in Colorado
implemented a gain-sharing program that defined three criteria that needed to be met for employees to be
given extra compensation. The city revenues had to exceed expenses, expenses had to be equal to or less
than the previous year’s expenses, and a citizen satisfaction survey had to meet minimum requirements.
As we have already addressed, pay isn’t everything, but it certainly can be an important part of feeling
motivated in our jobs.
Other ways to motivate
According to Fortune’s “100 Best Companies to Work For,” [6] things that companies do to motivate us
may be more unusual. For example, the list includes the following:
• On-site daycare or daycare assistance
• Gym memberships or on-site gyms
• Concierge service to assist in party planning or dog grooming, for example
• On-site dry cleaning drop-off and pickup
• Car care, such as oil changes, on-site once a week
• On-site doggie daycare
• On-site yoga or other fitness classes
• “Summer Fridays,” when all employees work half days on Fridays during the summer
• Various support groups for cancer survivors, weight loss, or support in caring for aging parents
• On-site life coaches
• Peer-to-peer employee recognition programs
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• Management recognition programs
While some of these options may not be options in the companies we work for, the important thing to
remember is often our own motivation comes from us internally. As a result, we need to be aware of our
changing motivations and ask for those things that could make us more motivated at work.
K E Y T A K E A W A Y S
• Salary and benefits are a major component of what employers do to motivate us. Consistent pay systems
and transparent processes are important considerations.
• Many companies offer paid tuition programs, reimbursement programs, and in-house training to increase
our skills and knowledge.
• Performance appraisals provide an avenue for feedback and goal setting. They also allow for us to be
recognized for our contributions.
• Succession plans allow us, as employees, the ability to see how we can continue our career with the
organization, and they clearly detail what we need to do to achieve career growth.
• Flextime and telecommuting are options some companies use as motivators. These types of plans allow
us flexibility when developing our schedule and some control of our work. Some companies also offer
paid or unpaid sabbaticals to pursue personal interests after a certain number of years with the company.
• Since one of the reasons people are dissatisfied at their job is because of the relationship with their
manager, many companies require management training and communication training to ensure
managers are able to establish good relationships with employees.
• Some companies may change the job through empowerment or job enlargement to help grow our skills.
• Other, more unique ways companies try to retain employees might include offering services to make the
employee’s life easier, such as dry cleaning, daycare services, or on-site yoga classes.
E X E R C I S E
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1. Research two different companies you might be interested in working for. When reviewing their list of
benefits, which ones are offered that might motivate you to stay with the organization?
Next
[1] “The Knowledge of Pay Study,” WorldatWork and The LeBlanc Group LLC, 2010, accessed February 26,
2011,http://www.worldatwork.org/waw/Content/research/html/research-home.jsp.
[2] “Employee Job Satisfaction and Retention Survey, 2007/2008,” Salary.com, 2008, accessed February 26,
2011, http://www.salary.com/docs/resources/JobSatSurvey_08.pdf.
[3] “No. 1 Reason People Quit Their Jobs,” AOL News, Netscape, accessed July 28,
2011,http://webcenters.netscape.compuserve.com/whatsnew/package.jsp?name=fte/quitjobs/quitjobs&floc=wn-
dx.
[4] Robert N. Ford, Motivation through the Work Itself (New York: American Management Association, 1969);
William J. Paul, Keith B. Robertson, and Frederick Herzberg, “Job Enrichment Pays Off,” Harvard Business Review,
March–April 1969, 61–78.
[5] Darren Rovell, “How Much Do Players Get Paid for Winning the Super Bowl?” CNBC Sports, January 18, 2011,
accessed July 29,
2011,http://www.cnbc.com/id/41138354/How_Much_Do_Players_Get_Paid_For_Winning_the_Super_Bowl.
[6] “100 Best Companies to Work For,” CNN Money, 2011, accessed February 26,
2011,http://money.cnn.com/galleries/2011/news/companies/1101/gallery.bestcompanies_unusual_perks.fortune
/5.html.
6.3 Chapter Summary and Case
C H A P T E R S U M M A R Y
• The theory of job withdrawal explains the process someone goes through when they are not motivated or
happy at work.
• There are many motivation theories that attempt to explain people’s motivation or lack of motivation at
work.
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• The Hawthorne studies were a series of studies beginning in 1927 that initially looked at physical
environments but found that people tended to be more motivated when they felt cared about. The
implications to retention are clear, in that employees should feel cared about and developed within the
organization.
• Maslow’s theory on motivation says that if someone already has a need met, giving them something to
meet more of that need will no longer motivate. Maslow divided the needs into physiological, safety,
social, esteem, and self-actualization needs. Many companies only motivate based on the low-level
needs, such as pay. Development of training opportunities, for example, can motivate employees on high-
level self-actualization needs.
• Herzberg developed motivational theories based on actual motivation factors and hygiene factors.
Hygiene factors are those things that are expected in the workplace and will demotivate employees when
absent but will not actually motivate when present. If managers try to motivate only on the basis of
hygiene factors, turnover can be high. Motivation on both of his factors is key to a good retention plan.
• McGregor’s theory on motivation looked at managers’ attitudes toward employees. He found that theory
X managers had more of a negative view of employees, while theory Y managers had a more positive
view. Providing training to the managers in our organization can be a key retention strategy based on
McGregor’s theory.
• The carrot-and-stick approach means you can get someone to do something by prodding or by offering
some incentive to motivate them to do the work. This theory implies these are the only two methods to
motivate, which of course, we know isn’t true. The implication of this in our retention plan is such that we
must utilize a variety of methods to retain employees.
• Finally, understanding our own motivations at work is an important step to making sure we choose the
right career path.
• Salary and benefits are a major component of what employees do to motivate us. Consistent pay systems
and transparent processes as to how raises occur should be clearly communicated.
• Training and development meets the higher-level needs of the individual. Many companies offer paid
tuition programs, reimbursement programs, and in-house training to increase the skills and knowledge of
the employee.
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• Performance appraisals provide an avenue for feedback and goal setting. They also allow for employees
to be recognized for their contributions.
• Succession plans allow us, as employees, the ability to see how we can continue our career with the
organization, and they clearly detail what employees need to do to achieve career growth.
• Some companies use flextime and telecommuting options as motivators. These types of plans allow the
employee flexibility when developing his or her schedule and some control of his or her work. Some
companies also offer paid or unpaid sabbaticals after a certain number of years with the company to
pursue personal interests.
• Since one of the reasons people are dissatisfied at their job is because of the relationship with their
manager, many companies require management training and communication training to ensure
managers are able to establish good relationships with employees.
• Some companies may change the job through empowerment or job enlargement to help the growth of
the employee.
• Other, more unique ways companies try to retain employees might include offering services to make the
employee’s life easier, such as dry cleaning, daycare services, or on-site yoga classes.
C H A P T E R C A SE
1. The following is a list of some possible strategies companies use to motivate employees. Rank each
one in order of importance to you (one being the most important). Then categorize where you think
each would go in Maslow's Hierarchy and Hertzberg's theory.
a. Salary
b. Opportunity for bonuses, profit sharing
c. Benefits
d. Opportunity to grow professionally with the organization
e. Team bonuses
f. More paid time off
g. Option to telecommute
h. Flextime scheduling
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i. Sense of empowerment
j. Tuition reimbursement
k. Job satisfaction
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Chapter 7 Work Effectively in Groups
Significant portions of this chapter were adapted from Scott McLean’s Business Communication for
Success textbook with permission of the author. [1]
Teamwork is the ability to work together toward a common vision. The ability to direct individual
accomplishments toward organizational objectives. It is the fuel that allows common people to attain
uncommon results.
- Andrew Carnegie
Never doubt that a small group of thoughtful, committed people can change the world. Indeed, it is the
only thing that ever has.
- Margaret Mead
Teamwork at Quick-Lube
At Quick-Lube, the promise to customers is to change oil within ten minutes. There is no way that Quick-
Lube could do this without teamwork. For example, in one shift, there is someone assigned as the
customer interface, the below hood, and the above hood. The duties of the customer interface include
checking people in, moving the car into the stall, and managing the oil change process. The below the
hood person is responsible for draining the oil and replacing it. The above hood person washes the
windows, vacuums the floors, and also checks the above the hood items such as the air filter. All of these
people must communicate well in order to finish the job in ten minutes. Sometimes, on busy days such as
Saturday afternoon, this can be stressful, but each team member knows their job, which creates a better
and faster customer experience.
As humans, we are social beings. We naturally form relationships with others, as in our opening example
of Quick-Lube. Sometimes forming relationships is necessary to serve the customer best. In fact,
relationships are often noted as one of the most important aspects of a person’s life, and they exist in
many forms. Interpersonal communication occurs between two people, but group communication may
involve two or more individuals. Groups are a primary context for interaction within the business
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community. Groups may have heroes, enemies, and sages alongside new members. Groups overlap and
may share common goals, but they may also engage in conflict. Groups can be supportive or coercive and
can exert powerful influences over individuals.
Within a group, individuals may behave in distinct ways, use unique or specialized terms, or display
symbols that have meaning to that group. Those same terms or symbols may be confusing, meaningless,
or even unacceptable to another group. An individual may belong to both groups, adapting his or her
communication patterns to meet group normative expectations. Groups are increasingly important across
social media venues, and there are many examples of successful business ventures on the web that value
and promote group interaction.
Groups use words to exchange meaning, establish territory, and identify who is a stranger versus who is a
trusted member. Are you familiar with the term “troll”? It is often used to identify someone who is not a
member of an online group or community; does not share the values and beliefs of the group; and posts a
message in an online discussion board to initiate flame wars, cause disruption, or otherwise challenge the
group members. Members often use words to respond to the challenge that are not otherwise common in
the discussions, and the less-than-flattering descriptions of the troll are a rallying point.
Groups have existed throughout human history and continue to follow familiar patterns across emerging
venues as we adapt to technology, computer-mediated interaction, suburban sprawl, and modern life. We
need groups, and groups need us. Our relationship with groups warrants attention on this
interdependence as we come to know our communities, our world, and ourselves. This will be the focus of
this chapter.
Next
7.1 What Is a Group?
L E A R N I N G O B JE C T I V E S
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1. Be able to explain the meaning of a group and a team.
2. Discuss how primary and secondary groups meet our interpersonal needs.
3. Discuss how we can understand group norms in our own current or future workplace.
Our ability to work effectively in a group shows our emotional intelligence skills of social awareness,
self-awareness, and our ability to manage relationships. We cannot have relationships with others if
we do not have a sense of ourselves. To maintain those relationships, we need to have social
awareness and be able to manage those relationships in a positive way. Let’s get into a time machine
and travel way, way back to join early humans in prehistoric times. Their needs are like ours today:
they cannot exist or thrive without air, food, and water—and a sense of belonging. How did they meet
these needs? Through cooperation and competition. If food scarcity was an issue, who got more and
who got less? This serves as our first introduction to roles, status and power, and hierarchy within a
group. When food scarcity becomes an issue, who gets to keep their spoon? In some Latin American
cultures, having a job or earning a living is referred to by the slang term cuchara, which literally
means “spoon” and figuratively implies food, safety, and security.
Now let’s return to the present and enter a modern office. Cubicles define territories and corner
offices denote status. In times of economic recession or slumping sales for the company, there is a
greater need for cooperation, and there is competition for scarce resources. The loss of a “spoon”—or
of one’s cubicle—may now come in the form of a pink slip, but it is no less devastating.
We form self-identities through our communication with others, and much of that interaction occurs
in a group context. A group may be defined as three or more individuals who affiliate, interact, or
cooperate in a familial, social, or work context. Group communication may be defined as the
exchange of information with those who are alike culturally, linguistically, and/or geographically.
Group members may be known by their symbols, such as patches and insignia on a military uniform.
They may be known by their use of specialized language or jargon; for example, someone in
information technology may use the term “server” in reference to the Internet, whereas someone in
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the food service industry may use “server” to refer to the worker who takes customer orders in a
restaurant. Group members may also be known by their proximity, as in gated communities.
Regardless of how the group defines itself, and regardless of the extent to which its borders are
porous or permeable, a group recognizes itself as a group. Humans naturally make groups a part of
their context or environment.
Types of Groups in the Workplace
As a skilled communicator, learning more about groups and group dynamics will serve you well. Mergers,
forced sales, downsizing, and entering new markets all call upon individuals within a business or
organization to become members of groups. Groups may be defined by function. They can also be defined,
from a developmental viewpoint, by the relationships within them. Groups can also be discussed in terms
of their relationship to the individual and the degree to which they meet interpersonal needs.
Some groups may be assembled at work to solve problems, and once the challenge has been resolved, they
dissolve into previous or yet to be determined groups. Functional groups like this may be immediately
familiar to you. You take a class in sociology from a professor of sociology, who is a member of the
discipline of sociology. To be a member of a discipline is to be a disciple, and adhere to a common
framework to for viewing the world. Disciplines involve a common set of theories that explain the world
around us, terms to explain those theories, and have grown to reflect the advance of human knowledge.
Compared to your sociology instructor, your physics instructor may see the world from a completely
different perspective. Still, both may be members of divisions or schools, dedicated to teaching or
research, and come together under the large group heading we know as the university.
In business, we may have marketing experts who are members of the marketing department, who
perceive their tasks differently from a member of the sales staff or someone in accounting. You may work
in the mailroom, and the mailroom staff is a group in itself, both distinct from and interconnected with
the larger organization.
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Relationships are part of any group and can be described in terms of status, power, control, as well as role,
function, or viewpoint. Within a family, for example, the ties that bind you together may be common
experiences, collaborative efforts, and even pain and suffering. The birth process may forge a relationship
between mother and daughter, but it also may not. An adoption may transform a family. Relationships are
formed through communication interaction across time and often share a common history, values, and
beliefs about the world around us.
Figure 7.1
Groups and teams are an important part of any type of communication that happens at work.
In business, an idea may bring professionals together and they may even refer to the new product or
service as their “baby,” speaking in reverent tones about a project they have taken from the drawing board
and “birthed” into the real world. As in family communication, work groups or teams may have
challenges, rivalries, and even “birthing pains” as a product is developed, adjusted, adapted, and
transformed. Struggles are a part of relationships, both in families and business, and form a common
history of shared challenges overcome through effort and hard work.
Through conversations and a shared sense that you and your coworkers belong together, you meet many
of your basic human needs, such as the need to feel included, the need for affection, and the need for
control. [1] In a work context, “affection” may sound odd, but we all experience affection at work in the
form of friendly comments like “good morning,” “have a nice weekend,” and “good job!” Our professional
lives also fulfill more than just our basic needs (i.e., air, food, and water, as well as safety). While your
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work group may be gathered together with common goals, such as to deliver the mail in a timely fashion
to the corresponding departments and individuals, your daily interactions may well go beyond this
functional perspective.
In the same way, your family may provide a place for you at the table and meet your basic needs, but they
also may not meet other needs. If you grow to understand yourself and your place in a way that challenges
group norms, you will be able to choose which parts of your life to share and to withhold in different
groups, and to choose where to seek acceptance, affection, and control.
Primary and Secondary Groups
There are fundamentally two types of groups that can be observed in many contexts, from church to
school, family to work. These two types are primary and secondary groups. The hierarchy denotes the
degree to which the group(s) meet your interpersonal needs. Primary groups meet most, if not all, of
one’s needs. Groups that meet some, but not all, needs are called secondary groups. Secondary groups
often include work groups, where the goal is to complete a task or solve a problem. If you are a member of
the sales department, your purpose is to sell.
In terms of problem solving, work groups can accomplish more than individuals can. People, each of
whom have specialized skills, talents, experience, or education come together in new combinations with
new challenges, find new perspectives to create unique approaches that they themselves would not have
formulated alone.
Secondary groups may meet your need for professional acceptance and celebrate your success, but they
may not meet your need for understanding and sharing on a personal level. Family members may
understand you in ways that your coworkers cannot, and vice versa.
If Two’s Company and Three’s a Crowd, What Is a Group?
This old cliché refers to the human tendency to form pairs. Pairing is the most basic form of relationship
formation; it applies to childhood best friends, college roommates, romantic couples, business partners,
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and many other dyads (two-person relationships). A group, by definition, includes at least three people.
We can categorize groups in terms of their size and complexity.
When we discuss demographic groups as part of a market study, we may focus on large numbers of
individuals that share common characteristics. If you are the producer of an ecologically innovative car
such as the Smart ForTwo and know your customers have an average of four members in their family, you
may discuss developing a new model with additional seats. While the target audience is a group, car
customers don’t relate to each other as a unified whole. Even if they form car clubs and have regional
gatherings, a newsletter, and competitions at their local race tracks each year, they still subdivide the
overall community of car owners into smaller groups.
The larger the group grows, the more likely it is to subdivide. Analysis of these smaller, or microgroups, is
increasingly a point of study as the Internet allows individuals to join people of similar mind or habit to
share virtually anything across time and distance. A microgroup is a small, independent group that has
a link, affiliation, or association with a larger group. With each additional group member the number of
possible interactions increases. [2], [3]
Small groups normally contain between three and eight people. One person may involve intrapersonal
communication, while two may constitute interpersonal communication, and both may be present within
a group communication context. You may think to yourself before making a speech or writing your next
post, and you may turn to your neighbor or coworker and have a side conversation, but a group
relationship normally involves three to eight people, and the potential for distraction is great.
In Table 7.1 "Possible Interaction in Groups", you can quickly see how the number of possible interactions
grows according to how many people are in the group. At some point, we all find the possible and actual
interactions overwhelming and subdivide into smaller groups. For example, you may have hundreds of
friends on MySpace or Facebook, but how many of them do you regularly communicate with? You may be
tempted to provide a number greater than eight, but if you exclude the “all to one” messages, such as a
general tweet to everyone (but no one person in particular), you’ll find the group norms will appear.
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Table 7.1 Possible Interaction in Groups
Number of group members 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Number of possible interactions 2 9 28 75 186 441 1,056
Group norms are customs, standards, and behavioral expectations that emerge as a group forms. If you
post an update every day on your Facebook page and your friends stop by to post on your wall and
comment, not posting for a week will violate a group norm. They will wonder if you are sick or in the
hospital where you have no access to a computer to keep them updated. If, however, you only post once a
week, the group will come to naturally expect your customary post. Norms involve expectations that are
self and group imposed and that often arise as groups form and develop.
If there are more than eight members, it becomes a challenge to have equal participation, where everyone
has a chance to speak, listen, and respond. Some will dominate, others will recede, and smaller groups will
form. Finding a natural balance within a group can also be a challenge. Small groups need to have enough
members to generate a rich and stimulating exchange of ideas, information, and interaction, but not so
many people that what each brings cannot be shared. [4]
K E Y T A K E A W A Y S
• Forming groups fulfills many human needs, such as the need for affiliation, affection, and control;
individuals also need to cooperate in groups to fulfill basic survival needs.
• Part of our ability to be successful at work depends on our ability to work in groups.
• A primary group is one that meets most, if not all of your needs.
• Secondary groups are groups that may meet some but not all of your needs. Secondary groups are
normally those found in the workplace, while our family and friends might be considered a primary group.
• A group consists of at least three people.
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E X E R C I S E S
1. Think of the online groups you participate in. Forums may have hundreds or thousands of members, and
you may have hundreds of friends on MySpace or Facebook, but how many do you regularly communicate
with? Exclude the “all-to-one” messages, such as a general tweet to everyone (but no one person in
particular). Do you find that you gravitate toward the group norm of eight or fewer group members?
Discuss your answer with your classmates.
2. What are some of the primary groups in your life? How do they compare with the secondary groups in
your life? Write a two- to three-paragraph description of these groups and compare it with a classmate’s
description.
3. What group is most important to people? Create a survey with at least two questions, identify a target
sample size, and conduct your survey. Report how you completed the activity and your findings. Compare
the results with those of your classmates.
4. Are there times when it is better to work alone rather than in a group? Why or why not? Discuss your
opinion with a classmate.
Next
[1] Schutz, W. (1966). The interpersonal underworld. Palo Alto, CA: Science and Behavior Books.
[2] Harris, T., & Sherblom, J. (1999). Small Group and Team Communication. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
[3] McLean, S. (2003). The basics of speech communication. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
[4] Galanes, G., Adams, K., & Brilhart, J. (2000). Communication in groups: Applications and skills (4th ed.). Boston,
MA: McGraw-Hill.
7.2 Group Life Cycles and Member Roles
L E A R N I N G O B JE C T I V E S
1. Identify the typical stages in the life cycle of a group you have worked with.
2. Describe different types of group members and group member roles.
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Groups are dynamic systems in constant change. Groups grow together and eventually come apart.
People join groups and others leave. This dynamic changes and transforms the very nature of the
group. Group socialization involves how the group members interact with one another and form
relationships. Just as you were once born and changed your family, they changed you. You came to
know a language and culture, a value system, and set of beliefs that influence you to this day. You
came to be socialized, to experience the process of learning to associate, communicate, or interact
within a group. A group you belong to this year—perhaps a soccer team or the cast of a play—may not
be part of your life next year. And those who are in leadership positions may ascend or descend the
leadership hierarchy as the needs of the group, and other circumstances, change over time.
Group Life Cycle Patterns
Your life cycle is characterized with several steps, and while it doesn’t follow a prescribed path, there are
universal stages we can all recognize. You were born. You didn’t choose your birth, your parents, your
language, or your culture, but you came to know them through communication. You came to know
yourself, learned skills, discovered talents, and met other people. You learned, worked, lived, and loved,
and as you aged, minor injuries took longer to heal. You competed in ever-increasing age groups in your
favorite sport, and while your time for each performance may have increased as you aged, your experience
allowed you to excel in other ways. Where you were once a novice, you have now learned something to
share. You lived to see some of your friends pass before you, and the moment will arrive when you too
must confront death.
In the same way, groups experience similar steps and stages and take on many of the characteristics we
associate with life. [1] They grow, overcome illness and dysfunction, and transform across time. No group,
just as no individual, lives forever.
Your first day on the job may be comparable to the first day you went to school. At home, you may have
learned some of the basics, like how to write with a pencil, but knowledge of that skill and its application
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are two different things. In school, people spoke and acted in different ways than at home. Gradually, you
came to understand the meaning of recess, the importance of raising your hand to get the teacher’s
attention, and how to follow other school rules. At work, you may have had academic training for your
profession, but the knowledge you learned in school only serves as your foundation—much as
your socialization at home served to guide you at school. On the job they use jargon terms, have
schedules that may include coffee breaks (recess), have a supervisor (teacher), and have rules, explicit and
understood. On the first day, it was all new, even if many of the elements were familiar.
In order to better understand group development and its life cycle, many researchers have described the
universal stages and phases of groups. While there are modern interpretations of these stages, most draw
from the model proposed by Bruce Tuckman. [2] This model, shown in Table 7.2 "Tuckman’s Linear Model
of Group Development", [3] specifies the usual order of the phases of group development and allows us to
predict several stages we can anticipate as we join a new group.
Table 7.2 Tuckman’s Linear Model of Group Development
Stages Activities
Forming Members come together, learn about each other, and determine the purpose of the group.
Storming Members engage in more direct communication and get to know each other. Conflicts between group members will often arise during this stage.
Norming Members establish spoken or unspoken rules about how they communicate and work. Status, rank, and roles in the group are established.
Performing Members fulfill their purpose and reach their goal.
Adjourning Members leave the group.
Tuckman begins with the forming stage as the initiation of group formation. This stage is also called the
orientation stage because individual group members come to know each other. Group members who are
new to each other and can’t predict each other’s behavior can be expected to experience the stress of
uncertainty. Uncertainty theory states that we choose to know more about others with whom we have
interactions in order to reduce or resolve the anxiety associated with the unknown. [4], [5], [6] The more we
know about others and become accustomed to how they communicate, the better we can predict how they
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will interact with us in future contexts. If you learn that Monday mornings are never a good time for your
supervisor, you quickly learn to schedule meetings later in the week. Individuals are initially tentative and
display caution as they begin to learn about the group and its members.
If you don’t know someone very well, it is easy to offend. Each group member brings to the group a set of
experiences, combined with education and a self-concept. You won’t be able to read this information on a
nametag, but instead you will only come to know it through time and interaction. Since the possibility of
overlapping and competing viewpoints and perspectives exists, the group will experience
a storming stage, a time of struggles as the members themselves sort out their differences. There may
be more than one way to solve the problem or task at hand, and some group members may prefer one
strategy over another. Some members of the group may be more senior to the organization than you, and
members may treat them differently. Some group members may be as new as you are and just as
uncertain about everyone’s talents, skills, roles, and self-perceptions. The wise business communicator
will anticipate the storming stage and help facilitate opportunities for the members to resolve uncertainty
before the work commences. There may be challenges for leadership, and there may be conflicting
viewpoints. The sociology professor sees the world differently than the physics professor. The sales agent
sees things differently than someone from accounting. A manager who understands and anticipates this
normal challenge in the group’s life cycle can help the group become more productive.
A clear definition of the purpose and mission of the group can help the members focus their energies.
Interaction prior to the first meeting can help reduce uncertainty. Coffee and calories can help bring a
group together. Providing the group with what they need and opportunities to know each other prior to
their task can increase efficiency.
Groups that make a successful transition from the storming stage will next experience
the norming stage, where the group establishes norms, or informal rules, for behavior and interaction.
Who speaks first? Who takes notes? Who is creative, who is visual, and who is detail-oriented? Sometimes
our job titles and functions speak for themselves, but human beings are complex. We are not simply a list
of job functions, and in the dynamic marketplace of today’s business environment you will often find that
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people have talents and skills well beyond their “official” role or task. Drawing on these strengths can
make the group more effective.
The norming stage is marked by less division and more collaboration. The level of anxiety associated with
interaction is generally reduced, making for a more positive work climate that promotes listening. When
people feel less threatened and their needs are met, they are more likely to focus their complete attention
on the purpose of the group. If they are still concerned with who does what and whether they will speak in
error, the interaction framework will stay in the storming stage. Tensions are reduced when the normative
expectations are known and the degree to which a manager can describe these at the outset can reduce the
amount of time the group remains in uncertainty. Group members generally express more satisfaction
with clear expectations and are more inclined to participate.
Ultimately, the purpose of a work group is performance, and the preceding stages lead us to
the performing stage, in which the group accomplishes its mandate, fulfills its purpose, and reaches its
goals. To facilitate performance, group members can’t skip the initiation of getting to know each other or
the sorting out of roles and norms, but they can try to focus on performance with clear expectations from
the moment the group is formed. Productivity is often how we measure success in business and industry,
and the group has to produce. Outcome assessments may have been built into the system from the
beginning to serve as a benchmark for success. Wise managers know how to celebrate success, as it brings
more success, social cohesion, group participation, and a sense of job satisfaction. Incremental gains
toward a benchmark may also be cause for celebration and support, and failure to reach a goal should be
regarded as an opportunity for clarification.
It is generally wiser to focus on the performance of the group rather than individual contributions.
Managers and group members will want to offer assistance to underperformers as well as congratulate
members for their contributions. If the goal is to create a community where competition pushes each
member to perform, individual highlights may serve your needs, but if you want a group to solve a
problem or address a challenge as a group, you have to promote group cohesion. Members need to feel a
sense of belonging, and praise (or the lack thereof) can be a sword with two edges: one stimulates and
motivates while the other demoralizes and divides.
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Groups should be designed to produce and perform in ways and at levels that individuals cannot, or else
you should consider compartmentalizing the tasks. The performing stage is where the productivity occurs,
and it is necessary to make sure the group has what it needs to perform. Missing pieces, parts, or
information can stall the group and reset the cycle to storming all over again. Loss of performance is
inefficiency, which carries a cost. Managers will be measured by the group’s productivity and
performance. Make sure the performing stage is one that is productive and healthy for its members.
Imagine that you are the manager of a group that has produced an award-winning design for an
ecologically innovative four-seat car. Their success is your success. Their celebrations are yours even if the
success is not focused on you. A manager manages the process while group members perform. If you were
a member of the group that helped design the belt line, you made a fundamental contribution to the style
of the car. Individual consumers may never consider the line from the front fender, across the doors, to
the rear taillight as they make a purchase decision, but they will recognize beauty. You will know that you
could not have achieved that fundamental part of car design without help from the engineers in the group,
and if the number-crunching accountants had not seen the efficiency of the production process that
produced it, it may never have survived the transition from prototype to production. The group came
together and accomplished its goals with amazing results.
Now, as typically happens, all groups will eventually have to move on to new assignments. In
the adjourning stage, members leave the group. The group may cease to exist or it may be transformed
with new members and a new set of goals. Your contributions in the past may have caught the attention of
the management, and you may be assigned to redesign the flagship vehicle, the halo car of your marque or
brand. It’s quite a professional honor, and it’s yours because of your successful work in a group. Others
will be reassigned to tasks that require their talents and skills, and you may or may not collaborate with
them in the future.
You may miss the interactions with the members, even the more cantankerous ones, and will experience
both relief and a sense of loss. Like life, the group process is normal, and mixed emotions are to be
expected. A wise manager anticipates this stage and facilitates the separation with skill and ease. We often
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close this process with a ritual marking its passing, though the ritual may be as formal as an award or as
informal as a “thank you” or a verbal acknowledgement of a job well done over coffee and calories.
On a more sober note, it is important not to forget that groups can reach the adjourning stage without
having achieved success. Some businesses go bankrupt, some departments are closed, and some
individuals lose their positions after a group fails to perform. Adjournment can come suddenly and
unexpectedly or gradually and piece by piece. Either way, a skilled business communicator will be
prepared and recognize it as part of the classic group life cycle.
Why Human Relations? Without a doubt, most if not all of us will work in groups in our workplace. Even if we seem to have a
somewhat isolated job, part of what we do will impact others. Developing skills that can help us work
better in these groups relates to the social awareness and relationship management aspects of emotional
intelligence, as we discussed in Chapter 2 "Achieve Personal Success". These two skills—the ability to
understand social cues that can be affecting others and our ability to communicate and
maintain good relationships—are the cornerstones in any group situation.
For example, in the group development process, we depend greatly on our social awareness skills in order
to make successful first impressions during the forming stage. We use our ability to resolve conflict during
the storming and norming phase. Having the skills to handle these different phases are key to successful
and productive group work. Have you ever worked with a dysfunctional group, perhaps on a class project?
These types of groups are lacking in communication and possibly emotional intelligence skills, which can
make the group more cohesive. Group cohesiveness is the goal in any type of group setting. This
makes the performing stage more productive, less stressful, and maybe even enjoyable!
In a study by Jordan and Troth, there was a significant correlation between higher team performance and
the emotional intelligence skills of the team members. [7] Being able to understand your own
emotions (self-awareness), manage them (self-management), and establish positive
relationships built on trust is what makes groups work most effectively.
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Life Cycle of Member Roles
Just as groups go through a life cycle when they form and eventually adjourn, so do the group members
fulfill different roles during this life cycle. These roles, proposed by Richard Moreland and John
Levine, [8] are summarized in Table 7.3 "Life Cycle of Member Roles". [9]
Table 7.3 Life Cycle of Member Roles
1. Potential member Curiosity and interest
2. New member Joined the group but still an outsider, and unknown
3. Full member Knows the “rules” and is looked to for leadership
4. Divergent member Focuses on differences
5. Marginal member No longer involved
6. Ex-Member No longer considered a member
Suppose you are about to graduate from school and you are in the midst of an employment search. You’ve
gathered extensive information on a couple of local businesses and are aware that they will be
participating in the university job fair. You’ve explored their websites, talked to people currently
employed at each company, and learned what you can from the public information available. At this stage,
you are considered a potential member. You may have an electrical, chemical, or mechanical
engineering degree soon, but you are not a member of an engineering team.
You show up at the job fair in professional attire and completely prepared. The representatives of each
company are respectful, cordial, and give you contact information. One of them even calls a member of
the organization on the spot and arranges an interview for you next week. You are excited at the prospect
and want to learn more. You are still a potential member.
The interview goes well the following week. The day after the meeting, you receive a call for a follow-up
interview that leads to a committee interview. A few weeks later, the company calls you with a job offer.
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However, in the meantime, you have also been interviewing with other potential employers, and you are
waiting to hear back from two of them. You are still a potential member.
After careful consideration, you decide to take the job offer and start the next week. The projects look
interesting, you’ll be gaining valuable experience, and the commute to work is reasonable. Your first day
on the job is positive, and they’ve assigned you a mentor. The conversations are positive, but you feel lost
at times, as if they are speaking a language you can’t quite grasp. As a new group member, your level of
acceptance will increase as you begin learning the groups’ rules, spoken and unspoken. [10]You will
gradually move from the potential member role to the role of new group member as you learn to fit into
the group.
Figure 7.2
As a member of a new group, you may learn new customs, traditions, and group norms.
Over time and projects, you gradually increase your responsibilities. You are no longer looked at as the
new person, and you can follow almost every conversation. You can’t quite say, “I remember when,”
because your tenure hasn’t been that long, but you are a known quantity and know your way around. You
are a full member of the group. Full members enjoy knowing the rules and customs and can even create
new rules. New group members look to full members for leadership and guidance. Full group members
can control the agenda and have considerable influence on the agenda and activities.
Full members of a group, however, can and do come into conflict. When you were a new member, you
may have remained silent when you felt you had something to say, but now you state your case. There is
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more than one way to get the job done. You may suggest new ways that emphasize efficiency over existing
methods. Coworkers who have been working in the department for several years may be unwilling to
adapt and change, resulting in tension. Expressing different views can cause conflict and may even
interfere with communication.
When this type of tension arises, divergent group members pull back, contribute less, and start to see
themselves as separate from the group. Divergent group members have less eye contact, seek out each
other’s opinion less frequently, and listen defensively. In the beginning of the process, you felt a sense of
belonging, but now you don’t. Marginal group members start to look outside the group for their
interpersonal needs.
After several months of trying to cope with these adjustments, you decide that you never really
investigated the other two companies, that your job search process was incomplete. Perhaps you should
take a second look at the options. You will report to work on Monday but will start the process of
becoming an ex-member, one who no longer belongs. You may experience a sense of relief upon making
this decision, given that you haven’t felt like you belonged to the group for a while. When you line up your
next job and submit your resignation, you make it official.
This process has no set timetable. Some people overcome differences and stay in the group for years;
others get promoted and leave the group only when they get transferred to regional headquarters. As a
skilled business communicator, you will recognize the signs of divergence, just as you have anticipated the
storming stage and do your best to facilitate success.
Group Member Roles
If someone in your group always makes everyone laugh, that can be a distinct asset when the news is less
than positive. At times when you have to get work done, however, the class clown may become a
distraction. Notions of positive and negative will often depend on the context when discussing
groups. Table 7.4 "Positive Roles" [11], [12] and Table 7.5 "Negative Roles" [13], [14] list both positive and
negative roles people sometimes play in a group setting. [15], [16]
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Table 7.4 Positive Roles
Initiator-coordinator Suggests new ideas or new ways of looking at the problem
Elaborator Builds on ideas and provides examples
Coordinator Brings ideas, information, and suggestions together
Evaluator-critic Evaluates ideas and provides constructive criticism
Recorder Records ideas, examples, suggestions, and critiques
Table 7.5 Negative Roles
Dominator Dominates discussion, not allowing others to take their turn
Recognition seeker Relates discussion to their accomplishments; seeks attention
Special-interest pleader Relates discussion to special interest or personal agenda
Blocker Blocks attempts at consensus consistently
Joker or clown Seeks attention through humor and distracts group members
Now that we’ve examined a classical view of positive and negative group member roles, let’s examine
another perspective. While some personality traits and behaviors may negatively influence groups, some
are positive or negative depending on the context.
Just as the class clown can have a positive effect in lifting spirits or a negative effect in distracting
members, a dominator may be exactly what is needed for quick action. An emergency physician doesn’t
have time to ask all the group members in the emergency unit how they feel about a course of action;
instead, a self-directed approach based on training and experience may be necessary. In contrast, the
pastor of a church may have ample opportunity to ask members of the congregation their opinions about a
change in the format of Sunday services; in this situation, the role of coordinator or elaborator is more
appropriate than that of dominator.
The group is together because they have a purpose or goal, and normally they are capable of more than
any one individual member could be on their own, so it would be inefficient to hinder that progress. But a
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blocker, who cuts off collaboration, does just that. If a group member interrupts another and presents a
viewpoint or information that suggests a different course of action, the point may be well taken and serve
the collaborative process. But if that same group member repeatedly engages in blocking behavior, then
the behavior becomes a problem. To become effective at human relations skills, learn how to work in
groups. The use of emotional intelligence skills in relationship management can help achieve this goal.
K E Y T A K E A W A Y S
• Groups and their individual members come together and grow apart in predictable patterns.
• Group lifecycle patterns refer to the process or stages of group development.
• There are five stages to the group development process, which include forming, norming, storming,
performing, and adjourning.
• Within each of the stages, group members have a variety of roles, which include potential member, new
member, full member, divergent member, marginal member, and an ex-member.
• You can take on a variety of roles when working with a group. These roles can be positive or negative, and
you can rely on your emotional intelligence skills to make sure they are positive.
E X E R C I S E S
1. Is it possible for an outsider (a nongroup member) to help a group move from the storming stage to the
norming stage? Explain your answer and present it to the class.
2. Think of a group of which you are a member and identify some roles played by group members, including
yourself. Have your roles, and those of others, changed over time? Are some roles more positive than
others? Discuss your answers with your classmates.
3. In the course where you are using this book, think of yourself and your classmates as a group. At what
stage of group formation are you currently? What stage will you be at when the school year ends?
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4. Think of a group you no longer belong to. At what point did you become an ex-member? Were you ever a
marginal group member or a full member? Write a two- to three-paragraph description of the group, how
and why you became a member, and how and why you left. Share your description with a classmate.
Next
[1] Moreland, R., & Levine, J. (1982). Socialization in small groups: Temporal changes in individual group relations.
In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 15, 153.
[2] B. Tuckman, “Developmental Sequence in Small Groups,” Psychological Bulletin 63, (1965): 384–99.
[3] Tuckman, B. (1965). Developmental sequence in small groups. Psychological Bulletin, 63, 384–99.
[4] Berger, C., & Calabrese, R. (1975). Some explorations in initial interactions and beyond: Toward a
developmental theory of interpersonal communication. Human Communication Research, 1, 99–112.
[5] Berger, C. (1986). Response uncertain outcome values in predicted relationships: Uncertainty reduction theory
then and now. Human Communication Research, 13, 34–38.
[6] Gudykunst, W. (1995). Anxiety/uncertainty management theory. In R. W. Wiseman (Ed.),Intercultural
communication theory (pp. 8–58). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
[7] Jordan, Peter and Troth, Ashlea, “Managing Emotions during Team Problem Solving,”Journal of Human
Performance, Volume 17, Issue 2, pp 195-218.
[8] Moreland, R., & Levine, J. (1982). Socialization in small groups: Temporal changes in individual group relations.
In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 15, 153.
[9] Moreland, R., & Levine, J. (1982). Socialization in small groups: Temporal changes in individual group relations.
In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 15, 153.
[10] Fisher, B. A. (1970). Decision emergence: Phases in group decision making. Speech Monographs, 37, 56–66.
[11] Beene, K., & Sheats, P. (1948). Functional roles of group members. Journal of Social Issues, 37, 41–49.
[12] McLean, S. (2005). The basics of interpersonal communication. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
[13] Beene, K., & Sheats, P. (1948). Functional roles of group members. Journal of Social Issues, 37, 41–49.
[14] McLean, S. (2005). The basics of interpersonal communication. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
[15] Beene, K., & Sheats, P. (1948). Functional roles of group members. Journal of Social Issues, 37, 41–49.
[16] McLean, S. (2005). The basics of interpersonal communication. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
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7.3 Effective Group Meetings
L E A R N I N G O B JE C T I V E S
1. Understand how you can prepare for and conduct meetings.
2. Understand how you can use technology to aid in group communications.
3. Understand the basic principles of organizational communication.
Business and professional meetings are a part of the communication climate of any business. Some
view meetings as boring, pointless, and futile exercises, while others see them as opportunities to
exchange information and produce results. A combination of preparation and execution makes all
the difference. Remember, too, that meetings do not have to take place in a physical space where the
participants meet face to face. Instead, a number of technological tools make it possible to hold
virtual meetings in which the participants are half a world away from one another. Virtual meetings
are formally arranged gatherings where participants, located in distinct geographic locations, come
together via the Internet.
Preparation
A meeting, like a problem-solving group, needs a clear purpose statement. The specific goal for the
specific meeting will clearly relate to the overall goal of the group or committee. Determining your
purpose is central to an effective meeting and getting together just to get together is called a party, not a
meeting. Do not schedule a meeting just because you met at the same time last month or because it is a
standing committee. Members will resent the intrusion into their schedules and quickly perceive the lack
of purpose.
Similarly, if the need for a meeting arises, do not rush into it without planning. A poorly planned meeting
announced at the last minute is sure to be less than effective. People may be unable to change their
schedules, may fail to attend, or may impede the progress and discussion of the group because of their
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absence. Those who attend may feel hindered because they needed more time to prepare and present
comprehensive results to the group or committee.
If a meeting is necessary, and a clear purpose can be articulated, then you’ll need to decide how and where
to meet. Distance is no longer an obstacle to participation, as we will see later in this section when we
explore some of the technologies for virtual meetings. However, there are many advantages to meeting in
person. People communicate not just with words but also with their body language—facial expressions,
hand gestures, head nodding or head shaking, and posture. These subtleties of communication can be key
to determining how group members really feel about an issue or question. Meeting in real time can be
important, too, as all group members have the benefit of receiving new information at the same time. For
purposes of our present discussion, we will focus on meetings taking place face to face in real time.
If you have a purpose statement for the meeting, then it also follows that you should be able to create an
agenda or a list of topics to be discussed. You may need to solicit information from members to formulate
an agenda, and this premeeting contact can serve to encourage active participation. The agenda will have
a time, date, place, and method of interaction noted, as well as a list of participants. It will also have a
statement of purpose, a list of points to be considered, and a brief summary of relevant information that
relates to each point. The start and end times need to be clearly indicated somewhere on the agenda, and
it is always a good idea to leave time at the end for questions and additional points that individual
members may want to share. If the meeting has an emotional point or theme, or the news is negative, plan
for additional time for discussion, clarification, and recycling of conversations as the participants process
the information.
If you are planning an intense work session, you need to consider the number of possible interactions
among the participants and limit them. Smaller groups are generally more productive. If you are
gathering to present information or to motivate the sales staff, a large audience, where little interaction is
expected, is appropriate. Each member has a role, and attention to how and why they are interacting will
produce the best results. Review the stages of group formation in view of the idea that a meeting is a
short-term group. You can anticipate a “forming” stage, and if roles are not clear, there may be a bit of
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“storming” before the group establishes norms and becomes productive. Adding additional participants
for no clear reason will only make the process more complex and may produce negative results.
Inviting the participants via e-mail has become increasingly common across business and industry.
Software programs like Microsoft Outlook allow you to initiate a meeting request and receive an “accept”
or “decline” response that makes the invitation process organized and straightforward. Reliance on a
software program, however, may not be enough to encourage and ensure participation. A reminder on the
individual’s computer may go off fifteen minutes prior to the meeting, but if they are away from their
computer or if Outlook is not running, the reminder will go unseen and unheard. A reminder e-mail on
the day of the meeting, often early in the morning, can serve as a personal effort to highlight the activities
of the day.
If you are the person responsible for the room reservation, confirm the reservation a week before the
meeting and again the day before the meeting. Redundancy in the confirmation process can help
eliminate double-booking a room, where two meetings are scheduled at the same time. If technology is
required at the meeting, such as a microphone, conference telephone, or laptop and projector, make sure
you confirm their reservation at the same time as you confirm the meeting room reservation. Always
personally inspect the room and test these systems prior to the meeting. There is nothing more
embarrassing than introducing a high-profile speaker, such as the company president, and then finding
that the PowerPoint projector is not working properly.
Conducting the Meeting
The world is a stage and a meeting is a performance, the same as an interview or speech presentation.
Each member has a part to perform and they should each be aware of their roles and responsibilities prior
to the meeting. Everyone is a member of the group, ranging from new members to full members. If you
can reduce or eliminate the storming stage, all the better. A clearly defined agenda can be a productive
tool for this effort.
People may know each other by role or title but may not be familiar with each other. Brief introductions
can serve to establish identity, credibility, and help the group transition to performance. The purpose of
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the meeting should be clearly stated, and if there are rules or guidelines that require a specific protocol,
they should be introduced.
Mary Ellen Guffey [1] provides a useful participant checklist that is adapted here for our use:
• Arrive on time and stay until the meeting adjourns (unless there are prior arrangements).
• Leave the meeting only for established breaks or emergencies.
• Be prepared and have everything you need on hand.
• Turn off cell phones and personal digital assistants.
• Follow the established protocol for turn taking.
• Respect time limits.
• Demonstrate professionalism in your verbal and nonverbal interactions.
• Communicate interest and stay engaged in the discussion.
• Avoid tangents and side discussions.
• Respect space and don’t place your notebook or papers all around you.
• Clean up after yourself.
• Engage in polite conversation after the conclusion.
If you are cast in the role of meeting leader, you may need to facilitate the discussion and address conflict.
The agenda serves as your guide and you may need to redirect the discussion to the topic, but always
demonstrate respect for each and every member. You may also need to intervene if a point has reached a
stalemate in terms of conflict (this text offers specific guidelines for managing interpersonal conflict that
apply here).
There has been quite a discussion on the role of seating arrangements in meeting within the field of
business communication. Generally, a table that is square, rectangular, or U-shaped has a fixed point at
which the attention is directed, often referred to as the head of the table. This space is often associated
with power, status, and hierarchy and may play an important role in the flow of interactions across the
meeting. If information is to be distributed and presented from administration to managers, for example,
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a table with a clear focal point for the head or CEO may be indicated. Tables that are round, or tables
arranged in a circular pattern, allow for a more egalitarian model of interaction, reducing the hierarchical
aspects while reinforcing the clear line of sight among all participants. If a meeting requires intense
interaction and collaboration, generally a round table or a circular pattern is indicated.
Some meetings do not call for a table but rather rows of seats all facing toward the speaker; you probably
recognize this arrangement from many class lectures you have attended. For relatively formal meetings in
which information is being delivered to a large number of listeners and little interaction is desired, seating
in rows is an efficient use of space.
Transitions are often the hardest part of any meeting. Facilitating the transition from one topic to the next
may require you to create links between each point. You can specifically note the next point on the agenda
and verbally introduce the next speaker or person responsible for the content area. Once the meeting has
accomplished its goals in the established time frame, it is time to facilitate the transition to a conclusion.
You may conclude by summarizing what has been discussed or decided and what actions the group
members are to take as a result of the meeting. If there is a clear purpose for holding a subsequent
meeting, discuss the time and date and specifically note assignments for next time.
Feedback is an important part of any communication interaction. Minutes are a written document that
serves to record the interaction and can provide an opportunity for clarification. Minutes often appear as
the agenda with notes in relation to actions taken during the meeting or specific indications of who is
responsible for what before the next meeting. In many organizations, minutes of the meeting are
tentative, like a rough draft, until they are approved by the members of the group or committee. Normally
minutes are sent within a week of the meeting if it is a monthly event and more quickly if the need to meet
more frequently has been determined. If your organization does not call for minutes, you can still benefit
by reviewing your notes after a meeting and comparing them with those of others to make sure you
understood what was discussed and did not miss—or misinterpret—any key information.
Using Technology to Facilitate Meetings
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Given the widespread availability and increasingly low cost of electronic communication, technologies
that once served to bring people together across continents and time zones are now also serving people in
the same geographic area. Rather than traveling (by plane, car, or even elevator within the same building)
to a central point for a face-to-face interaction, busy and cost-conscious professionals often choose to see
and hear each other via one of many different electronic interface technologies. It is important to be aware
of the dimensions of nonverbal communication that are lost in a virtual meeting compared to an in-
person meeting. Nevertheless, these technologies are a boon to today’s business organizations, and
knowing how to use them is a key skill for all job seekers. We will discuss the technologies by category,
beginning with audio-only, then audio-visual, and finally social media.
Audio-Only Interactions
The simplest form of audio-only interaction is, of course, a telephone call. Chances are that you have been
using the phone all your life, yet did you know that some executives hire professional voice coaches to help
them increase their effectiveness in phone communication? When you stop to think about it, we use a
great many audio-only modes of communication, ranging from phone calls and voice-activated telephone
menus to radio interviews, public address systems, dictation recording systems, and computer voice
recognition technology. The importance of audio communication in the business world has increased with
the availability of conference calls, web conferences, and voice over Internet protocol (VoIP)
communications.
Your voice has qualities that cannot be communicated in written form, and you can use these qualities to
your advantage as you interact with colleagues. If you are sending a general informative message to all
employees, an e-mail may serve you well, but if you are congratulating one employee on receiving an
industry award, your voice as the channel carries your enthusiasm.
Take care to pay attention to your pronunciation of words, stating them correctly in normal ways, and
avoiding words that you are not comfortable with as you may mispronounce them. Mispronunciation can
have a negative impact on your reputation or perceived credibility. Instead of using complicated words
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that may cause you to stumble, choose a simple phrase if you can or learn to pronounce the word correctly
before you use it in a formal interactive setting.
Your voice quality, volume, and pitch also influence how your spoken words are
interpreted. Quality often refers to emotional tone of your voice, from happy and enthusiastic to serious
or even sad. In most business situations, it is appropriate to speak with some level of formality yet avoid
sounding stilted or arrogant. Your volume (the loudness of your voice) should be normal, but do make
sure your listeners can hear you. In some situations, you may be using a directional microphone that only
amplifies your voice signal if you speak directly into it.
If your audience includes English learners, remember that speaking louder (i.e., shouting) does not help
them to understand you any better than speaking in a normal tone. Your word choices will make a much
more significant impact when communicating across cultures; strive to use direct sentences and avoid
figures of speech that do not translate literally.
Pitch refers to the frequency, high or low, of your voice. A pleasant, natural voice will have some variation
in pitch. A speaker with a flat pitch, or a monotone (one-tone) voice, is often interpreted as being bored
and often bores his or her listeners.
If you are leaving a voice mail, state all the relevant information in concise, clear terms, making sure to
speak slowly; don’t forget to include your contact information, even if you think the person already knows
your phone number. Imagine you were writing down your phone number as you recite it and you will be
better able to record it at a “listener-friendly” speed. Don’t leave a long, rambling voice mail message. You
may later wish you had said less, and the more content you provide the more you increase the possibility
for misunderstandings without your being present for clarification.
Audio-Visual Interactions
Rather than call each other, we often call and interact in both audio and visual ways via the Internet.
There are several ways to interface via audio and video, and new technologies in this area are being
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invented all the time. For example, VoIP software allows the participants to see and hear each other
across time and distance with one-on-one calls and video conferencing. The audio portion of the call
comes through a headset, and the callers see each other on their computer monitors, as if they were being
broadcast on television. This form of audio-visual communication is quickly becoming a low- or no-cost
business tool for interaction.
If you are going to interact via audio and visual signals, make sure you are prepared. Appropriate dress,
setting, and attitude are all required. The integration of a visual signal to the traditional phone call means
that nonverbal gestures can now be observed in real time and can both aid and detract from the message.
If you are unfamiliar with the technology, practice with it before your actual business interaction. Try out
the features with a friend and know where to find and access the information. If the call doesn’t go as
planned, or the signal isn’t what you expected or experienced in the past, keep a good attitude and try
again.
Social Media
Online communities, forums, blogs, tweets, cloud computing, and avatar-activated environments are
some of the continually developing means of social media being harnessed by the business world. The
Internet is increasingly promoting tools and platforms for people to interact. From bulletin boards that
resemble the FreeNet posts of years past, to interactive environments like Second Life, people are
increasingly representing and interpreting themselves online.
Humans seek interaction, and this has led to new ways to market, advertise, and interact; however,
caution is warranted when engaging in social media online. When you use these media, remember a few
simple cautions:
1. Not everything is as it appears. The individuals on the forum may not all be who they represent
themselves to be.
2. The words you write and the images you send, regardless of how much you trust the recipient, may
become public and can remain online forever.
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3. Always consider what you access and what you post and how it represents you and your employer,
even if you think others cannot know where you work or who you are.
4. Be aware that Internet service providers (ISPs) are required by law to archive information
concerning the use and traffic of information that can become available under subpoena.
Forums are often theme-based websites that gather a community of individuals dedicated to a common
interest. From owner-enthusiast websites that celebrate the new Mini Cooper, where owners discuss
modifications and sell parts to each other, to forums that emphasize a viewpoint, such as the Life After the
Oil Crash (LATOC) discussion board, affectionately called doomers, people come together to compare
notes around areas of interest.
Professional networking sites such as LinkedIn allow people to link to, and interact with, others who
work in their industry or related ones. More general social media sites include MySpace and Facebook,
which also present threaded discussions and dynamic interfaces with groups that may or may not be
limited to those that user intends. Interactive writing platforms such as blogs, wikis, and cloud computing
involve having common documents stored on the Internet, which can be accessed from multiple sites at
once, further facilitating the interaction. Blogs are Web pages with periodic posts that may or may not
feature feedback responses from readers. Wikis are collaborations on web content that are created and
edited by users. Cloud computing involves secure access of files from anywhere as information is stored
remotely. Somewhere between a social networking site, where people gather virtually to interact, and
a computer game lies the genre of avatar-activated virtual worlds such as Second Life. In these
environments, users can meet others and make friends, participate in activities, and create and trade
virtual property and services.
Business and industry organizations may also incorporate posts and threaded discussions but often under
a password-protected design on a company’s intranet or other limited-access platform. Employees may
use their business-provided computer equipment to access sites that are not business related (if not
specifically blocked), but all information associated with each business’s computer is subject to
inspection, archival, and supervision.
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Every computer is assigned an Internet protocol or IP address. The IP address can be specifically traced
back to the original user, or at least to the computer itself and to who is responsible for its use. From an e-
mail via one of the free sites (e.g., Juno, Google’s Gmail, or Yahoo! Mail) to cloud computing and wikis,
your movements across the web leave clear “footprints.”
Whether you maintain a personal web page or a blog or engage with peers and colleagues via Twitter, take
care when considering what personal information to make public. Privacy is an increasing issue online
and your safety is a priority. Always represent yourself and your organization with professionalism,
knowing that what you search for and how you use your business computer can and often is subject to
inspection.
K E Y T A K E A W A Y S
• Meetings require planning, appropriate conduction of the meeting, choice of appropriate technology, and
understanding of organizational communication to enhance their success.
• Forming groups fulfills many human needs, such as the need for affiliation, affection, and control;
individuals also need to cooperate in groups to fulfill basic survival needs.
• Primary groups are those groups that meet all or most of our needs. Secondary groups are those that
meet some but not all of our needs.
• A group includes at least three people. Groups and their individual members come together and grow
apart in predictable patterns. This is called the group development stages, which include forming,
storming, norming, performing, and adjourning. Groups have norms, which can change over time.
• Each group member has a life cycle that defines their role as they enter and exit the group.
• There are a number of negative and positive roles that group members can play within a group.
E X E R C I S E S
1. Take notes in one of your classes as if they were the official minutes of a meeting. Does the class
“meeting” have a purpose? What preparations were made and what technology was used? Is there a
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follow-up or a plan for the next class meeting? Compare your notes with another student to see if you
understood all the information conveyed in the class.
2. Collaborate with one or more classmates and contribute to a computing cloud or a wiki. What was the
activity like? Did you learn new information that you would not have learned by studying individually?
3. Make an audio recording of your voice and listen to it. Are there aspects of your voice quality,
pronunciation, or delivery style that you would like to improve? Practice daily and make more recordings
until you notice improvement.
Next
[1] Guffey, M. (2007). Essentials of business communication (7th ed.). Mason, OH: Thomson/Wadsworth.
7.4 Chapter Summary and Case
C H A P T E R S U M M A R Y
• Part of our ability to be successful at work depends on our ability to work in groups.
• A primary group is one that meets most, if not all, of your needs.
• Secondary groups may meet some, but not all, of your needs. Secondary groups are normally those
found in the workplace, while our family and friends might be considered a primary group.
• A group consists of at least three people.
• Group lifecycle patterns refer to the process or stages of group development.
• There are five stages to the group development process, which include forming, norming, storming,
performing, and adjourning.
• Within each of the stages, group members have a variety of roles, which include potential member,
new member, full member, divergent member, marginal member, and an ex-member.
• You can take on a variety of roles when working with a group. These roles can be positive or negative
and rely on your emotional intelligence skills to make sure they are positive.
• Meetings require planning, choice of appropriate technology, and understanding of organizational
communication.
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• Groups have norms, which can change over time.
• There are a number of negative and positive roles that group members can play within a group to
enhance the success of the meeting. Meetings require planning, appropriate conduction of the
meeting, and choice of appropriate technology to enhance its success.
C H A P T E R C A SE
Assume you have been put in charge of a new task force to determine the cause of lost sales in the Western
region of your plastics manufacturing firm. As leader of the task force, it is your job to schedule and run
effective meetings. The outcome of the meetings will be a report that includes research and possible reasons
and solutions for the decline in sales. On your task force will be representatives from the marketing,
accounting, and manufacturing departments. Traditionally, your marketing team and manufacturing team
have conflicting goals, and you are concerned about this as an issue in the meeting. Because you only have
time to meet three times, you know the meetings need to be effective to complete the task at hand.
1. Write an agenda for your first meeting.
2. Discuss the phases of the group development process your team will likely go through.
3. As the team leader, you are concerned about personality conflicts that may occur during the storming
phase. What are some strategies you can use to reduce or eliminate any issues?
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Chapter 8 Make Good Decisions
Significant portions of this chapter were adapted from Talya Bauer and Berrin Erdogan’s Organizational
Behavior textbook with permission of the authors. [1]
A peacefulness follows any decision, even the wrong one.
- Rita Mae Brown
The hardest thing to learn in life is which bridge to cross and which to burn.
- David Russell
Too Many Choices
Andi graduated from Spokane Community College two weeks ago with her degree in Business
Management. She is anxious to put her knowledge to good use at a job she enjoys.
Andi has an idea of her perfect job and begins work to apply to those organizations that meet her criteria.
Using social media and traditional approaches to job searching, Andi gets three interviews at well-known
companies in the Spokane area.
After what seems like a week interviewing, Andi receives two job offers! She is thrilled but isn't sure which
one to choose. One of the offers is for a higher salary than she expected but requires one week of travel per
month. The other job is a lower salary and position, but the possibilities to grow with the company seem
better. Andi isn't sure which job to choose.
Big decisions, such as career choices, take a lot of planning and thought to make sure we make the right
decision for our needs. This chapter will discuss the ways we can learn to make good personal decisions
but also good decisions for the organizations we work for.
Next
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8.1 Understanding Decision Making
L E A R N I N G O B JE C T I V E S
1. Define decision making and describe how you can make better decisions.
2. Understand the different types of decisions you may make in your career and personal life.
Decision making refers to making choices among alternative courses of action—which may also
include inaction. This chapter will help you understand how to make decisions alone or in a group
while avoiding common decision-making pitfalls. As you know, the key to positive human relations
in these situations is communication and application of emotional intelligence skills such as self-
awareness when making decisions alone. Emotional intelligence is required in the form of
relationship management when making decisions in groups.
Individuals throughout organizations use the information they gather to make a wide range of
decisions. These decisions may affect the lives of others and change the course of an organization.
For example, the decisions made by executives and consulting firms for Enron ultimately resulted in
a $60 billion loss for investors, thousands of employees without jobs, and the loss of all employee
retirement funds. But Sherron Watkins, a former Enron employee and now-famous whistleblower,
uncovered the accounting problems and tried to enact change. Similarly, the decision made by firms
to trade in mortgage-backed securities is having negative consequences for the entire economy in the
United States. All parties involved in such outcomes made a decision, and everyone is now living
with the consequences of those decisions.
Types of Decisions
Despite the far-reaching nature of the decisions in the previous example, not all decisions have major
consequences or even require a lot of thought. For example, before you come to class, you make
simple and habitual decisions such as what to wear, what to eat, and which route to take as you go to
and from home and school. You probably do not spend much time on these mundane decisions.
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These types of straightforward decisions are termed programmed decisions, or decisions that
occur frequently enough that we develop an automated response to them. The automated response
we use to make these decisions is called the decision rule. For example, many restaurants face
customer complaints as a routine part of doing business. Because complaints are a recurring
problem, responding to them may become a programmed decision. The restaurant might enact a
policy stating that every time they receive a valid customer complaint, the customer should receive a
free dessert, which represents a decision rule.
On the other hand, unique and important decisions require conscious thinking, information
gathering, and careful consideration of alternatives. These are called nonprogrammed decisions.
For example, in 2005 McDonald’s Corporation became aware of the need to respond to growing
customer concerns regarding the unhealthy aspects (high in fat and calories) of the food they sell.
This is a nonprogrammed decision, because for several decades, customers of fast-food restaurants
were more concerned with the taste and price of the food rather than its healthiness. In response to
this problem, McDonald’s decided to offer healthier alternatives such as the choice to substitute
French fries in Happy Meals with apple slices, and in 2007 they banned the use of trans fat at their
restaurants.
Figure 8.2
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In order to ensure consistency around the globe such as at this St. Petersburg, Russia, location, McDonald’s
Corporation trains all restaurant managers at Hamburger University, where they take the equivalent of two
years of college courses and learn how to make decisions on the job. The curriculum is taught in twenty-eight
languages.
Source:http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a2/McDonalds_in_St_Petersburg_2004.JPG.
A crisis situation also constitutes a nonprogrammed decision for companies. For example, the leadership
of Nutrorim was facing a tough decision. They had recently introduced a new product, ChargeUp with
Lipitrene, an improved version of their popular sports drink powder, ChargeUp. At some point, a phone
call came from a state health department to inform them of eleven cases of gastrointestinal distress that
might be related to their product, which led to a decision to recall ChargeUp. The decision was made
without an investigation of the information. While this decision was conservative, it was made without a
process that weighed the information. Two weeks later it became clear that the reported health problems
were unrelated to Nutrorim’s product. In fact, all the cases were traced back to a contaminated health club
juice bar. However, the damage to the brand and to the balance sheets was already done. This unfortunate
decision caused Nutrorim to rethink the way decisions were made when under pressure. The company
now gathers information to make informed choices even when time is of the essence. [1]
Decisions can be classified into three categories based on the level at which they occur.
Strategic decisions set the course of an organization. Tactical decisions are decisions about how
things will get done. Finally, operational decisions refer to decisions that employees make each day to
make the organization run. For example, think about the restaurant that routinely offers a free dessert
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when a customer complaint is received. The owner of the restaurant made a strategic decision to have
great customer service. The manager of the restaurant implemented the free dessert policy as a way to
handle customer complaints, which is a tactical decision. Finally, the servers at the restaurant are making
individual decisions each day by evaluating whether each customer complaint received is legitimate and
warrants a free dessert.
Figure 8.3 Examples of Decisions Commonly Made within Organizations
In this chapter we are going to discuss different decision-making models designed to understand and
evaluate the effectiveness of nonprogrammed decisions. We will cover four decision-making approaches,
starting with the rational decision-making model, moving to the bounded rationality decision-making
model, the intuitive decision-making model, and ending with the creative decision-making model. The
importance of making good decisions relates to our ability to manage our emotional intelligence to make
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sure we make the right decisions. These models will help us make better decisions, which results in better
human relations.
Making Rational Decisions
The rational decision-making model describes a series of steps that decision makers should consider
if their goal is to maximize the quality of their outcomes. In other words, if you want to make sure that you
make the best choice, going through the formal steps of the rational decision-making model may make
sense.
Let’s imagine that your old, clunky car has broken down, and you have enough money saved for a
substantial down payment on a new car. It will be the first major purchase of your life, and you want to
make the right choice. The first step, therefore, has already been completed—we know that you want to
buy a new car. Next, in step 2, you’ll need to decide which factors are important to you. How many
passengers do you want to accommodate? How important is fuel economy to you? Is safety a major
concern? You only have a certain amount of money saved, and you don’t want to take on too much debt,
so price range is an important factor as well. If you know you want to have room for at least five adults, get
at least twenty miles per gallon, drive a car with a strong safety rating, not spend more than $22,000 on
the purchase, and like how it looks, you have identified the decision criteria. All the potential options
for purchasing your car will be evaluated against these criteria. Before we can move too much further, you
need to decide how important each factor is to your decision in step 3. If each is equally important, then
there is no need to weigh them, but if you know that price and mpg are key factors, you might weigh them
heavily and keep the other criteria with medium importance. Step 4 requires you to generate all
alternatives about your options. Then, in step 5, you need to use this information to evaluate each
alternative against the criteria you have established. You choose the best alternative (step 6), and then you
would go out and buy your new car (step 7).
Of course, the outcome of this decision will influence the next decision made. That is where step 8 comes
in. For example, if you purchase a car and have nothing but problems with it, you will be less likely to
consider the same make and model when purchasing a car the next time.
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Figure 8.4 Steps in the Rational Decision-Making Model
While decision makers can get off track during any of these steps, research shows that searching for
alternatives in the fourth step can be the most challenging and often leads to failure. In fact, one
researcher found that no alternative generation occurred in 85 percent of the decisions he
studied. [2] Conversely, successful managers know what they want at the outset of the decision-making
process, set objectives for others to respond to, carry out an unrestricted search for solutions, get key
people to participate, and avoid using their power to push their perspective. [3]
The rational decision-making model has important lessons for decision makers. First, when making a
decision, you may want to make sure that you establish your decision criteria before you search for
alternatives. This would prevent you from liking one option too much and setting your criteria
accordingly. For example, let’s say you started browsing cars online before you generated your decision
criteria. You may come across a car that you feel reflects your sense of style and you develop an emotional
bond with the car. Then, because of your love for the particular car, you may say to yourself that the fuel
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economy of the car and the innovative braking system are the most important criteria. After purchasing it,
you may realize that the car is too small for your friends to ride in the back seat, which was something you
should have thought about. Setting criteria before you search for alternatives may prevent you from
making such mistakes. Another advantage of the rational model is that it urges decision makers to
generate all alternatives instead of only a few. By generating a large number of alternatives that cover a
wide range of possibilities, you are unlikely to make a more effective decision that does not require
sacrificing one criterion for the sake of another.
Despite all its benefits, you may have noticed that this decision-making model involves a number of
unrealistic assumptions as well. It assumes that people completely understand the decision to be made,
that they know all their available choices, that they have no perceptual biases, and that they want to make
optimal decisions. Nobel Prize–winning economist Herbert Simon observed that while the rational
decision-making model may be a helpful device in aiding decision makers when working through
problems, it doesn’t represent how decisions are frequently made within organizations. In fact, Simon
argued that it didn’t even come close.
Think about how you make important decisions in your life. It is likely that you rarely sit down and
complete all eight of the steps in the rational decision-making model. For example, this model proposed
that we should search for all possible alternatives before making a decision, but that process is time
consuming, and individuals are often under time pressure to make decisions. Moreover, even if we had
access to all the information that was available, it could be challenging to compare the pros and cons of
each alternative and rank them according to our preferences. Anyone who has recently purchased a new
laptop computer or cell phone can attest to the challenge of sorting through the different strengths and
limitations of each brand and model and arriving at the solution that best meets particular needs. In fact,
the availability of too much information can lead to analysis paralysis, in which more and more time is
spent on gathering information and thinking about it, but no decisions actually get made. A senior
executive at Hewlett-Packard Development Company LP admits that his company suffered from this
spiral of analyzing things for too long to the point where data gathering led to “not making decisions,
instead of us making decisions.” [4] Moreover, you may not always be interested in reaching an optimal
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decision. For example, if you are looking to purchase a house, you may be willing and able to invest a great
deal of time and energy to find your dream house, but if you are only looking for an apartment to rent for
the academic year, you may be willing to take the first one that meets your criteria of being clean, close to
campus, and within your price range.
Making “Good Enough” Decisions
The bounded rationality model of decision making recognizes the limitations of our decision-making
processes. According to this model, individuals knowingly limit their options to a manageable set and
choose the first acceptable alternative without conducting an exhaustive search for alternatives. An
important part of the bounded rationality approach is the tendency to satisfice (a term coined by
Herbert Simon from satisfy and suffice), which refers to accepting the first alternative that meets your
minimum criteria. For example, many college graduates do not conduct a national or international search
for potential job openings. Instead, they focus their search on a limited geographic area, and they tend to
accept the first offer in their chosen area, even if it may not be the ideal job situation. Satisficing is similar
to rational decision making. The main difference is that rather than choosing the best option and
maximizing the potential outcome, the decision maker saves cognitive time and effort by accepting the
first alternative that meets the minimum threshold.
Making Intuitive Decisions
The intuitive decision-making model has emerged as an alternative to other decision making
processes. This model refers to arriving at decisions without conscious reasoning. A total of 89 percent of
managers surveyed admitted to using intuition to make decisions at least sometimes and 59 percent said
they used intuition often. [5] Managers make decisions under challenging circumstances, including time
pressures, constraints, a great deal of uncertainty, changing conditions, and highly visible and high-stakes
outcomes. Thus, it makes sense that they would not have the time to use the rational decision-making
model. Yet when CEOs, financial analysts, and health care workers are asked about the critical decisions
they make, seldom do they attribute success to luck. To an outside observer, it may seem like they are
making guesses as to the course of action to take, but it turns out that experts systematically make
decisions using a different model than was earlier suspected. Research on life-or-death decisions made by
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fire chiefs, pilots, and nurses finds that experts do not choose among a list of well thought out alternatives.
They don’t decide between two or three options and choose the best one. Instead, they consider only one
option at a time. The intuitive decision-making model argues that in a given situation, experts making
decisions scan the environment for cues to recognize patterns. [6] Once a pattern is recognized, they can
play a potential course of action through to its outcome based on their prior experience. Thanks to
training, experience, and knowledge, these decision makers have an idea of how well a given solution may
work. If they run through the mental model and find that the solution will not work, they alter the
solution before setting it into action. If it still is not deemed a workable solution, it is discarded as an
option, and a new idea is tested until a workable solution is found. Once a viable course of action is
identified, the decision maker puts the solution into motion. The key point is that only one choice is
considered at a time. Novices are not able to make effective decisions this way, because they do not have
enough prior experience to draw upon.
Making Creative Decisions
In addition to the rational decision making, bounded rationality, and intuitive decision-making models,
creative decision making is a vital part of being an effective decision maker. Creativity is the generation
of new, imaginative ideas. With the flattening of organizations and intense competition among
companies, individuals and organizations are driven to be creative in decisions ranging from cutting costs
to generating new ways of doing business. Please note that, while creativity is the first step in the
innovation process, creativity and innovation are not the same thing. Innovation begins with creative
ideas, but it also involves realistic planning and follow-through. Innovations such as 3M’s Clearview
Window Tinting grow out of a creative decision-making process about what may or may not work to solve
real-world problems.
The five steps to creative decision making are similar to the previous decision-making models in some
keys ways. All the models include problem identification, which is the step in which the need for problem
solving becomes apparent. If you do not recognize that you have a problem, it is impossible to solve it.
Immersion is the step in which the decision maker consciously thinks about the problem and gathers
information. A key to success in creative decision making is having or acquiring expertise in the area
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being studied. Then, incubation occurs. During incubation, the individual sets the problem aside and does
not think about it for a while. At this time, the brain is actually working on the problem unconsciously.
Then comes illumination, or the insight moment when the solution to the problem becomes apparent to
the person, sometimes when it is least expected. This sudden insight is the “eureka” moment, similar to
what happened to the ancient Greek inventor Archimedes, who found a solution to the problem he was
working on while taking a bath. Finally, the verification and application stage happens when the decision
maker consciously verifies the feasibility of the solution and implements the decision.
Figure 8.5 The Creative Decision-Making Process
A NASA scientist describes his decision-making process leading to a creative outcome as follows: He had
been trying to figure out a better way to de-ice planes to make the process faster and safer. After
recognizing the problem, he immersed himself in the literature to understand all the options, and he
worked on the problem for months trying to figure out a solution. It was not until he was sitting outside a
McDonald’s restaurant with his grandchildren that it dawned on him. The golden arches of the M of the
McDonald’s logo inspired his solution—he would design the de-icer as a series of Ms. [7] This represented
the illumination stage. After he tested and verified his creative solution, he was done with that problem,
except to reflect on the outcome and process.
How Do You Know If Your Decision-Making Process Is Creative?
Researchers focus on three factors to evaluate the level of creativity in the decision-making
process. Fluency refers to the number of ideas a person is able to generate. Flexibility refers to how
different the ideas are from one another. If you are able to generate several distinct solutions to a
problem, your decision-making process is high on flexibility. Originality refers to how unique a person’s
ideas are. You might say that Reed Hastings, founder and CEO of Netflix Inc., is a pretty creative person.
His decision-making process shows at least two elements of creativity. We do not know exactly how many
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ideas he had over the course of his career, but his ideas are fairly different from each other. After teaching
math in Africa with the Peace Corps, Hastings was accepted at Stanford, where he earned a master’s
degree in computer science. Soon after starting work at a software company, he invented a successful
debugging tool, which led to his founding of the computer troubleshooting company Pure Software LLC in
1991. After a merger and the subsequent sale of the resulting company in 1997, Hastings founded Netflix,
which revolutionized the DVD rental business with online rentals delivered through the mail with no late
fees. In 2007, Hastings was elected to Microsoft’s board of directors. As you can see, his ideas are high in
originality and flexibility. [8]
Figure 8.6 Dimensions of Creativity
Some experts have proposed that creativity occurs as an interaction among three factors: people’s
personality traits (openness to experience, risk taking), their attributes (expertise, imagination,
motivation), and the situational context (encouragement from others, time pressure, physical
structures). [9] For example, research shows that individuals who are open to experience, less
conscientious, more self-accepting, and more impulsive tend to be more creative. [10]
Ideas for Enhancing Creativity in Groups
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• Team Composition
o Diversify your team to give them more inputs to build on and more opportunities to create
functional conflict while avoiding personal conflict.
o Change group membership to stimulate new ideas and new interaction patterns.
o Leaderless teams can allow teams freedom to create without trying to please anyone up front.
• Team Process
o Engage in brainstorming to generate ideas. Remember to set a high goal for the number of
ideas the group should come up with, encourage wild ideas, and take brainwriting breaks.
o Use the nominal group technique (see Tools and Techniques for Making Better
Decisions below) in person or electronically to avoid some common group process pitfalls.
Consider anonymous feedback as well.
o Use analogies to envision problems and solutions.
• Leadership
o Challenge teams so that they are engaged but not overwhelmed.
o Let people decide how to achieve goals rather than telling them what goals to achieve.
o Support and celebrate creativity even when it leads to a mistake. Be sure to set up processes
to learn from mistakes as well.
o Role model creative behavior.
• Culture
o Institute organizational memory so that individuals do not spend time on routine tasks.
o Build a physical space conducive to creativity that is playful and humorous—this is a place
where ideas can thrive.
o Incorporate creative behavior into the performance appraisal process.
Sources: Adapted from ideas in Amabile, T. M. (1998). How to kill creativity.Harvard Business
Review, 76, 76–87; Gundry, L. K., Kickul, J. R., & Prather, C. W. (1994). Building the creative
organization. Organizational Dynamics,22, 22–37; Keith, N., & Frese, M. (2008). Effectiveness of error
management training: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93, 59–69. Pearsall, M. J., Ellis,
A. P. J., & Evans, J. M. (2008). Unlocking the effects of gender faultlines on team creativity: Is activation
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the key? Journal of Applied Psychology, 93, 225–34. Thompson, L. (2003). Improving the creativity of
organizational work groups. Academy of Management Executive, 17, 96–109.
There are many techniques available that enhance and improve creativity. Linus Pauling, the Nobel
Prize winner who popularized the idea that vitamin C could help strengthen the immune system,
said, “The best way to have a good idea is to have a lot of ideas.” [11] One popular method of
generating ideas is to use brainstorming. Brainstorming is a group process of generating ideas that
follow a set of guidelines, including no criticism of ideas during the brainstorming process, the idea
that no suggestion is too crazy, and building on other ideas (piggybacking). Research shows that the
quantity of ideas actually leads to better idea quality in the end, so setting high idea quotas, in
which the group must reach a set number of ideas before they are done, is recommended to avoid
process loss and maximize the effectiveness of brainstorming. Another unique aspect of
brainstorming is that since the variety of backgrounds and approaches give the group more to draw
upon, the more people are included in the process, the better the decision outcome will be. A
variation of brainstorming is wildstorming, in which the group focuses on ideas that are impossible
and then imagines what would need to happen to make them possible. [12]
One example of a creative decision making model is the Edward Debono model. The Edward
Debono's model of the Six Thinking Hats provides us with a different way of thinking about the
way we make decisions. The six hats provide us with perspectives from six different perspectives.
Similar to the rational decision making model discussed earlier, this model uses hats to represent the
steps we need to follow in order to make good decisions. For example, the white hat helps us look at
the facts of the situation. The red hat helps us look at the emotional aspect of the problem or
solution. The black hat helps us to look at the negatives of the solution, while the yellow hat helps us
think about the positives of the solution. The green hat allows us to come up with potential solutions
or courses of action, while the blue hat helps us manage the process of making the decision. For
example, consider the opening scenario where Andi is considering which job to accept. If she were
using the six hats model, first she would look at the facts—that is, the aspects of each job offer (white
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hat). Then, she would look at how she feel (red hat) about each job. Next, she would look at the
downsides of each job (black hat). Then, she would look at the positives of each job (yellow hat).
Next, she would use the green hat to look at the job offers from a creative way and look at potential of
choosing one job over another. Finally, the blue hat would cause Andi to make sure she used all hats
to make a decision and, based on the data, would go ahead and make the best choice.
Figure 8.7
Which decision-making model should I use?
Why Human Relations? Sometimes when we are faced with making a hard decision, we can be overly emotional and therefore
make the wrong one. By developing self-awareness skills (I am feeling xx way) and then
managing our emotions once we recognize them, we can learn to make healthy, wise
decisions. As you read about the Debono decision-making model, this model specifically asks that you
look at your own emotions and the emotions of others. This is part of self-awareness and social awareness
in emotional intelligence. Without these skills, it can be difficult to make good decisions.
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The ability to make good decisions can help us become happier people, thus better at
human relations. When we understand how we feel about a certain decision we have to make, we can
look realistically at all possible solutions from a cognitive level, which allows us to also make better
decisions. These emotional intelligence skills, specifically self-awareness and self-management, can help
us make thoughtful, sound decisions that improve our productivity, happiness, and satisfaction. All these
skills are important ingredients to positive human relations at work and in our personal lives.
K E Y T A K E A W A Y S
• Decision making is choosing among alternative courses of action, including inaction.
• There are different types of decisions ranging from automatic, programmed decisions to more intensive
nonprogrammed decisions.
• Structured decision-making processes include rational, bounded rationality, intuitive, and creative
decision making.
• Each of these can be useful, depending on the circumstances and the problem that needs to be solved.
E X E R C I S E S
1. What do you see as the main difference between a successful and an unsuccessful decision? How much
does luck versus skill have to do with it? How much time needs to pass to know if a decision is successful
or not?
2. Research has shown that over half of the decisions made within organizations fail. Does this surprise you?
Why or why not?
3. Have you used the rational decision-making model to make a decision? What was the context? How well
did the model work?
4. Share an example of a decision in which you used satisficing. Were you happy with the outcome? Why or
why not? When would you be most likely to engage in satisficing?
5. Do you think intuition is respected as a decision-making style? Do you think it should be? Why or why not?
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Next
[1] Garvin, D. A. (2006, January). All the wrong moves. Harvard Business Review, 84, 18–23.
[2] Nutt, P. C. (1994). Types of organizational decision processes. Administrative Science Quarterly, 29, 414–550.
[3] Nutt, P. C. (1998). Surprising but true: Half the decisions in organizations fail. Academy of Management
Executive, 13, 75–90.
[4] Zell, D. M., Glassman, A. M., & Duron, S. A. (2007). Strategic management in turbulent times: The short and
glorious history of accelerated decision making at Hewlett-Packard. Organizational Dynamics, 36, 93–104.
[5] Burke, L. A., & Miller, M. K. (1999). Taking the mystery out of intuitive decision making. Academy of
Management Executive, 13, 91–98.
[6] Breen, B. (2000, August). What’s your intuition? Fast Company, 290; Klein, G. (2003).Intuition at work. New
York: Doubleday; Salas, E., & Klein, G. (2001). Linking expertise and naturalistic decision making. Mahwah, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
[7] Interview conducted by author Talya Bauer at Ames Research Center, Mountain View, CA, 1990.
[8] Conlin, M. (2007, September 14). Netflix: Recruiting and retaining the best talent. Business Week Online.
Retrieved March 1, 2008, fromhttp://www.businessweek.com/stories/2007-09-13/netflix-recruiting-and-retaining-
the-best-talentbusinessweek -business-news-stock-market-and-financial-advice.
[9] Amabile, T. M. (1988). A model of creativity and innovation in organizations. In B. M. Staw & L. L. Cummings
(Eds.), Research in organizational behavior, (vol. 10, pp. 123–67). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press; Amabile, T. M., Conti,
R., Coon, H., Lazenby, J., & Herron, M. (1996). Assessing the work environment for creativity. Academy of
Management Journal, 39, 1154–84; Ford, C. M., & Gioia, D. A. (2000). Factors influencing creativity in the domain
of managerial decision making. Journal of Management, 26, 705–32; Tierney, P., Farmer, S. M., & Graen, G. B.
(1999). An examination of leadership and employee creativity: The relevance of traits and relationships. Personnel
Psychology, 52, 591–620; Woodman, R. W., Sawyer, J. E., & Griffin, R. W. (1993). Toward a theory of organizational
creativity. Academy of Management Review, 18, 293–321.
[10] Feist, G. J. (1998). A meta-analysis of personality in scientific and artistic creativity.Personality and Social
Psychology Review, 2, 290–309.
[11] Quote retrieved May 1, 2008, from http://www.whatquote.com/quotes/linus-pauling/250801-the-best-way-
to-have.htm.
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[12] Scott, G., Leritz, L. E., & Mumford, M. D. (2004). The effectiveness of creativity training: A quantitative
review. Creativity Research Journal, 16, 361–88.
8.2 Faulty Decision Making
L E A R N I N G O B JE C T I V E S
1. Understand overconfidence bias and how to avoid it.
2. Understand hindsight, anchoring, and framing bias and how to avoid them.
3. Understand escalation of commitment and how to avoid it.
Avoiding Decision-Making Traps
No matter which model you use, it is important to know and avoid the decision-making traps that exist.
Daniel Kahnemann (another Nobel Prize winner) and Amos Tversky spent decades studying how people
make decisions. They found that individuals are influenced by overconfidence bias, hindsight bias,
anchoring bias, framing bias, and escalation of commitment. An awareness of some of the pitfalls of
decision making enhances our ability to make good decisions. When we make good decisions, we are
happier, which makes for more positive human relations skills.
Overconfidence bias occurs when individuals overestimate their ability to predict future events.
Many people exhibit signs of overconfidence. For example, 82 percent of the drivers surveyed feel
they are in the top 30 percent of safe drivers, 86 percent of students at the Harvard Business School
say they are better looking than their peers, and doctors consistently overestimate their ability to
detect problems. [1] Much like friends that are 100 percent sure they can pick the winners of this
week’s football games despite evidence to the contrary, these individuals are suffering from
overconfidence bias. Similarly, in 2008, the French bank Société Générale lost over $7 billion as a
result of the rogue actions of a single trader. Jérôme Kerviel, a junior trader in the bank, had
extensive knowledge of the bank’s control mechanisms and used this knowledge to beat the system.
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Interestingly, he did not make any money from these transactions himself, and his sole motive was to
be successful. He secretly started making risky moves while hiding the evidence. He made a lot of
profit for the company early on and became overly confident in his abilities to make even more. In
his defense, he was merely able to say that he got “carried away.” [2] People who purchase lottery
tickets as a way to make money are probably suffering from overconfidence bias. It is three times
more likely for a person driving ten miles to buy a lottery ticket to be killed in a car accident than to
win the jackpot. [3]Further, research shows that overconfidence leads to less successful
negotiations. [4] To avoid this bias, take the time to stop and ask yourself if you are being realistic in
your judgments.
Hindsight bias is the opposite of overconfidence bias, as it occurs when looking backward in time
and mistakes seem obvious after they have already occurred. In other words, after a surprising event
occurred, many individuals are likely to think that they already knew the event was going to happen.
This bias may occur because they are selectively reconstructing the events. Hindsight bias tends to
become a problem when judging someone else’s decisions. For example, let’s say a company driver
hears the engine making unusual sounds before starting the morning routine. Being familiar with
this car in particular, the driver may conclude that the probability of a serious problem is small and
continues to drive the car. During the day, the car malfunctions and stops miles away from the office.
It would be easy to criticize the decision to continue to drive the car because in hindsight, the noises
heard in the morning would make us believe that the driver should have known something was
wrong and taken the car in for service. However, the driver in question may have heard similar
sounds before with no consequences, so based on the information available at the time, continuing
with the regular routine may have been a reasonable choice. Therefore, it is important for decision
makers to remember this bias before passing judgments on other people’s actions.
Anchoring refers to the tendency for individuals to rely too heavily on a single piece of information.
Job seekers often fall into this trap by focusing on a desired salary while ignoring other aspects of the
job offer such as additional benefits, fit with the job, and working environment. Similarly but more
dramatically, lives were lost in the Great Bear Wilderness Disaster when the coroner, within five
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minutes of arriving at the accident scene, declared all five passengers of a small plane dead, which
halted the search effort for potential survivors. The next day two survivors who had been declared
dead walked out of the forest. How could a mistake like this have been made? One theory is that
decision biases played a large role in this serious error, and anchoring on the fact that the plane had
been consumed by flames led the coroner to call off the search for any possible survivors. [5]
Framing bias is another concern for decision makers. Framing bias refers to the tendency of
decision makers to be influenced by the way that a situation or problem is presented. For example,
when making a purchase, customers find it easier to let go of a discount as opposed to accepting a
surcharge, even though they both might cost the person the same amount of money. Similarly,
customers tend to prefer a statement such as “85 percent lean beef” as opposed to “15 percent
fat.” [6] It is important to be aware of this tendency, because depending on how a problem is
presented to us, we might choose an alternative that is disadvantageous simply because of the way it
is framed.
Escalation of commitment occurs when individuals continue on a failing course of action after
information reveals it may be a poor path to follow. It is sometimes called the “sunken costs fallacy,”
because continuation is often based on the idea that one has already invested in the course of action.
For example, imagine a person who purchases a used car, which turns out to need something
repaired every few weeks. An effective way of dealing with this situation might be to sell the car
without incurring further losses, donate the car, or use it until it falls apart. However, many people
would spend hours of their time and hundreds, even thousands of dollars repairing the car in the
hopes that they might recover their initial investment. Thus, rather than cutting their losses, they
waste time and energy while trying to justify their purchase of the car.
A classic example of escalation of commitment from the corporate world is Motorola Inc.’s Iridium
project. In the 1980s, phone coverage around the world was weak. For example, it could take hours of
dealing with a chain of telephone operators in several different countries to get a call through from
Cleveland to Calcutta. There was a real need within the business community to improve phone access
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around the world. Motorola envisioned solving this problem using sixty-six low-orbiting satellites,
enabling users to place a direct call to any location around the world. At the time of idea development, the
project was technologically advanced, sophisticated, and made financial sense. Motorola spun off Iridium
as a separate company in 1991. It took researchers a total of fifteen years to develop the product from idea
to market release. However, in the 1990s, the landscape for cell phone technology was dramatically
different from that in the 1980s, and the widespread cell phone coverage around the world eliminated
most of the projected customer base for Iridium. Had they been paying attention to these developments,
the decision makers could have abandoned the project at some point in the early 1990s. Instead, they
released the Iridium phone to the market in 1998. The phone cost $3,000, and it was literally the size of a
brick. Moreover, it was not possible to use the phone in moving cars or inside buildings. Not surprisingly,
the launch was a failure, and Iridium filed for bankruptcy in 1999. [7] In the end, the company was
purchased for $25 million by a group of investors (whereas it cost the company $5 billion to develop its
product), scaled down its operations, and modified it for use by the Department of Defense to connect
soldiers in remote areas not served by land lines or cell phones.
Why does escalation of commitment occur? There may be many reasons, but two are particularly
important. First, decision makers may not want to admit that they were wrong. This may be because of
personal pride or being afraid of the consequences of such an admission. Second, decision makers may
incorrectly believe that spending more time and energy might somehow help them recover their losses.
Effective decision makers avoid escalation of commitment by distinguishing between when persistence
may actually pay off versus when it might mean escalation of commitment. To avoid escalation of
commitment, you might consider having strict turning back points. For example, you might determine up
front that you will not spend more than $500 trying to repair the car and will sell it when you reach that
point. You might also consider assigning separate decision makers for the initial buying and subsequent
selling decisions. Periodic evaluations of an initially sound decision to see whether the decision still makes
sense is also another way of preventing escalation of commitment. This type of review becomes
particularly important in projects such as the Iridium phone, in which the initial decision is not
immediately implemented but instead needs to go through a lengthy development process. In such cases,
it becomes important to periodically assess the soundness of the initial decision in the face of changing
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market conditions. Finally, creating an organizational climate in which individuals do not fear admitting
that their initial decision no longer makes economic sense would go a long way in preventing escalation of
commitment, as it could lower the regret the decision maker may experience. [8]
Figure 8.9
Motorola released the Iridium phone to the market in 1998. The phone cost $3,000 and it was literally the size
of a brick.
Source:http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/Iridium_phone.jpg.
So far we have focused on how individuals make decisions and how to avoid decision traps. Next we shift
our focus to the group level. There are many similarities as well as many differences between individual
and group decision making. There are many factors that influence group dynamics and also affect the
group decision-making process. We will discuss some of them in the following section.
K E Y T A K E A W A Y S
• Understanding decision-making traps can help you avoid and manage them.
• Overconfidence bias can cause you to ignore obvious information.
• Hindsight bias can similarly cause a person to incorrectly believe in the ability to predict events.
• Anchoring and framing biases show the importance of the way problems or alternatives are presented in
influencing one’s decision.
• Escalation of commitment demonstrates how individuals’ desire to be consistent or avoid admitting a
mistake can cause them to continue to invest in a decision that is no longer prudent.
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E X E R C I S E S
1. Describe a time when you fell into one of the decision-making traps. How did you come to realize that you
had made a poor decision?
2. How can you avoid escalation of commitment?
3. Share an example of anchoring.
4. Which of the traps seems the most dangerous for decision makers and why?
Next
[1] Tilson, W. (1999, September 20). The perils of investor overconfidence. Retrieved March 1, 2008,
from http://www.fool.com/BoringPort/1999/BoringPort990920.htm.
[2] The rogue rebuttal. (2008, February 9). Economist, 386, 82.
[3] Orkin, M. (1991). Can you win? The real odds for casino gambling, sports betting and lotteries. New York: W. H.
Freeman.
[4] Neale, M. A., & Bazerman, M. H. (1985). The effects of framing and negotiator overconfidence on bargaining
behaviors and outcomes. Academy of Management Journal,28, 34–49.
[5] Becker, W. S. (2007). Missed opportunities: The Great Bear Wilderness Disaster. Organizational Dynamics, 36,
363–76.
[6] Li, S., Sun, Y., & Wang, Y. (2007). 50% off or buy one get one free? Frame preference as a function of
consumable nature in dairy products. Journal of Social Psychology, 147, 413–21.
[7] Finkelstein, S., & Sanford, S. H. (2000, November). Learning from corporate mistakes: The rise and fall of
Iridium. Organizational Dynamics, 29(2), 138–48.
[8] Wong, K. F. E., & Kwong, J. Y. Y. (2007). The role of anticipated regret in escalation of commitment. Journal of
Applied Psychology, 92, 545–54.
8.3 Decision Making in Groups
L E A R N I N G O B JE C T I V E S
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1. Understand the pros and cons of individual and group decisions you will make in your career.
2. Learn to recognize the signs of groupthink and determine if it is happening to your workgroup.
3. Be able to recognize and use a variety of tools in your decision-making processes.
When It Comes to Decision Making, Are Two Heads Better Than One?
The answer to this question depends on several factors. Group decision making has the advantage of
drawing from the experiences and perspectives of a larger number of individuals. Hence, a group may
have the potential to be more creative and lead to more effective decisions. In fact, groups may sometimes
achieve results beyond what they could have done as individuals. Groups may also make the task more
enjoyable for the members. Finally, when the decision is made by a group rather than a single individual,
implementation of the decision will be easier, because group members will be more invested in the
decision. If the group is diverse, better decisions may be made, because different group members may
have different ideas based on their backgrounds and experiences. Research shows that for top
management teams, diverse groups that debate issues make decisions that are more comprehensive and
better for the bottom line. [1]
Despite its popularity within organizations, group decision making suffers from a number of
disadvantages. We know that groups rarely outperform their best member. [2] While groups have the
potential to arrive at an effective decision, they often suffer from process losses. For example, groups may
suffer from coordination problems. Anyone who has worked with a team of individuals on a project can
attest to the difficulty of coordinating members’ work or even coordinating everyone’s presence in a team
meeting. Furthermore, groups can suffer from groupthink. Finally, group decision making takes more
time compared to individual decision making, because all members need to discuss their thoughts
regarding different alternatives.
Thus, whether an individual or a group decision is preferable will depend on the specifics of the situation.
For example, if there is an emergency and a decision needs to be made quickly, individual decision
making might be preferred. Individual decision making may also be appropriate if the individual in
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question has all the information needed to make the decision and if implementation problems are not
expected. On the other hand, if one person does not have all the information and skills needed to make a
decision, if implementing the decision will be difficult without the involvement of those who will be
affected by the decision, and if time urgency is more modest, then decision making by a group may be
more effective.
Figure 8.10 Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Levels of Decision Making
Groupthink
Have you ever been in a decision-making group that you felt was heading in the wrong direction but
you didn’t speak up and say so? If so, you have already been a victim of groupthink. Groupthink is a
tendency to avoid a critical evaluation of ideas the group favors. Iriving Janis, author of a book called
Victims of Groupthink, explained that groupthink is characterized by eight symptoms: [4]
1. Illusion of invulnerability is shared by most or all of the group members, which creates
excessive optimism and encourages them to take extreme risks.
2. Collective rationalizations occur, in which members downplay negative information or
warnings that might cause them to reconsider their assumptions.
3. An unquestioned belief in the group’s inherent morality occurs, which may incline
members to ignore ethical or moral consequences of their actions.
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4. Stereotyped views of outgroups are seen when groups discount rivals’ abilities to make
effective responses.
5. Direct pressure is exerted on any members who express strong arguments against any of the
group’s stereotypes, illusions, or commitments.
6. Self-censorship occurs when members of the group minimize their own doubts and
counterarguments.
7. Illusions of unanimity occur, based on self-censorship and direct pressure on the group. The
lack of dissent is viewed as unanimity.
8. The emergence of self-appointed mindguards happens when one or more members protect
the group from information that runs counter to the group’s assumptions and course of action.
Figure 8.11
In January 1986, the space shuttle Challenger exploded seventy-three seconds after liftoff, killing all seven
astronauts aboard. The decision to launch Challenger that day, despite problems with mechanical components
of the vehicle and unfavorable weather conditions, is cited as an example of groupthink. [3]
Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Challenger_flight_51-l_crew.jpg.
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Recommendations for Avoiding Groupthink • Groups should do the following:
o Discuss the symptoms of groupthink and how to avoid them.
o Assign a rotating devil’s advocate to every meeting.
o Invite experts or qualified colleagues who are not part of the core decision-making group to
attend meetings and get reactions from outsiders on a regular basis and share these with the
group.
o Encourage a culture of difference where different ideas are valued.
o Debate the ethical implications of the decisions and potential solutions being considered.
• Individuals should do the following:
o Monitor personal behavior for signs of groupthink and modify behavior if needed.
o Check for self-censorship.
o Carefully avoid mindguard behaviors.
o Avoid putting pressure on other group members to conform.
o Remind members of the ground rules for avoiding groupthink if they get off track.
• Group leaders should do the following:
o Break the group into two subgroups from time to time.
o Have more than one group work on the same problem if time and resources allow it. This
makes sense for highly critical decisions.
o Remain impartial and refrain from stating preferences at the outset of decisions.
o Set a tone of encouraging critical evaluations throughout deliberations.
o Create an anonymous feedback channel through which all group members can contribute if
desired.
o
Sources: Adapted and expanded from Janis, I. L. (1972). Victims of groupthink. New York: Houghton
Mifflin; Whyte, G. (1991). Decision failures: Why they occur and how to prevent them. Academy of
Management Executive, 5, 23–31.
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Tools and Techniques for Making Better Decisions
Nominal Group Technique (NGT) was developed to help with group decision making by ensuring
that all members participate fully. NGT is not a technique to be used routinely at all meetings. Rather, it is
used to structure group meetings when members are grappling with problem solving or idea generation. It
follows four steps. [5] First, each member of the group begins by independently and silently writing down
ideas. Second, the group goes in order around the room to gather all the ideas that were generated. This
process continues until all the ideas are shared. Third, a discussion takes place around each idea, and
members ask for and give clarification and make evaluative statements. Finally, group members vote for
their favorite ideas by using ranking or rating techniques. Following the four-step NGT helps to ensure
that all members participate fully, and it avoids group decision-making problems such as groupthink.
Delphi Technique is unique because it is a group process using written responses to a series of
questionnaires instead of physically bringing individuals together to make a decision. The first
questionnaire asks individuals to respond to a broad question such as stating the problem, outlining
objectives, or proposing solutions. Each subsequent questionnaire is built from the information
gathered in the previous one. The process ends when the group reaches a consensus. Facilitators can
decide whether to keep responses anonymous. This process is often used to generate best practices
from experts. For example, Purdue University Professor Michael Campion used this process when he
was editor of the research journal Personnel Psychology and wanted to determine the qualities that
distinguished a good research article. Using the Delphi technique, he was able to gather responses
from hundreds of top researchers from around the world and distill them into a checklist of criteria
that he could use to evaluate articles submitted to his journal, all without ever having to leave his
office. [6]
Majority rule refers to a decision-making rule in which each member of the group is given a single
vote and the option receiving the greatest number of votes is selected. This technique has remained
popular, perhaps due to its simplicity, speed, ease of use, and representational fairness. Research
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also supports majority rule as an effective decision-making technique. [7] However, those who did not
vote in favor of the decision will be less likely to support it.
Consensus is another decision-making rule that groups may use when the goal is to gain support for
an idea or plan of action. While consensus tends to require more time, it may make sense when
support is needed to enact the plan. The process works by discussing the issues at hand, generating a
proposal, calling for consensus, and discussing any concerns. If concerns still exist, the proposal is
modified to accommodate them. These steps are repeated until consensus is reached. Thus, this
decision-making rule is inclusive, participatory, cooperative, and democratic. Research shows that
consensus can lead to better accuracy, [8] and it helps members feel greater satisfaction with
decisions. [9]However, groups take longer with this approach, and if consensus cannot be reached,
members tend to become frustrated. [10]
Group Decision Support Systems (GDSS) are interactive computer-based systems that are able
to combine communication and decision technologies to help groups make better decisions.
Research shows that a GDSS can actually improve the output of groups’ collaborative work through
higher information sharing. [11] Organizations know that having effective
knowledge management systems to share information is important, and their spending reflects
this reality. Businesses invested $2.7 billion into new systems in 2002, and projections were for this
number to double every five years. As the popularity of these systems grows, they risk becoming
counterproductive. Humans can only process so many ideas and information at one time. As virtual
meetings grow larger, it is reasonable to assume that information overload can occur and good ideas
will fall through the cracks, essentially recreating a problem that the GDSS was intended to solve,
which is to make sure every idea is heard. Another problem is the system possibly becoming too
complicated. If the systems evolve to a point of uncomfortable complexity, it has recreated the
problem. Those who understand the interface will control the narrative of the discussion, while those
who are less savvy will only be along for the ride. [12] Lastly, many of these programs fail to take into
account the factor of human psychology. These systems could make employees more reluctant to
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share information because of lack of control, lack of immediate feedback, or the fear of online
“flames.”
Decision trees are diagrams in which answers to yes or no questions lead decision makers to
address additional questions until they reach the end of the tree. Decision trees are helpful in
avoiding errors such as framing bias. [13]Decision trees tend to be helpful in guiding the decision
maker to a predetermined alternative and ensuring consistency of decision making—that is, every
time certain conditions are present, the decision maker will follow one course of action as opposed to
others if the decision is made using a decision tree.
Figure 8.13
Utilizing decision trees can improve investment decisions by optimizing them for maximum payoff.
A decision tree consists of three types of nodes. Decision nodes are commonly represented by
squares. Chance nodes are represented by circles. End nodes are represented by triangles.
Source:http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/93/Investment_decision_Insight.png.
K E Y T A K E A W A Y S
• There are trade-offs between making decisions alone and within a group.
• Groups have a greater diversity of experiences and ideas than individuals, but they also have potential
process losses such as groupthink.
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• Groupthink can be avoided by recognizing the eight symptoms discussed.
• Finally, there are a variety of tools and techniques available for helping to make more effective decisions
in groups, including the nominal group technique, Delphi technique, majority rule, consensus, GDSS, and
decision trees.
E X E R C I S E S
1. Do you prefer to make decisions in a group or alone? What are the main reasons for your preference?
2. Have you been in a group that used the brainstorming technique? Was it an effective tool for coming up
with creative ideas? Please share examples.
3. Have you been in a group that experienced groupthink? If so, how did you deal with it?
4. Which of the decision-making tools discussed in this chapter (NGT, Delphi, and so on) have you used? How
effective were they?
Next
[1] Simons, T., Pelled, L. H., & Smith, K. A. (1999). Making use of difference: Diversity, debate, decision
comprehensiveness in top management teams. Academy of Management Journal, 42, 662–73.
[2] Miner, F. C. (1984). Group versus individual decision making: An investigation of performance measures,
decision strategies, and process losses/gains. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 33, 112–24.
[3] Esser, J. K., & Lindoerfer, J. L. (1989). Groupthink and the space shuttle Challenger accident: Toward a
quantitative case analysis. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 2, 167–77; Moorhead, G., Ference, R., & Neck, C.
P. (1991). Group decision fiascoes continue: Space shuttle Challenger and a revised groupthink framework. Human
Relations, 44, 539–50.
[4] Janis, I. L. (1972). Victims of groupthink. New York: Houghton Mifflin.
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[5] Delbecq, A. L., Van de Ven, A. H., & Gustafson, D. H. (1975). Group techniques for program planning: A guide to
nominal group and Delphi processes. Glenview, IL: Scott Foresman.
[6] Campion, M. A. (1993). Article review checklist: A criterion checklist for reviewing research articles in applied
psychology. Personnel Psychology, 46, 705–18.
[7] Hastie, R., & Kameda, T. (2005). The robust beauty of majority rules in group decisions. Psychological
Review, 112, 494–508.
[8] Roch, S. G. (2007). Why convene rater teams: An investigation of the benefits of anticipated discussion,
consensus, and rater motivation. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 104, 14–29.
[9] Mohammed, S., & Ringseis, E. (2001). Cognitive diversity and consensus in group decision making: The role of
inputs, processes, and outcomes. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 85, 310–35.
[10] Peterson, R. (1999). Can you have too much of a good thing? The limits of voice for improving satisfaction with
leaders. Personality and Social Psychology, 25, 313–24.
[11] Lam, S. S. K., & Schaubroeck, J. (2000). Improving group decisions by better pooling information: A
comparative advantage of group decision support systems. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85, 565–73.
[12] Nunamaker, J. F., Jr., Dennis, A. R., Valacich, J. S., Vogel, D. R., & George, J. F. (1991, July). Electronic meetings
to support group work. Communications of the ACM, 34(7), 40–61.
[13] Wright, G., & Goodwin, P. (2002). Eliminating a framing bias by using simple instructions to “think harder” and
respondents with managerial experience: Comment on “breaking the frame.” Strategic Management Journal, 23,
1059–67.
8.4 Chapter Summary and Case
C H A P T E R S U M M A R Y
• Decision making is a critical component of business.
• Some decisions are obvious and can be made quickly, without investing much time and effort in the
decision-making process. Others, however, require substantial consideration of the circumstances
surrounding the decision, available alternatives, and potential outcomes.
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• Fortunately, there are several methods that can be used when making a difficult decision, depending on
various environmental factors. Some decisions are best made by groups. Group decision-making
processes also have multiple models to follow, depending on the situation.
• Even when specific models are followed, groups and individuals can often fall into potential decision-
making pitfalls. If too little information is available, decisions might be made based on a feeling. On the
other hand, if too much information is presented, people can suffer from analysis paralysis, in which no
decision is reached because of the overwhelming number of alternatives.
C H A P T E R C A SE
Moon Walk and Talk [1]
Warning: Do not discuss this exercise with other members of your class until instructed to do so.
You are a member of the moon space crew originally scheduled to rendezvous with a mother ship on the
lighted surface of the moon. Due to mechanical difficulties, however, your ship was forced to land at a
spot some 200 miles (320 km) from the rendezvous point. During reentry and landing, much of the
equipment aboard was damaged, and because survival depends on reaching the mother ship, the most
critical items available must be chosen for the 200-mile (320 km) trip. Please see the list of the fifteen
items left intact and undamaged after landing. Your task is to rank the items in terms of their importance
for your crew to reach the rendezvous point. Place the number 1 by the most important, 2 by the next
most important, and so on, with 15 being the least important.
T A B LE 8 .1
Undamaged items My
ranking Group
ranking NASA
ranking My
difference Group
difference
Box of matches
Food concentrates
50 feet of nylon
Parachute silk
Portable heating unit
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Undamaged items My
ranking Group
ranking NASA
ranking My
difference Group
difference
Two 45-caliber pistols
One case dehydrated milk
Two 100 lb. tanks oxygen
Stellar map (of moon's constellations)
Life raft
Magnetic compass
5 gallons of water
Signal flares
First aid kit containing injection needles
Solar powered FM receiver– transmitter
Next
[1] NASA educational materials. Retrieved March 2, 2008,
fromhttp://www.nasa.gov/audience/foreducators/topnav/materials/listbytype/Survival_Lesson.html.
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Chapter 9 Handle Conflict and Negotiation
Significant portions of this chapter were adapted from Talya Bauer and Berrin Erdogan’s Organizational
Behavior textbook with permission of the authors. [1]
The only way to get the best of an argument is to avoid it.
- Dale Carnegie
During a negotiation, it would be wise not to take anything personally. If you leave personalities out of
it, you will be able to see opportunities more objectively.
- Brian Koslow
Negotiation Breakdown
You are part of a team charged with negotiating the new collective bargaining agreement for your union.
Your union is requesting profit sharing, a 10 percent raise for all union members and an additional week
of vacation time.
When you go into the meeting with management, they present their terms, which include a 5 percent pay
cut due to lower product demand and greater responsibility to cover the cost of health care for union
members, which would amount to about $50 per person, per paycheck.
The lead team member laughs at management's requests and tells them they have a long way to go in
order to avoid a strike. You are uncomfortable with this comment, as you believe it doesn't set the right
tone for the negotiation. In addition, the statement appears to be threatening, which you know is
something to avoid during negotiation.
When your team presents their items, management says there is no way they can meet those demands, so
the union better get more realistic about the current economic state of the company.
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As you leave the bargaining table with no progress, you know there is a long way to go before the union
and management will be able to come to a resolution.
The focus of this chapter is to discuss conflict and negotiation and how to avoid situations such as this one
when negotiating.
Next
9.1 Understanding Conflict
L E A R N I N G O B JE C T I V E S
1. Be able to explain the nature of conflict in your personal life or at work.
2. Understand the different types of conflict you may experience at work and in your personal life.
In this chapter, you’ll see that learning how to handle conflict and engaging in effective negotiation
are key to successful human relations and to a successful career. Learning how to handle conflict
confidently is a key component in your emotional intelligence toolkit, specifically, self-awareness and
relationship management. Without the ability to deal with conflict, we would have no friends or
partner, and very little work would get done.
Conflicts range from minor annoyances to outright violence. For example, one million workers
(18,000 people per week) are assaulted on the job in the United States alone. [1] One of the major
ways to avoid conflicts escalating to these levels is through understanding the causes of conflict and
developing methods for managing potential negative outcomes. Negotiation is one of the most
effective ways to decrease conflict and will also be examined in depth in this chapter.
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Similar to how conflicts can range from minor to major, negotiations vary in terms of their
consequences. A high-stakes negotiation at work might mean the difference between a company’s
survival and its demise. On the other end of the spectrum, we deal with minor negotiations on a
regular basis, such as negotiating with a friend about which movie to see. Maybe you make a
concession: “OK, we’ll watch what you want but I get to pick where we eat.” Maybe you hold tough: “I
don’t want to watch anything except a comedy.” Perhaps you even look for a third option that would
mutually satisfy both parties. Regardless of the level, conflict management and negotiation tactics
are important skills that can be learned. First, let’s take a deeper look at conflict.
Conflict is a process that involves people disagreeing. Researchers have noted that conflict is like the
common cold. Everyone knows what it is, but understanding its causes and how to treat it is much
more challenging. [2] As we noted earlier, conflict can range from minor disagreements to workplace
violence. In addition, there are three types of conflict that can arise within organizations. Let’s take a
look at each of them in turn.
Types of Conflict Intrapersonal Conflict
Intrapersonal conflict arises within a person. For example, when you’re uncertain about what is
expected or wanted, or you have a sense of being inadequate to perform a task, you are experiencing
intrapersonal conflict. Intrapersonal conflict can arise because of differences in roles. A manager may
want to oversee a subordinate’s work, believing that such oversight is a necessary part of the job. The
subordinate, on the other hand, may consider such extensive oversight to be evidence of a lack of trust.
Role conflict, another type of intrapersonal conflict, includes having two different job descriptions that
seem mutually exclusive. This type of conflict can arise if you’re the head of one team but also a member
of another team. A third type of intrapersonal conflict involves role ambiguity. Perhaps you’ve been given
the task of finding a trainer for a company’s business writing training program. You may feel unsure about
what kind of person to hire—a well-known but expensive trainer or a local, unknown but low-priced
trainer. If you haven’t been given guidelines about what’s expected, you may be wrestling with several
options.
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Figure 9.1
Of the conflict between Michael Dell (shown here) and Steve Jobs, David Yoffie, a professor at the Harvard
Business School, who closely follows the computer industry, notes that the conflict may stem from their
differences in terms of being from different generations and having different management styles.
Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Michael_Dell,_square_crop.jpg.
Interpersonal Conflict
Interpersonal conflict is among individuals such as coworkers, a manager and an employee, or
CEOs and their staff. For example, in 2006 the CEO of Airbus SAS, Christian Streiff, resigned
because of his conflict with the board of directors over issues such as how to restructure the
company. [3] This example may reflect a well-known trend among CEOs. According to one estimate,
31.9 percent of CEOs resigned from their jobs because they had conflict with the board of
directors. [4] CEOs of competing companies might also have public conflicts. In 1997, Michael Dell
was asked what he would do about Apple Computer. “What would I do? I’d shut it down and give the
money back to shareholders.” Ten years later, Steve Jobs, as CEO of Apple Inc., indicated he had
clearly held a grudge as he shot back at Dell in an e-mail to his employees, stating, “Team, it turned
out Michael Dell wasn’t perfect in predicting the future. Based on today’s stock market close, Apple is
worth more than Dell.” [5] In part, their long-time disagreements stem from their differences.
Interpersonal conflict often arises because of competition, as the Dell/Apple example shows, or
because of personality or values differences. For example, one person’s style may be to “go with the
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gut” on decisions, while another person wants to make decisions based on facts. Those differences
will lead to conflict if the individuals reach different conclusions. Many companies suffer because of
interpersonal conflicts. Keeping conflicts centered around ideas rather than individual differences is
important in avoiding a conflict escalation.
Intergroup Conflict
Figure 9.2
Conflicts such as the Air Canada pilot strike can have ripple effects. For example, Air Canada’s
parent company threatened to cancel a $6.1 billion contract with Boeing for new planes if they
were unable to negotiate an agreement with the pilots who would fly them. Conflict
consequences such as these could affect those working at this Boeing Factory in Seattle,
Washington.
Source:http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Boeing_Factory_2002.jpg.
Intergroup conflict is conflict that takes place among different groups. Types of groups may include
different departments, employee unions, or management in a company or competing companies that
supply the same customers. Departments may conflict over budget allocations, unions and management
may disagree over work rules, and suppliers may conflict with each other on the quality of parts. Merging
two groups together can lead to friction between the groups—especially if there are scarce resources to be
divided among the group. For example, in what has been called “the most difficult and hard-fought labor
issue in an airline merger,” Canadian Air and Air Canada pilots were locked into years of personal and
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Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 261
legal conflict when the two airlines’ seniority lists were combined following the merger. [6] Seniority is a
valuable and scarce resource for pilots, because it helps to determine who flies the newest and biggest
planes, who receives the best flight routes, and who is paid the most. In response to the loss of seniority,
former Canadian Air pilots picketed at shareholder meetings, threatened to call in sick, and had ongoing
conflicts with pilots from Air Canada. The conflicts with pilots continue to this day. The history of past
conflicts among organizations and employees makes new deals challenging.
Is Conflict Always Bad?
Most people are uncomfortable with conflict, but is conflict always bad? Conflict can be dysfunctional if it
paralyzes an organization, leads to less than optimal performance, or, in the worst case, leads to
workplace violence. Surprisingly, a moderate amount of conflict can actually be a healthy (and necessary)
part of organizational life. [7] To understand how to get to a positive level of conflict, we need to
understand its root causes, consequences, and tools to help manage it. The impact of too much or too little
conflict can disrupt performance. If conflict is too low, then performance is low. If conflict is too high,
then performance also tends to be low. The goal is to hold conflict levels in the middle of this range. While
it might seem strange to want a particular level of conflict, a medium level of task-related conflict is often
viewed as optimal, because it represents a situation in which a healthy debate of ideas takes place.
Figure 9.3 The Inverted U Relationship between Performance and Conflic
t
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Task conflict can be good in certain circumstances, such as in the early stages of decision making, because
it stimulates creativity. However, it can interfere with complex tasks in the long run. [8] Personal conflicts,
such as personal attacks, are never healthy because they cause stress and distress, which undermines
performance. The worst cases of personal conflicts can lead to workplace bullying. At Intel Corporation,
all new employees go through a four-hour training module to learn “constructive confrontation.” The
content of the training program includes dealing with others in a positive manner, using facts rather than
opinion to persuade others, and focusing on the problem at hand rather than the people involved. “We
don’t spend time being defensive or taking things personally. We cut through all of that and get to the
issues,” notes a trainer from Intel University. [9] The success of the training remains unclear, but the
presence of this program indicates that Intel understands the potentially positive effect of a moderate
level of conflict. Research focusing on effective teams across time found that they were characterized by
low but increasing levels of process conflict (how do we get things done?), low levels of relationship
conflict with a rise toward the end of the project (personal disagreements among team members), and
moderate levels of task conflict in the middle of the task timeline. [10]
K E Y T A K E A W A Y S
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• Conflict can be a problem for individuals and organizations.
• There are several different types of conflict, including intrapersonal, interpersonal, and intergroup
conflict.
• Moderate conflict can be a healthy and necessary part of organizational life.
E X E R C I S E S
1. What are the types of conflicts that individuals may have at work? Which type have you experienced the
most?
2. What are some primary causes of conflict at work?
3. Explain how miscommunication might be related to a conflict at work.
Next
[1] National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. (1997). Violence in the workplace. Retrieved November
14, 2008, fromhttp://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/violence/.
[2] Wall, J. A., & Callister, R. R. (1995). Conflict and its management. Journal of Management, 21, 515–58.
[3] Michaels, D., Power, S., & Gauthier-Villars, D. (2006, October 10). Airbus CEO’s resignation reflects company’s
deep structural woes. Wall Street Journal, pp. A1–A10.
[4] Whitehouse, K. (2008, January 14). Why CEOs need to be honest with their boards. Wall Street Journal, Eastern
edition, pp. R1–R3.
[5] Haddad, C. (2001, April 18). Why Jobs and Dell are always sparring. Business Week Online. Retrieved May 1,
2008, fromhttp://www.businessweek.com/bwdaily/dnflash/apr2001/nf20010418_461.htm; Markoff, J. (2006,
January 16). Michael Dell should eat his words, Apple chief suggests. New York Times. Retrieved January 19, 2007,
fromhttp://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/16/technology/16apple.html.
[6] Stoykewych, R. E. (2003, March 7). A note on the seniority resolutions arising out of the merger of Air Canada
and Canadian Airlines. Paper presented at the American Bar Association Midwinter Meeting, Laguna Beach, CA.
[7] Amason, A. C. (1996). Distinguishing the effects of functional and dysfunctional conflict on strategic decision
making: Resolving a paradox for top management teams. Academy of Management Journal, 39, 123–48.
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[8] De Dreu, C. K. W., & Weingart, L. R. (2003). Task versus relationship conflict: Team performance, and team
member satisfaction: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 741–49.
[9] Dahle, C. (2001, June). Is the Internet second nature? Fast Company, 48, 144.
[10] Jehn, K. A., & Mannix, E. A. (2001). The dynamic nature of conflict: A longitudinal study of intergroup conflict
and group performance. Academy of Management Journal, 44, 238–51.
9.2 Causes and Outcomes of Conflict
L E A R N I N G O B JE C T I V E S
1. Understand different causes of conflict both at work and in your personal life.
2. Learn the possible outcomes of conflict.
There are many potential root causes of conflict at work. We’ll go over six of them here. Remember,
anything that leads to a disagreement can be a cause of conflict. Although conflict is common to
organizations, some organizations have more than others.
Figure 9.4 Potential Causes of Conflict
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Causes of Conflict Organizational Structure
Conflict tends to take different forms, depending upon the organizational structure. [1]
Limited Resources
Resources such as money, time, and equipment are often scarce. Competition among people or
departments for limited resources is a frequent cause for conflict. For example, cutting-edge laptops and
gadgets are expensive resources that may be allocated to employees on a need-to-have basis in some
companies. When a group of employees have access to such resources while others do not, conflict may
arise among employees or between employees and management. While technical employees may feel that
these devices are crucial to their productivity, employees with customer contact such as sales
representatives may make the point that these devices are important for them to make a good impression
to clients. Because important resources are often limited, this is one source of conflict many companies
have to live with.
Task Interdependence
Another cause of conflict is task interdependence; that is, when accomplishment of your goal requires
reliance on others to perform their tasks. For example, if you’re tasked with creating advertising for your
product, you’re dependent on the creative team to design the words and layout, the photographer or
videographer to create the visuals, the media buyer to purchase the advertising space, and so on. The
completion of your goal (airing or publishing your ad) is dependent on others.
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Incompatible Goals
Sometimes conflict arises when two parties think that their goals are mutually exclusive. Within an
organization, incompatible goals often arise because of the different ways department managers are
compensated. For example, a sales manager’s bonus may be tied to how many sales are made for the
company. As a result, the individual might be tempted to offer customers “freebies” such as expedited
delivery in order to make the sale. In contrast, a transportation manager’s compensation may be based on
how much money the company saves on transit. In this case, the goal might be to eliminate expedited
delivery because it adds expense. The two will butt heads until the company resolves the conflict by
changing the compensation structure. For example, if the company assigns the bonus based on
profitability of a sale, not just the dollar amount, the cost of the expediting would be subtracted from the
value of the sale. It might still make sense to expedite the order if the sale is large enough, in which case
both parties would support it. On the other hand, if the expediting negates the value of the sale, neither
party would be in favor of the added expense.
Personality Differences
Personality differences among coworkers are common. By understanding some fundamental differences
among the way people think and act, we can better understand how others see the world. Knowing that
these differences are natural and normal lets us anticipate and mitigate interpersonal conflict—it’s often
not about “you” but simply a different way of seeing and behaving. For example, Type A individuals have
been found to have more conflicts with their coworkers than Type B individuals. [2]
Communication Problems
Sometimes conflict arises simply out of a small, unintentional communication problem, such as lost e-
mails or dealing with people who don’t return phone calls. Giving feedback is also a case in which the best
intentions can quickly escalate into a conflict situation. When communicating, be sure to focus on
behavior and its effects, not on the person. For example, say that Jeff always arrives late to all your
meetings. You think he has a bad attitude, but you don’t really know what Jeff’s attitude is. You do know,
however, the effect that Jeff’s behavior has on you. You could say, “Jeff, when you come late to the
meeting, I feel like my time is wasted.” Jeff can’t argue with that statement, because it is a fact of the
impact of his behavior on you. It’s indisputable, because it is your reality. What Jeff can say is that he did
not intend such an effect, and then you can have a discussion regarding the behavior.
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In another example, the Hershey Company was engaged in talks behind closed doors with Cadbury
Schweppes about a possible merger. No information about this deal was shared with Hershey’s major
stakeholder, the Hershey Trust. When Robert Vowler, CEO of the Hershey Trust, discovered that talks
were underway without anyone consulting the Trust, tensions between the major stakeholders began to
rise. As Hershey’s continued to underperform, steps were taken in what is now called the “Sunday night
massacre,” in which several board members were forced to resign and Richard Lenny, Hershey’s then
current CEO, retired.[3] This example shows how a lack of communication can lead to an escalation of
conflict. Time will tell what the lasting effects of this conflict will be, but in the short term, effective
communication will be the key. Now, let’s turn our attention to the outcomes of conflict.
Outcomes of Conflict
One of the most common outcomes of conflict is that it upsets parties in the short run. [4] However,
conflict can have both positive and negative outcomes. On the positive side, conflict can result in greater
creativity or better decisions. For example, as a result of a disagreement over a policy, a manager may
learn from an employee that newer technologies help solve problems in an unanticipated new way.
Positive outcomes include the following:
• Consideration of a broader range of ideas, resulting in a better, stronger idea
• Surfacing of assumptions that may be inaccurate
• Increased participation and creativity
• Clarification of individual views that build learning
On the other hand, conflict can be dysfunctional if it is excessive or involves personal attacks or
underhanded tactics.
Examples of negative outcomes include the following:
• Increased stress and anxiety among individuals, which decreases productivity and satisfaction
• Feelings of being defeated and demeaned, which lowers individuals’ morale and may increase
turnover
• A climate of mistrust, which hinders the teamwork and cooperation necessary to get work done
o
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Is Your Job at Risk for Workplace Violence? You may be at increased risk for workplace violence if your job involves the following:
• Dealing with people
o Caring for others either emotionally or physically, such as at a nursing home
o Interacting with frustrated customers, such as with retail sales
o Supervising others, such as being a manager
o Denying requests others make of you, such as with customer service
• Being in high-risk situations
o Dealing with valuables or exchanging money, such as in banking
o Handling weapons, such as in law enforcement
o Working with drugs, alcohol, or those under the influence of them, such as bartending
o Working nights or weekends, such as gas station attendants
Sources: Adapted from information in LeBlanc, M. M., & Kelloway, E. K. (2002). Predictors and outcomes
of workplace violence and aggression.Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 444–53; National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health. (1997). Violence in the workplace. Retrieved November 12, 2008,
from http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/96-100/; National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health.
(2006). Workplace prevention strategies and research needs. Retrieved November 12, 2008,
from http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/2006-144/.
Given these negative outcomes, how can conflict be managed so that it does not become dysfunctional or
even dangerous? We’ll explore this in the next section.
K E Y T A K E A W A Y S
• Conflict has many causes, including organizational structures, limitations on resources, task
interdependence, goal incompatibility, personality differences, and communication challenges.
• Outcomes of well-managed conflict include increased participation and creativity, while negatives of
poorly managed conflict include increased stress and anxiety.
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• Jobs that deal with people are at higher risk for conflict.
E X E R C I S E S
1. What are some primary causes of conflict at work?
2. What are the outcomes of workplace conflict? Which types of job are the most at risk for workplace
violence? Why do you think that is?
3. What outcomes have you observed from conflict?
Next
[1] Jaffe, D. (2000). Organizational theory: Tension and change. New York: McGraw Hill.
[2] Baron, R. A. (1989). Personality and organizational conflict: Type A behavior pattern and self-
monitoring. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 44, 281–97.
[3] Jargon, J., Karnitschnig, M., & Lublin, J. S. (2008, February 23). How Hershey went sour. Wall Street Journal, pp.
B1, B5.
[4] Bergman, T. J., & Volkema, R. J. (1989). Understanding and managing interpersonal conflict at work: Its issues,
interactive processes and consequences. In D. M. Kolb & J. M. Kolb (Eds.), Hidden conflict in organizations (pp. 7–
19). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
9.3 Conflict Management
L E A R N I N G O B JE C T I V E S
1. Understand different ways to manage conflict.
2. Understand your own communication style.
3. Learn to stimulate conflict if needed.
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There are a number of different ways of managing organizational conflict, which are highlighted in
this section. Conflict management refers to resolving disagreements effectively.
Ways to Manage Conflict Change the Structure
When structure is a cause of dysfunctional conflict, structural change can be the solution to resolving the
conflict. Consider this situation. Vanessa, the lead engineer in charge of new product development, has
submitted her components list to Tom, the procurement officer, for purchasing. Tom, as usual, has
rejected two of the key components, refusing the expenditure on the purchase. Vanessa is furious, saying,
“Every time I give you a request to buy a new part, you fight me on it. Why can’t you ever trust my
judgment and honor my request?”
Tom counters, “You’re always choosing the newest, leading-edge parts—they’re hard to find and expensive
to purchase. I’m supposed to keep costs down, and your requests always break my budget.”
“But when you don’t order the parts we need for a new product, you delay the whole project,” Vanessa
says.
Sharon, the business unit’s vice president, hits upon a structural solution by stating, “From now on, both
of you will be evaluated on the total cost and the overall performance of the product. You need to work
together to keep component costs low while minimizing quality issues later on.” If the conflict is at an
intergroup level, such as between two departments, a structural solution could be to have those two
departments report to the same executive, who could align their previously incompatible goals.
Change the Composition of the Team
If the conflict is between team members, the easiest solution may be to change the composition of the
team, separating the personalities that were at odds. In instances in which conflict is attributed to the
widely different styles, values, and preferences of a small number of members, replacing some of these
members may resolve the problem. If that’s not possible because everyone’s skills are needed on the team
and substitutes aren’t available, consider a physical layout solution. Research has shown that when known
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antagonists are seated directly across from each other, the amount of conflict increases. However, when
they are seated side by side, the conflict tends to decrease. [1]
Create a Common Opposing Force
Group conflict within an organization can be mitigated by focusing attention on a common enemy such as
the competition. For example, two software groups may be vying against each other for marketing dollars,
each wanting to maximize advertising money devoted to their product. But by focusing attention on a
competitor company, the groups may decide to work together to enhance the marketing effectiveness for
the company as a whole. The “enemy” need not be another company—it could be a concept, such as a
recession, that unites previously warring departments to save jobs during a downturn.
Consider Majority Rule
Sometimes a group conflict can be resolved through majority rule. That is, group members take a vote,
and the idea with the most votes is the one that gets implemented. The majority rule approach can work if
the participants feel that the procedure is fair. It is important to keep in mind that this strategy will
become ineffective if used repeatedly with the same members typically winning. Moreover, the approach
should be used sparingly. It should follow a healthy discussion of the issues and points of contention, not
be a substitute for that discussion.
Problem Solve
Problem solving is a common approach to resolving conflict. In problem-solving mode, the individuals or
groups in conflict are asked to focus on the problem, not on each other, and to uncover the root cause of
the problem. This approach recognizes the rarity of one side being completely right and the other being
completely wrong.
Conflict-Handling Styles
Individuals vary in the way that they handle conflicts. There are five common styles of handling conflicts.
These styles can be mapped onto a grid that shows the varying degree of cooperation and assertiveness
each style entails. As we discuss each of these, consider your own conflict management style and what
benefits or negatives you receive from this style.
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Figure 9.5 Conflict-Handling Styles
Avoidance
The avoiding style is uncooperative and unassertive. People exhibiting this style seek to avoid
conflict altogether by denying that it is there. They are prone to postponing any decisions in which a
conflict may arise. People using this style may say things such as, “I don’t really care if we work this
out,” or “I don’t think there’s any problem. I feel fine about how things are.” Conflict avoidance may
be habitual to some people because of personality traits such as the need for affiliation. While
conflict avoidance may not be a significant problem if the issue at hand is trivial, it becomes a
problem when individuals avoid confronting important issues because of a dislike for conflict or a
perceived inability to handle the other party’s reactions.
Accommodation
The accommodating style is cooperative and unassertive. In this style, the person gives in to what the
other side wants, even if it means giving up one’s personal goals. People who use this style may fear
speaking up for themselves or they may place a higher value on the relationship, believing that
disagreeing with an idea might be hurtful to the other person. They will say things such as, “Let’s do it
your way” or “If it’s important to you, I can go along with it.” Accommodation may be an effective strategy
if the issue at hand is more important to others compared to oneself. However, if a person perpetually
uses this style, that individual may start to see that personal interests and well-being are neglected.
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Compromise
The compromising style is a middle-ground style, in which individuals have some desire to express
their own concerns and get their way but still respect the other person’s goals. The compromiser may say
things such as, “Perhaps I ought to reconsider my initial position” or “Maybe we can both agree to give in
a little.” In a compromise, each person sacrifices something valuable to them. For example, in 2005 the
luxurious Lanesborough Hotel in London advertised incorrect nightly rates for £35, as opposed to £350.
When the hotel received a large number of online bookings at this rate, the initial reaction was to insist
that customers cancel their reservations and book at the correct rate. The situation was about to lead to a
public relations crisis. As a result, they agreed to book the rooms at the advertised price for a maximum of
three nights, thereby limiting the damage to the hotel’s bottom line as well as its reputation. [2]
Competition
People exhibiting a competing style want to reach their goal or get their solution adopted regardless of
what others say or how they feel. They are more interested in getting the outcome they want as opposed to
keeping the other party happy, and they push for the deal they are interested in making. Competition may
lead to poor relationships with others if one is always seeking to maximize their own outcomes at the
expense of others’ well-being. This approach may be effective if one has strong moral objections to the
alternatives or if the alternatives one is opposing are unethical or harmful.
Collaboration
The collaborating style is high on both assertiveness and cooperation. This is a strategy to use for
achieving the best outcome from conflict—both sides argue for their position, supporting it with facts and
rationale while listening attentively to the other side. The objective is to find a win–win solution to the
problem in which both parties get what they want. They’ll challenge points but not each other. They’ll
emphasize problem solving and integration of each other’s goals. For example, an employee who wants to
complete a degree may have a conflict with management when he wants to reduce his work hours. Instead
of taking opposing positions in which the employee defends his need to pursue his career goals while the
manager emphasizes the company’s need for the employee, both parties may review alternatives to find an
integrative solution. In the end, the employee may decide to pursue the degree while taking online classes,
and the company may realize that paying for the employee’s tuition is a worthwhile investment. This may
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be a win–win solution to the problem in which no one gives up what is personally important, and every
party gains something from the exchange.
Which Style Is Best?
Like much of organizational behavior, there is no one “right way” to deal with conflict. Much of the time it
will depend on the situation. However, the collaborative style has the potential to be highly effective in
many different situations.
We do know that most individuals have a dominant style that they tend to use most frequently. Think of
your friend who is always looking for a fight or your coworker who always backs down from a
disagreement. Successful individuals are able to match their style to the situation. There are times when
avoiding a conflict can be a great choice. For example, if a driver cuts you off in traffic, ignoring it and
going on with your day is a good alternative to “road rage.” However, if a colleague keeps claiming
ownership of your ideas, it may be time for a confrontation. Allowing such intellectual plagiarism to
continue could easily be more destructive to your career than confronting the individual. Research also
shows that when it comes to dealing with conflict, managers prefer forcing, while their subordinates are
more likely to engage in avoiding, accommodating, or compromising. [3] It is also likely that individuals
will respond similarly to the person engaging in conflict. For example, if one person is forcing, others are
likely to respond with a forcing tactic as well.
What If You Don’t Have Enough Conflict Over Ideas?
Part of effective conflict management is knowing when proper stimulation is necessary. Many people
think that conflict is inherently bad—that it undermines goals or shows that a group or meeting is not
running smoothly. In fact, if there is no conflict, it may mean that people are silencing themselves and
withholding their opinions. The reality is that within meaningful group discussions, there are usually
varying opinions about the best course of action. If people are suppressing their opinions, the final result
may not be the best solution. During healthy debates, people point out difficulties or weaknesses in a
proposed alternative and can work together to solve them. The key to keeping the disagreement healthy is
to keep the discussion focused on the task, not the personalities. For example, a comment such as “Jack’s
ideas have never worked before. I doubt his current idea will be any better” is not constructive. Instead, a
comment such as “This production step uses a degreaser that’s considered a hazardous material. Can we
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think of an alternative degreaser that’s nontoxic?” is more productive. It challenges the group to improve
upon the existing idea.
Traditionally, Hewlett-Packard Development Company LP was known as a “nice” organization.
Throughout its history, HP viewed itself as a scientific organization, and their culture valued teamwork
and respect. But over time, HP learned that you can be “nice to death.” In fact, in the 1990s, HP found it
difficult to partner with other organizations because of their culture differences. During role-plays created
to help HP managers be more dynamic, the trainers had to modify several mock situations, because
participants simply said, “That would never happen at HP,” over the smallest conflict. All this probably
played a role in the discomfort many felt with Carly Fiorina’s style as CEO and the merge she orchestrated
with Compaq Computer Corporation, which ultimately caused the board of directors to fire Fiorina. On
the other hand, no one is calling HP “too nice” anymore.
Why Human Relations? Every friendship, romantic relationship, or work situation has conflict. How we handle the conflict is what
shows our positive human relations skills.Conflict management is a key skill to learn because we
already know our personal happiness and career success depends on our ability to show
positive human relations skills—even when conflict is present.
Conflicts can be minor disagreements or they can be major issues that can impede success among team
members. Either way, the ability to handle and resolve the conflict are imperative to maintaining positive
human relations in your work environment and in your personal life, too.
Conflict can be highly emotional, so having an awareness of our emotions during a conflict
(self-awareness emotional intelligence skill) can prevent us from saying the wrong thing or
saying something we will regret. If we can recognize how we feel during a conflict, such as angry,
sad, or frustrated, we can begin to take steps to manage those emotions (self-management emotional
intelligence skill).Once we are aware of and managing our emotions, it is much easier to work
toward a solution during the conflict. Otherwise, our emotions may get the best of us, resulting in
saying or doing something we regret—which doesn’t solve the conflict at all!
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K E Y T A K E A W A Y S
• Conflict management techniques include changing organizational structures to avoid built-in conflict,
changing team members, creating a common “enemy,” using majority rules, and problem solving.
• Conflict management styles include accommodating others, avoiding the conflict, collaborating,
competing, and compromising.
• People tend to have a dominant style. At times it makes sense to build in some conflict over ideas if none
exists.
E X E R C I S E S
1. List three ways to decrease a conflict situation. What are some pros and cons of each of these
approaches?
2. Do you deal with conflict differently with friends and family than you do at work? If so, why do you think
that is?
3. What is your usual conflict-handling style at work? Do you see it as effective or ineffective?
4. Describe a situation in which not having enough conflict can be a problem.
Next
[1] Gordon, J., Mondy, R. W., Sharplin, A., & Premeaux, S. R. (1990). Management and organizational behavior (p.
540). New York: Simon & Schuster.
[2] Horowitz, A., Jacobson, D., Lasswell, M., & Thomas, O. (2006, January–February). 101 dumbest moments in
business. Business 2.0, 7(1), 98–136.
[3] Howat, G., & London, M. (1980). Attributions of conflict management strategies in supervisor-subordinate
dyads. Journal of Applied Psychology, 65, 172–75.
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9.4 Negotiations
L E A R N I N G O B JE C T I V E S
1. Be able to apply the five phases of negotiation to your work or personal life.
2. Learn negotiation strategies for use at work or in your personal life.
A common way that parties deal with conflict is via negotiation. Negotiation is a process whereby two
or more parties work toward an agreement. There are five phases of negotiation, which are described
in the following section.
The Five Phases of Negotiation Phase 1: Investigation
Figure 9.7 The Five Phases of Negotiation
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The first step in negotiation is the investigation, or information gathering stage. This is a key stage that
is often ignored. Surprisingly, the first place to begin is with yourself: What are your goals for the
negotiation? What do you want to achieve? What would you concede? What would you absolutely not
concede? Leigh Steinberg, the most powerful agent in sports (he was the role model for Tom Cruise’s
character in Jerry Maguire), puts it this way: “You need the clearest possible view of your goals. And you
need to be brutally honest with yourself about your priorities.” [1] Knowing your goals during the
investigation phase can relate back to our earlier discussion on emotional intelligence and self-awareness.
Going into the negotiation with your own emotions and thoughts in check will likely make it a more
successful negotiation.
During the negotiation, you’ll inevitably be faced with making choices. It’s best to know what you want, so
that in the heat of the moment you’re able to make the best decision. For example, if you’ll be negotiating
for a new job, ask yourself, “What do I value most? Is it the salary level? Working with coworkers whom I
like? Working at a prestigious company? Working in a certain geographic area? Do I want a company that
will groom me for future positions or do I want to change jobs often in pursuit of new challenges?”
Phase 2: Determine Your BATNA
One important part of the investigation and planning phase is to determine your BATNA, which is an
acronym that stands for the “best alternative to a negotiated agreement.” Roger Fisher and William Ury
coined this phrase in their book Getting to Yes: Negotiating without Giving In.
Thinking through your BATNA is important to helping you decide whether to accept an offer you receive
during the negotiation. You need to know what your alternatives are. If you have various alternatives, you
can look at the proposed deal more critically. Could you get a better outcome than the proposed deal?
Your BATNA will help you reject an unfavorable deal. On the other hand, if the deal is better than another
outcome you could get (that is, better than your BATNA), then you should accept it.
Think about it in common sense terms: When you know your opponent is desperate for a deal, you can
demand much more. If it looks like they have a lot of other options outside the negotiation, you’ll be more
likely to make concessions.
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As Fisher and Ury said, “The reason you negotiate is to produce something better than the results you can
obtain without negotiating. What are those results? What is that alternative? What is your BATNA—your
Best Alternative To a Negotiated Agreement? That is the standard against which any proposed agreement
should be measured.” [2]
The party with the best BATNA has the best negotiating position, so try to improve your BATNA whenever
possible by exploring possible alternatives. [3]
Going back to the example of your new job negotiation, consider your options to the offer you receive. If
your pay is lower than what you want, what alternatives do you have? A job with another company?
Looking for another job? Going back to school? While you’re thinking about your BATNA, take some time
to think about the other party’s BATNA. Do they have an employee who could readily replace you?
Once you’ve gotten a clear understanding of your own goals, investigate the person you’ll be negotiating
with. What does that person (or company) want? Put yourself in the other party’s shoes. What alternatives
could they have? For example, in the job negotiations, the other side wants a good employee at a fair
price. That may lead you to do research on salary levels: What is the pay rate for the position you’re
seeking? What is the culture of the company?
Greenpeace’s goals are to safeguard the environment by getting large companies and organizations to
adopt more environmentally friendly practices such as using fewer plastic components. Part of the
background research Greenpeace engages in involves uncovering facts. For instance, medical device
makers are using harmful PVCs as a tubing material because PVCs are inexpensive. But are there
alternatives to PVCs that are also cost effective? Greenpeace’s research found that yes, there
are. [4] Knowing this lets Greenpeace counter those arguments and puts Greenpeace in a stronger position
to achieve its goals.
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Phase 3: Presentation
The third phase of negotiation is presentation. In this phase, you assemble the information you’ve
gathered in a way that supports your position. In a job hiring or salary negotiation situation, for instance,
you can present facts that show what you’ve contributed to the organization in the past (or in a previous
position), which in turn demonstrates your value. Perhaps you created a blog that brought attention to
your company or got donations or funding for a charity. Perhaps you’re a team player who brings out the
best in a group.
Phase 4: Bargaining
During the bargaining phase, each party discusses their goals and seeks to get an agreement. A natural
part of this process is making concessions, namely, giving up one thing to get something else in return.
Making a concession is not a sign of weakness—parties expect to give up some of their goals. Rather,
concessions demonstrate cooperativeness and help move the negotiation toward its conclusion. Making
concessions is particularly important in tense union-management disputes, which can get bogged down
by old issues. Making a concession shows forward movement and process, and it allays concerns about
rigidity or closed-mindedness. What would a typical concession be? Concessions are often in the areas of
money, time, resources, responsibilities, or autonomy. When negotiating for the purchase of products, for
example, you might agree to pay a higher price in exchange for getting the products sooner. Alternatively,
you could ask to pay a lower price in exchange for giving the manufacturer more time or flexibility in
when they deliver the product.
One key to the bargaining phase is to ask questions. Don’t simply take a statement such as “We can’t do
that” at face value. Rather, try to find out why the party has that constraint. Let’s take a look at an
example. Say that you’re a retailer and you want to buy patio furniture from a manufacturer. You want to
have the sets in time for spring sales. During the negotiations, your goal is to get the lowest price with the
earliest delivery date. The manufacturer, of course, wants to get the highest price with the longest lead
time before delivery. As negotiations stall, you evaluate your options to decide what’s more important: a
slightly lower price or a slightly longer delivery date? You do a quick calculation. The manufacturer has
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offered to deliver the products by April 30, but you know that some of your customers make their patio
furniture selection early in the spring, and missing those early sales could cost you $1 million. So you
suggest that you can accept the April 30 delivery date if the manufacturer will agree to drop the price by
$1 million.
“I appreciate the offer,” the manufacturer replies, “but I can’t accommodate such a large price cut.”
Instead of leaving it at that, you ask, “I’m surprised that a two-month delivery would be so costly to you.
Tell me more about your manufacturing process so that I can understand why you can’t manufacture the
products in that time frame.”
“Manufacturing the products in that time frame is not the problem,” the manufacturer replies, “but
getting them shipped from Asia is what’s expensive for us.”
When you hear that, a light bulb goes off. You know that your firm has favorable contracts with shipping
companies because of the high volume of business the firm gives them. You make the following
counteroffer: “Why don’t we agree that my company will arrange and pay for the shipper, and you agree to
have the products ready to ship on March 30 for $10.5 million instead of $11 million?” The manufacturer
accepts the offer—the biggest expense and constraint (the shipping) has been lifted. You, in turn, have
saved money as well. [5]
Phase 5: Closure
Closure is an important part of negotiations. At the close of a negotiation, you and the other party have
either come to an agreement on the terms, or one party has decided that the final offer is unacceptable
and therefore must be walked away from. Most negotiators assume that if their best offer has been
rejected, there’s nothing left to do. You made your best offer and that’s the best you can do. The savviest of
negotiators, however, see the rejection as an opportunity to learn. “What would it have taken for us to
reach an agreement?”
Recently, a CEO had been in negotiations with a customer. After learning the customer decided to go with
the competition, the CEO decided to inquire as to why negotiations had fallen through. With nothing left
to lose, the CEO placed a call to the prospect’s vice president and asked why the offer had been rejected,
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explaining that the answer would help improve future offerings. Surprisingly, the VP explained the deal
was given to the competitor because, despite charging more, the competitor offered after-sales service on
the product. The CEO was taken by surprise, originally assuming that the VP was most interested in
obtaining the lowest price possible. In order accommodate a very low price, various extras such as after-
sales service had been cut from the offer. Having learned that the VP was seeking service, not the lowest
cost, the CEO said, “Knowing what I know now, I’m confident that I could have beaten the competitor’s
bid. Would you accept a revised offer?” The VP agreed, and a week later the CEO had a signed contract. [6]
Sometimes at the end of negotiations, it’s clear why a deal was not reached. But if you’re confused about
why a deal did not happen, consider making a follow-up call. Even though you may not win the deal back
in the end, you might learn something that’s useful for future negotiations. What’s more, the other party
may be more willing to disclose the information if they don’t think you’re in a “selling” mode.
Should You Negotiate for a Higher Salary? Yes! According to a survey conducted by CareerBuilder.com, 58 percent of hiring managers say they leave
some negotiating room when extending initial job offers. The survey also found that many of the hiring
managers agree to a candidate’s request for a higher salary. “Salary negotiation has become a growing
opportunity in the job acquisition process,” says Bill Hawkins, president and CEO of the Hawkins
Company, a full-service executive search firm with offices in Los Angeles and Atlanta. “Candidates who
fail to make a counteroffer could forfeit significant income.”
Source: Adapted from information in Reed-Woodard, M. (2007, April). Taking money off the table. Black
Enterprise, 37(9), 60–61.
Negotiation Strategies Distributive Approach
The distributive view of negotiation is the traditional fixed-pie approach. That is, negotiators see the
situation as a pie that they have to divide between them. Each tries to get more of the pie and “win.” For
example, managers may compete over shares of a budget. If marketing gets a 10 percent increase in its
budget, another department such as R&D will need to decrease its budget by 10 percent to offset the
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marketing increase. Focusing on a fixed pie is a common mistake in negotiation, because this view limits
the creative solutions possible.
Integrative Approach
A newer, more creative approach to negotiation is called the integrative approach. In this approach,
both parties look for ways to integrate their goals under a larger umbrella. That is, they look for ways to
expand the pie, so that each party gets more. This is also called a win–win approach. The first step of the
integrative approach is to enter the negotiation from a cooperative rather than an adversarial stance. The
second step is all about listening. Listening develops trust as each party learns what the other wants and
everyone involved arrives at a mutual understanding. Then, all parties can explore ways to achieve the
individual goals. The general idea is, “If we put our heads together, we can find a solution that addresses
everybody’s needs.” Unfortunately, integrative outcomes are not the norm. A summary of thirty-two
experiments on negotiations found that although they could have resulted in integrated outcomes, only 20
percent did so. [7] One key factor related to finding integrated solutions is the experience of the negotiators
who were able to reach them. [8]
Seven Steps to Negotiating a Higher Salary
• Step 1: Overcome your fear.
o The first step is to overcome your fears. Many people don’t even begin a salary negotiation.
We may be afraid of angering the boss or think that because we are doing a good job, we’ll
automatically be rewarded. But just because you’re doing a good job doesn’t mean you’ll
automatically get a raise. Why? If you don’t ask for one, the boss may believe you’re satisfied
with what you’re getting. So why should he pay you more? Imagine going into a car dealership
and being absolutely delighted with a car choice. The sticker price is $19,000. Would you pay
the dealer $23,000 just because you really like the car? Of course not. You probably wouldn’t
even offer $19,000. If the car was up for auction, however, and another bidder offered
$20,000, you’d likely increase your offer, too.
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o That’s what salary negotiation is like. Your boss may be thrilled with you but at the same time
is running a business. There’s no reason to pay an employee more if you seem satisfied with
your current salary.
• Step 2: Get the facts.
o Before you enter into the negotiation, do some background research. What are other
companies paying people in your position? Check sites such as Payscale.com, Salary.com, and
Salaryexpert.com to get a feel for the market. Look at surveys conducted by your professional
organization.
• Step 3: Build your case.
o How important are you to the organization? How have you contributed? Perhaps you
contributed by increasing sales, winning over angry customers, getting feuding team
members to cooperate, and so on. Make a list of your contributions. Be sure to focus on the
contributions that your boss values most. Is it getting recognition for the department? Easing
workload? If another employer has shown interest in you, mention that as a fact. However,
don’t use this as a threat unless you’re prepared to take the other offer. Mentioning interest
from another employer gets the boss to think, “If I don’t give this raise, I may lose the
employee.” (By the way, if you don’t feel you have a strong case for your raise, perhaps this
isn’t the time to ask for one.)
• Step 4: Know what you want.
o Set your target salary goal based on your research and the norms of what your organization
will pay. Now ask yourself, if you don’t get this figure, would you quit? If not, are there other
alternatives besides a salary increase that you’d consider? For example, would you accept a
higher title? More vacation time? Paid training to learn a new skill? Flexible hours?
• Step 5: Begin assertively.
o Start the discussion on a strong but friendly tone. “I think I’m worth more than I’m being
paid.” List the ways you’ve contributed to the company.
• Step 6: Don’t make the first offer.
o Let your boss name the figure. You can do this by asking, “How much of a raise could you
approve?” However, if the boss insists that you name a figure, ask for the most that you can
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reasonably expect to get. You want to be reasonable, but you need to allow room to make a
concession. Your boss will assume your opening number was high and will offer you less, so
asking for the actual figure you want may leave you feeling disappointed.
o If the boss opens with, “The salary range for this position is $66,000 to 78,000,” ask for the
high end. If your goal was higher than that range, challenge the range by explaining how you
are an exception and why you deserve more.
• Step 7: Listen more than talk.
o You’ll learn more by listening rather than talking. The more you listen, the better the boss will
feel about you—people tend to like and trust people who listen to them.
o If you can’t get a raise now, get your boss to agree to one in a few months if you meet agreed-
upon objectives.
Sources: Adapted from information in Brodow, E. (2006). Negotiation boot camp. New York:
Currency/Doubleday; Nemko, M. (2007, December 31). The general way to get a raise. US News & World
Report, 57.
Avoiding Common Mistakes in Negotiations Failing to Negotiate/Accepting the First Offer
You may have heard that women typically make less money than men. Researchers have established that
about one-third of the gender differences observed in the salaries of men and women can be traced back
to differences in starting salaries, with women making less, on average, when they start their jobs. [9] Some
people are taught to feel that negotiation is a conflict situation, and these individuals may tend to avoid
negotiations to avoid conflict. Research shows that this negotiation avoidance is especially prevalent
among women. For example, one study looked at students from Carnegie-Mellon who were getting their
first job after earning a master’s degree. The study found that only 7 percent of the women negotiated
their offer, while men negotiated 57 percent of the time. [10] The result had profound consequences.
Researchers calculate that people who routinely negotiate salary increases will earn over $1 million more
by retirement than people who accept an initial offer every time without asking for more. [11] The good
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news is that it appears that it is possible to increase negotiation efforts and confidence by training people
to use effective negotiation skills. [12]
Letting Your Ego Get in the Way
Thinking only about yourself is a common mistake, as we saw in the opening case. People from the United
States tend to fall into a self-serving bias in which they overinflate their own worth and discount the worth
of others. This can be a disadvantage during negotiations. Instead, think about why the other person
would want to accept the deal. People aren’t likely to accept a deal that doesn’t offer any benefit to them.
Help them meet their own goals while you achieve yours. Integrative outcomes depend on having good
listening skills, and if you are thinking only about your own needs, you may miss out on important
opportunities. Remember that a good business relationship can only be created and maintained if both
parties get a fair deal.
Having Unrealistic Expectations
Susan Podziba, a professor of mediation at Harvard and MIT, plays broker for some of the toughest
negotiations around, from public policy to marital disputes. She takes an integrative approach in the
negotiations, identifying goals that are large enough to encompass both sides. As she puts it, “We are
never going to be able to sit at a table with the goal of creating peace and harmony between fishermen and
conservationists. But we can establish goals big enough to include the key interests of each party and
resolve the specific impasse we are currently facing. Setting reasonable goals at the outset that address
each party’s concerns will decrease the tension in the room, and will improve the chances of reaching an
agreement.” [13] Those who set unreasonable expectations are more likely to fail.
Getting Overly Emotional
Negotiations, by their very nature, are emotional. The findings regarding the outcomes of expressing
anger during negotiations are mixed. Some researchers have found that those who express anger
negotiate worse deals than those who do not, [14] and that during online negotiations, those parties who
encountered anger were more likely to compete than those who did not. [15] In a study of online
negotiations, words such as despise, disgusted, furious, and hate were related to a reduced chance of
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reaching an agreement. [16] However, this finding may depend on individual personalities. Research has
also shown that those with more power may be more effective when displaying anger. The weaker party
may perceive the anger as potentially signaling that the deal is falling apart and may concede items to help
move things along. [17] This holds for online negotiations as well. In a study of 355 eBay disputes in which
mediation was requested by one or both of the parties, similar results were found. Overall, anger hurts the
mediation process unless one of the parties was perceived as much more powerful than the other party, in
which case anger hastened a deal.[18] Another aspect of getting overly emotional is forgetting that facial
expressions are universal across cultures, and when your words and facial expressions don’t match, you
are less likely to be trusted. [19]
Letting Past Negative Outcomes Affect the Present Ones
Research shows that negotiators who had previously experienced ineffective negotiations were more likely
to have failed negotiations in the future. Those who were unable to negotiate some type of deal in previous
negotiation situations tended to have lower outcomes than those who had successfully negotiated deals in
the past. [20] The key to remember is that there is a tendency to let the past repeat itself. Being aware of this
tendency allows you to overcome it. Be vigilant to examine the issues at hand and not to be overly swayed
by past experiences, especially while you are starting out as a negotiator and have limited experiences.
Tips for Negotiation Success
• Focus on agreement first. If you reach an impasse during negotiations, sometimes the best
recourse is to agree that you disagree on those topics and then focus only on the ones that you can
reach an agreement on. Summarize what you’ve agreed on, so that everyone feels like they’re
agreeing, and leave out the points you don’t agree on. Then take up those issues again in a
different context, such as over dinner or coffee. Dealing with those issues separately may help the
negotiation process.
• Be patient. If you don’t have a deadline by which an agreement needs to be reached, use that
flexibility to your advantage. The other party may be forced by circumstances to agree to your
terms, so if you can be patient you may be able to get the best deal.
• Whose reality? During negotiations, each side is presenting their case—their version of reality.
Whose version of reality will prevail? Leigh Steinberg offers this example from the NFL, when he
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was negotiating the salary of Warren Moon. Moon was forty-one years old. That was a fact. Did
that mean he was hanging on by a thread and lucky to be employed in the first place? “Should he
be grateful for any money that the team pays him?” Steinberg posed, “Or is he a quarterback who
was among the league leaders in completions and attempts last year? Is he a team leader who took
a previously moribund group of players, united them, and helped them have the best record that
they’ve had in recent years?” All those facts are true, and negotiation brings the relevant facts to
the forefront and argues their merit.
• Deadlines. Research shows that negotiators are more likely to strike a deal by making more
concessions and thinking more creatively as deadlines loom than at any other time in the
negotiation process.
• Be comfortable with silence. After you have made an offer, allow the other party to respond. Many
people become uncomfortable with silence and feel they need to say something. Wait and listen
instead.
Sources: Adapted from information in Stuhlmacher, A. F., Gillespie, T. L., & Champagne, M. V. (1998).
The impact of time pressure in negotiation: A meta-analysis. International Journal of Conflict
Management, 9, 97–116; Webber, A. (1998, October). How to get them to show you the money. Fast
Company. Retrieved November 13, 2008,
fromhttp://www.fastcompany.com/magazine/19/showmoney.html.
When All Else Fails: Third-Party Negotiations Alternative Dispute Resolution
Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) includes mediation, arbitration, and other ways of resolving
conflicts with the help of a specially trained, neutral third party without the need for a formal trial or
hearing. [21] Many companies find this effective in dealing with challenging problems. For example,
Eastman Kodak Company added an alternative dispute resolution panel of internal employees to help
them handle cases of perceived discrimination and hopefully stop a conflict from escalating. [22]
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Mediation
In mediation, an outside third party (the mediator) enters the situation with the goal of assisting the
parties in reaching an agreement. The mediator can facilitate, suggest, and recommend. The mediator
works with both parties to reach a solution but does not represent either side. Rather, the mediator’s role
is to help the parties share feelings, air and verify facts, exchange perceptions, and work toward
agreements. Susan Podziba, a mediation expert, has helped get groups that sometimes have a hard time
seeing the other side’s point of view to open up and talk to one another. Her work includes such groups as
pro-choice and pro-life advocates, individuals from Israel and Palestine, as well as fishermen and
environmentalists. According to the US Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, “Mediation gives
the parties the opportunity to discuss the issues raised in the charge, clear up misunderstandings,
determine the underlying interests or concerns, find areas of agreement and, ultimately, to incorporate
those areas of agreements into resolutions. A mediator does not resolve the charge or impose a decision
on the parties. Instead, the mediator helps the parties to agree on a mutually acceptable resolution. The
mediation process is strictly confidential.” [23] One of the advantages of mediation is that the mediator
helps the parties design their own solutions, including resolving issues that are important to both parties,
not just the ones under specific dispute. Interestingly, sometimes mediation solves a conflict even if no
resolution is reached. Here’s a quote from Avis Ridley-Thomas, the founder and administrator of the Los
Angeles City Attorney’s Dispute Resolution Program, who explains, “Even if there is no agreement
reached in mediation, people are happy that they engaged in the process. It often opens up the possibility
for resolution in ways that people had not anticipated.” [24] An independent survey showed 96 percent of
all respondents and 91 percent of all charging parties who used mediation would use it again if offered. [25]
You Know It’s Time for a Mediator When…
• The parties are unable to find a solution themselves.
• Personal differences are standing in the way of a successful solution.
• The parties have stopped talking with one another.
• Obtaining a quick resolution is important.
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Sources: Adapted from information in Crawley, J. (1994). Constructive conflict management. San Diego:
Pfeiffer; Mache, K. (1990). Handbook of dispute resolution: Alternative dispute resolution in action.
London: Routledge.
Arbitration
In contrast to mediation, in which parties work with the mediator to arrive at a solution,
in arbitration the parties submit the dispute to the third-party arbitrator. It is the arbitrator who
makes the final decision. The arbitrator is a neutral third party, but the decision made by the
arbitrator is final (the decision is called the “award”). Awards are made in writing and are binding to
the parties involved in the case. [26] Arbitration is often used in union-management grievance
conflicts.
Figure 9.9
As a last resort, judges resolve conflicts.
Source:http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/44/Supreme_Court_Front_Dusk.jpg.
Arbitration-Mediation
It is common to see mediation followed by arbitration. An alternative technique is to follow the arbitration
with mediation. The format of this conflict resolution approach is to have both sides formally make their
cases before an arbitrator. The arbitrator then makes a decision and places it in a sealed envelope.
Following this, the two parties work through mediation. If they are unable to reach an agreement on their
The linked image cannot be displayed. The file may have been moved, renamed, or deleted. Verify that the link points to the correct file and location.
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own, the arbitration decisions become binding. Researchers using this technique found that it led to
voluntary agreements between the two parties 71 percent of the time versus 50 percent for mediation
followed by arbitration. [27]
K E Y T A K E A W A Y S
• Negotiation consists of five phases that include investigation, determining your BATNA, presentation,
bargaining, and closure.
• Different negotiation strategies include the distributive approach (fixed-pie approach) and the integrative
approach (expanding-the-pie approach).
• Research shows that some common mistakes made during negotiations include accepting the first offer
made, letting egos get in the way, having unrealistic expectations, getting overly emotional, and letting
past negative outcomes affect the present ones.
• Third-party negotiators are sometimes needed when two sides cannot agree.
E X E R C I S E S
1. What are the negotiation phases and what goes on during each of them?
2. When negotiating, is establishing a BATNA important? Why or why not?
3. What are the third-party conflict resolution options available?
Next
[1] Webber, A. (1998, October). How to get them to show you the money. Fast Company, 198. Retrieved
November 14, 2008, fromhttp://www.fastcompany.com/magazine/19/showmoney.html.
[2] Fisher, R., & Ury, W. (1981). Getting to yes: Negotiating agreement without giving in. New York: Penguin Books.
[3] Pinkley, R. L. (1995). Impact of knowledge regarding alternatives to settlement in dyadic negotiations: Whose
knowledge counts? Journal of Applied Psychology, 80, 403–17.
[4] Layne, A. (1999, November). Conflict resolution at Greenpeace? Fast Company. Retrieved November 14, 2008,
from http://www.fastcompany.com/articles/1999/12/rick_hind.html.
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[5] Adapted from Malhotra, D., & Bazerman, M. H. (2007, September). Investigative negotiation. Harvard Business
Review, 85, 72.
[6] Malhotra, D., & Bazerman, M. H. (2007, September). Investigative negotiation. Harvard Business Review, 85, 72.
[7] Thompson, L., & Hrebec, D. (1996). Lose-lose agreements in interdependent decision making. Psychological
Bulletin, 120, 396–409.
[8] Thompson, L. (1990). Negotiation behavior and outcomes: Empirical evidence and theoretical
issues. Psychological Bulletin, 108, 515–32.
[9] Gerhart, B. (1990). Gender differences in current and starting salaries: The role of performance, college major,
and job title. Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 43, 418–33.
[10] CNN. (2003, August 21). Interview with Linda Babcock. Retrieved November 14, 2008,
from http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0308/21/se.04.html.
[11] Babcock, L., & Lascheve, S. (2003). Women don’t ask: Negotiation and the gender divide. Princeton, NJ:
Princeton University Press.
[12] Stevens, C. K., Bavetta, A. G., & Gist, M. E. (1993). Gender differences in the acquisition of salary negotiation
skills: The role of goals, self-efficacy, and perceived control. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78, 723–35.
[13] Rothenberger, C. (2008, September 11). Negotiation 201: Refine your skills. Fast Company. Retrieved January
11, 2008, fromhttp://www.fastcompany.com/articles/team/prob_podziba.html.
[14] Kopelman, S., Rosette, A. S., & Thompson, L. (2006). The three faces of Eve: An examination of the strategic
display of positive, negative, and neutral emotions in negotiations. Organizational behavior and human decision
processes, 99, 81–101.
[15] Friedman, R., Anderson, C., Brett, J., Olekalns, M., Goates, N., & Lisco, C. C. (2004). The positive and negative
effects of anger on dispute resolution: Evidence from electronically mediated disputes. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 89, 369–76.
[16] Brett, J. M., Olekalns, M., Friedman, R., Goates, N., Anderson, C., & Lisco, C. C. (2007). Sticks and stones:
Language, face, and online dispute resolution. Academy of Management Journal, 50, 85–99.
[17] Van Kleef, G. A., & Cote, S. (2007). Expressing anger in conflict: When it helps and when it hurts. Journal of
Applied Psychology, 92, 1557–69.
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[18] Friedman, R., Anderson, C., Brett, J., Olekalns, M., Goates, N., & Lisco, C. C. (2004). The positive and negative
effects of anger on dispute resolution: Evidence from electronically mediated disputes. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 89, 369–76.
[19] Hill, D. (2007). Emotionomics: Winning hearts and minds. Edina, MN: Adams Business & Professional;
Holloway, L. (2007, December). Mixed signals: Are you saying one thing, while your face says
otherwise? Entrepreneur, 35, 49.
[20] O’Connor, K. M., Arnold, J. A., & Burris, E. R. (2005). Negotiators’ bargaining histories and their effects on
future negotiation performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90, 350–62.
[21] New York State Unified Court System. (2008, October 28). Alternative dispute resolution. Retrieved November
14, 2008, fromhttp://www.courts.state.ny.us/ip/adr/index.shtml.
[22] Deutsch, C. H. (2004, August 24). Race remains a difficult issue for many workers at Kodak. New York Times.
[23] The US Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. (2007, December 4). Mediation. Retrieved November 13,
2008, from http://www.eeoc.gov/employees/mediation.cfm.
[24] Layne, A. (1999, November). Conflict resolution at Greenpeace? Fast Company. Retrieved November 11, 2008,
fromhttp://www.fastcompany.com/articles/1999/12/rick_hind.html.
[25] Layne, A. (1999, November). Conflict resolution at Greenpeace? Fast Company. Retrieved November 11, 2008,
fromhttp://www.fastcompany.com/articles/1999/12/rick_hind.html.
[26] American Arbitration Association. (2007). Arbitration and mediation. Retrieved November 11, 2008,
from http://www.adr.org/arb_med.
[27] Conlon, D. E., Moon, H., & Ng, K. Y. (2002). Putting the cart before the horse: The benefits of arbitrating before
mediating. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 978–84.
9.5 Ethical and Cross-Cultural Negotiations
L E A R N I N G O B JE C T I V E S
1. Consider the role of ethics when negotiating with others.
2. Consider the role of national culture in your negotiations.
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Ethics and Negotiations
Are hardball tactics OK to use? Sometimes a course of action is legal but is questionable in terms of ethics.
A good rule of thumb is that hardball tactics should not be used because the negotiation is likely not to be
the last time you will interact with the other party. Therefore, finding a way to make a deal that works for
both sides is preferable. Otherwise, if you have the complete upper hand and use it to “destroy” the other
party, it’s likely that at a future date the other party will have the upper hand and will use it to retaliate
mercilessly against you. What’s more, your reputation as a negotiator will suffer. As J. Paul Getty said,
“My father said: ‘You must never try to make all the money that’s in a deal. Let the other fellow make
some money too, because if you have a reputation for always making all the money, you won’t have many
deals.’” [1]
Ethics establish a way of doing what is right, fair, and honest. If your counterpart feels you are being
unfair or dishonest, he or she is less likely to make any concessions—or even to negotiate with you in the
first place.
Here are some tips for ethical negotiations:
• Be honest.
• Keep your promises.
• Follow the Platinum Rule. The Golden Rule tells us to treat others the way we want to be treated.
Author Tony Alessandra goes a step further with the Platinum Rule: “Treat people the way they
want to be treated.” Caring about others enough to treat them the way they want to be treated
helps build long-term relationships based on ethics and trust. [2]
Negotiation around the Globe
Not understanding cultural differences is another common mistake. Some cultures have a higher or lower
threshold for conflict. For example, in countries such as Japan or Korea, the preference is for harmony
(called wa in Japan) rather than overt conflict. [3] Americans and Germans have a much higher tolerance
for conflict as a way of working through issues. In a study of Japanese, German, and American cultures, it
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was found that almost half of the preference for different conflict management styles was related to the
country in which participants were raised. [4]
In Japan, much like Pakistan, the tendency is not to trust what is heard from the other party until a strong
relationship is formed. Similarly, in China, conversations start out with innocuous topics to set a mood of
friendliness. [5]This differs a great deal from American negotiators who tend to like to “get down to
business” and heavily weigh first offers as reference points that anchor the process as both sides make
demands and later offers.
There are also differences in how individuals from different cultures use information and offers during the
negotiation process. Observations show that Japanese negotiators tend to use offers as an information
exchange process. [6]Research has found that American negotiators tend to reveal more information than
their Japanese counterparts. [7] Japanese negotiators might learn little from a single offer, but patterns of
offers over time are interpreted and factored into their negotiations. Since Japan is a high-context culture,
information is learned from what is not said as well as from what is said.
Even the way that negotiations are viewed can differ across cultures. For example, the Western cultures
tend to think of negotiations as a business activity rather than a social activity, but in other cultures, the
first step in negotiations is to develop a trusting relationship. Negotiators in Brazil, for example, seriously
damaged relationships when they tried to push negotiations to continue during the Carnival festival. “The
local guys took that as a disrespectful action,” said Oscar Lopez, commercial director for Hexaprint, SA De
CV in Mexico. “It took several weeks to restore confidence and move on.” [8]
Also keep in mind what agreement means in different cultures. For example, in China, nodding of the
head does not mean that the Chinese counterpart is agreeing to what you are proposing, merely that they
are listening and following what you are saying. “Culturally, Chinese companies and workers do not like to
say no,” says a buyer at a manufacturer based in the United States. Here’s how to overcome the problem.
Instead of phrasing a question as, “Can you do this for us?” which would put the Chinese official in an
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uncomfortable position of saying no (which they likely would not do), rephrase the question as, “How will
you do this for us and when will it be done?” [9]
K E Y T A K E A W A Y S
• Being honest during negotiations, keeping your promises, and treating others as you would like to be
treated all help you negotiate ethically.
• Not understanding the culture of a person or group of people you are negotiating with can be a major
mistake.
• Try to learn as much as you can about the culture of others involved and be sure to clarify key points
along the way.
• Also, keep in mind that agreement (e.g., nodding one’s head up and down or saying “yes, yes”) may not
mean the same thing in all cultures.
E X E R C I S E S
1. Is the goal of negotiation to maximize your economic outcome at all costs? Why or why not? Is it ethical to
do so?
2. What are some similarities and differences in conflict management preference and negotiation practices
among different countries around the globe? Have you had any experiences with individuals from other
cultures? If so, how did it go? How might it have gone better?
Next
[1] Quote retrieved January 29, 2009, fromhttp://www.saidwhat.co.uk/keywordquotes/money.
[2] Stark, P. B., & Flaherty, J. (2003). Ethical negotiations: 10 tips to ensure win–win outcomes. Negotiator
Magazine. Retrieved November 11, 2008,
fromhttp://www.negotiatormagazine.com/showarticle.php?file=article106&page=1.
[3] Lebra, T. S. (1976). Japanese patterns of behavior. Honolulu, HI: University Press of Hawaii.
Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 297
[4] Tinsley, C. (1998). Models of conflict resolution in Japanese, German, and American cultures. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 83, 316–23.
[5] US Commerce Department. (2007). Retrieved November 11, 2008, fromhttp://www.Buyusa.gov.
[6] Adair, W. L., Weingart, L., & Brett, J. (2007). The timing and function of offers in the US and Japanese
negotiations. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, 1056–68.
[7] Adair, W. L., Okumua, T., & Brett, J. M. (2001). Negotiation behavior when cultures collide: The United States
and Japan. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86, 371–85.
[8] Teague, P. E. (2006, August 17). Collaboration trumps negotiations. Purchasing, 135(11), 58.
[9] Hannon, D. (2006, May 18). DO’s and DON’Ts of doing business in China. Purchasing,135(8), 52.
9.6 Chapter Summary and Case
C H A P T E R S U M M A R Y
• Conflict can run the gamut from minor annoyances to physically violent situations. At the same time,
conflict can increase creativity and innovation, or it can bring organizations to a grinding halt.
• There are many different types of conflict, including interpersonal, intrapersonal, and intergroup.
• Within organizations, there are many common situations that can spur conflict.
• Certain organizational structures, such as a matrix structure, can cause any given employee to have
multiple bosses and conflicting or overwhelming demands. A scarcity of resources for employees to
complete tasks is another common cause of organizational conflict, particularly if groups within the
organization compete over those resources.
• Of course, simple personality clashes can create intrapersonal conflict in any situation.
• Communication problems are also a very common source of conflict even when no actual problem would
exist otherwise.
• When conflict arises, it can be handled by any number of methods, each with varying degrees of
cooperation and competitiveness. Different situations require different conflict handling methods, and no
one method is best.
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• Negotiations occur during many important processes, and possessing astute negation skills can be an
incredible tool.
• A key component to negotiations involves having a BATNA, or “best alternative to a negotiated
agreement.”
• Negotiations typically move through five phases, including investigation, determining your BATNA,
presentation, bargaining, and closure.
• During a negotiation, it is important not to make any number of common mistakes. These mistakes can
include accepting the first offer, letting ego get in the way, having unrealistic expectations of the outcome
of the negotiation, becoming too emotional during the process, or being weighed down by previous
failures and letting the past repeat itself.
• It is important to keep in mind that many cultures have preferential methods for handling conflict and
negotiation. Individuals should understand the cultural background of others to better navigate what
could otherwise become a messy situation.
C H A P T E R C A SE
A Case of Listening: When Silence Is Golden [1]
Listening can be an effective tool during negotiations. William Devine was representing a client on a land
purchase. “The owner and I spent 2 hours on the phone horse-trading contract issues, then turned to the
price,” Devine explained. “We were $100,000 apart.” The owner then said, “The price your client proposes
will leave us well short of our projections. That makes it very tough on us.” The line went silent.
“My impulse was to say something in response to the silence, and I started to speak, then stopped. As I
hesitated, I sensed that if I said, ‘My client can pay all cash,’ or ‘It’s still a good deal for you,’ then the
owner would take my comment as an invitation to joust, we would battle over the hundred grand, and my
client would end up having to pay some or all of that sum. The owner had not asked a question or
proposed a compromise, so no response was required from me at that moment. I decided to remain
silent. After what felt like days but was probably less than 30 seconds, I heard, ‘But I guess it’s good for us
[i.e., his company] to just get this deal done, so we’ll do it.’”
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Devine saved his client $100,000 by staying silent.
Questions to Think About
1. What does this case suggest about the role of silence in negotiations?
2. Have you ever had a similar experience when saying nothing paid off?
3. Are there times when silence is a bad idea? Explain your answer.
Next
[1] Devine, W. (2002, September 30). Anatomy of a deal-maker. California Real Estate Journal. Retrieved
November 14, 2008, fromhttp://www.wdesquire.com/pages/dealmaker.html.
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Chapter 10 Manage Diversity at Work
We all live with the objective of being happy; our lives are all different and yet the same.
- Anne Frank
Differences challenge assumptions.
- Anne Wilson Schaef
Hiring Multicultural
On a Tuesday afternoon, as you are getting ready to go to lunch, you receive an e-mail from your human
resources (HR) manager about the need to hire a new project manager, and there is a $500 bonus for
referring a friend who successfully joins the company. Immediately, you e-mail your friend Daniel,
because you know he would be great for the job. Daniel is eventually hired for the position, and a few
months later a new e-mail goes out asking for friend recommendations for a new position. You and Daniel
both recommend someone, and eventually that person gets hired. Over the next year, hiring notices are
not advertised externally as the organization has had good luck with this hiring practice. Seems like a
great way to recruit new people, doesn’t it? It can be, but it also can be a detriment to the diversity and
multiculturalism of the workplace. How, you might wonder?
While not true across the board, people have a tendency to spend time with people who are like
themselves, in race, income level, and other aspects of diversity such as sexual orientation. In fact,
according to the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development and a study published in
the American Journal of Sociology, it is much more likely that someone will name a person in their own
race as a friend than someone of a different race. [1] Likewise, even from a young age, people tend to
choose friends who are of the same race. As a result, when you recommend Daniel for a position, it is
highly likely that Daniel is similar, from a diversity perspective, to you. Then, when Daniel recommends
someone for a job, it is highly likely that he, too, is recommending someone with similar characteristics as
you both. This obviously creates a lack of multicultural diversity in the workplace, which can mean lost
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profits for companies. In addition, it is important for us to be able to function effectively in a multicultural
work environment, as multicultural understanding improves our ability to engage in positive human
relations with others.
Next
[1] James Moody, “Race, School Integration, and Friendship Segregation in America,” American Journal of
Sociology 107, no. 3 (2001): 679–719.
10.1 Diversity and Multiculturalism
L E A R N I N G O B JE C T I V E S
1. Define, explain, and identify your own power and privilege.
2. Provide reasoning as to why diversity is important to maintain good human relations skills.
Many people use the terms diversity and multiculturalism interchangeably, when in fact, there are
major differences between the two. Diversity is defined as the differences between people. These
differences can include race, gender, sexual orientation, religion, background, socioeconomic status,
and much more. Diversity, when talking about it from the workplace perspective, tends to focus
more on a set of policies to meet government-mandated diversity compliance standards.
Multiculturalism goes deeper than diversity by focusing on inclusiveness, understanding, and
respect, and also by looking at unequal power in society. In a report called the “2007 State of
Workplace Diversity Management Report,” [1]most human resources (HR) managers said that
diversity in the workplace is
1. not well defined or understood at work,
2. focuses too much on compliance, and
3. places too much emphasis on gender and ethnicity.
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This chapter focuses on the advantages of a diverse workplace and discusses how to work in a
multicultural workplace.
Power and Privilege
As defined in this chapter, diversity focuses on the “otherness” or differences between individuals and has
a goal of making sure, through policies, that everyone is treated the same. While this is the legal and the
right thing to do, multiculturalism looks at a system of advantages based on race, gender, and sexual
orientation called power and privilege. In this system, the advantages are based on a system in which
one race, gender, and sexual orientation is predominant in setting societal rules and norms.
The interesting thing about power and privilege is that if you have it, you may not initially recognize it,
which is why we can call it invisible privilege. Recognizing power and privilege can help you begin to
understand how you relate to others. This is an important emotional intelligence skill of relationship
management. Here are some examples of invisible privilege:
1. Race privilege. Let’s say you (a Caucasian) and your friend (an African American) are having
dinner together, and when the bill comes, the server gives the check to you. While this may not
seem like a big issue, it assumes you (being Caucasian) are the person paying for the meal. This
type of invisible privilege may not seem to matter if you have that privilege, but if you don’t, it can
be infuriating.
2. Social class privilege. When Hurricane Katrina hit New Orleans in 2005, many people from
outside the storm area wondered why so many people stayed in the city, not even thinking about
the fact that some people couldn’t afford the gas to put in their car to leave the city.
3. Gender privilege. This refers to privileges one gender has over another—for example, the
assumption that a female will change her name to her husband’s when they get married.
4. Sexual orientation privilege. If I am heterosexual, I can put a picture of my partner on my
desk without worrying about what others think. I can talk about our vacations together or
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experiences we’ve had without worrying what someone might think about my relationship. This is
not the case for many gay, lesbian, and transgendered people and their partners.
Oftentimes the privilege we have is considered invisible, because it can be hard to recognize one’s own
privilege based on race, gender, or social class. Many people utilize the color-blind approach, which says,
“I treat everyone the same,” or “I don’t see people’s skin color.” In this case, the person is showing
invisible privilege and thus ignoring the privileges he or she receives because of race, gender, or social
class. While it appears this approach would value all people equally, it doesn’t, because people’s different
needs, assets, and perspectives are disregarded by not acknowledging differences. [2]
Another important aspect of power and privilege is the fact that we may have privilege in one area and not
another. For example, I am a Caucasian female, which certainly gives me race privilege but not gender
privilege. Important to note here is that the idea of power and privilege is not about “white male bashing”
but understanding our own stereotypes and systems of advantage so we can be more inclusive with our
coworkers, employees, and managers.
So what does this all mean in relation to the workplace? It means we can combine the understanding of
certain systems that allow for power and privilege, and by understanding we may be able to eliminate or
at least minimize these issues. Besides this, one of the best things we can do for our organizations is to
have a diverse workforce, with people from a variety of perspectives. This diversity leads to profitability
and the ability to better serve customers for the company and better human relations skills for us. We
discuss the advantages of diversity in Section 1.
Why Diversity and Multiculturalism?
When many people look at diversity and multiculturalism, they think that someone’s gender, skin color,
or social class shouldn’t matter. So diversity can help us with policies to prevent discrimination, while
multiculturalism can help us gain a deeper understanding of the differences between people. Hopefully,
over time, rather than look at diversity as attaining numerical goals or complying with the law, we can
combine the concepts to create better workplaces. Although many books discuss laws relating to diversity,
not many actually describe why diversity is necessary in the workplace. Here are a few main reasons:
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1. It is the law.
2. We can better serve customers by offering a broader range of services, such as being able to speak
a variety of languages and understanding other cultures.
3. We can better communicate with one another (saving time and money) and customers.
4. With a multicultural perspective, we can create better ideas and solutions.
Promoting a multicultural work environment isn’t just the law. Through a diverse work environment and
multicultural understanding, organizations can attain greater profitability. A study by Cedric Herring
called Does Diversity Pay?[3] reveals that diversity does, in fact, pay. The study found those businesses
with greater racial diversity reporter higher sales revenues, more customers, larger market shares, and
greater relative profits than those with more homogeneous workforces. Other research on the topic by
Scott Page, the author of The Difference: How the Power of Diversity Creates Better Groups, Firms,
Schools, and Societies [4] ended up with similar results. Page found that people from varied backgrounds
are more effective at working together than those who are from similar backgrounds, because they offer
different approaches and perspectives in the development of solutions. Often people believe that diversity
is about checking a box or only providing window dressing to gain more customers, but this isn’t the case.
As put by Eric Foss, chairperson and CEO of Pepsi Beverages Company, “It’s not a fad. It’s not an idea of
the month. It’s central and it’s linked very directly to business strategy.” [5] A study by the late Roy Adler of
Pepperdine University shows similar results. His nineteen-year study of 215 Fortune 500 companies
shows a strong correlation between female executives and high profitability. [6] Another study, conducted
by Project Equality, found that companies that rated low on equal opportunity issues earned 7.9 percent
profit, while those who rated highest with more equal opportunities resulted in 18.3 percent
profit. [7] These numbers show that diversity and multiculturalism certainly is not a fad but a way of doing
business that better serves customers and results in higher profits for companies, while allowing us to get
better at human relations skills. As employees, we need to recognize this so we may begin to understand
our own power and privilege, which allows for better communication at work.
Perhaps one of the best diversity statements by a Fortune 500 company was made by Jose Manuel Souto,
the CFO for Visa in Latin America. He says, “A diverse workforce is critical to providing the best service to
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our global clients, supporting our business initiatives, and creating a workplace environment that
promotes respect and fairness.” [8]
The first step to being effective at working in a diverse environment is understanding that everyone comes
from a different place of power and privilege, and as a result, everyone has a different perspective. Once
we understand this, our understanding can translate into better verbal and nonverbal communication.
These different perspectives are what makes companies successful, as we have discussed in this section.
Now that you have an understanding of the meaning of diversity, power, and privilege, as well as the
importance of diversity, we will discuss multiculturalism and the law.
Why Human Relations? Most of us will work in diverse environments, meaning diversity not only in terms of gender or race but
also in terms of people of diverse backgrounds, perspectives, and socio-economic status. Appreciating and
understand this diversity is what helps us be successful in our career path. The ability to
communicate effectively with a variety of people shows our relationship management and
social awareness skills.
The success in working in diverse environments can come through use of emotional
intelligence skills such as relationship management and social awareness. These skills allow
us to understand how another person feels or why they do something, even if we do not agree. These skills
also allow us to be accepting of others and appreciate differences even though we may not like it.
Developing the skills to work in a multicultural environment can help us work with people from any
variety of backgrounds and also helps us to communicate better with everyone we may come across, both
professionally and personally. These abilities, acceptance and understanding, are cornerstones
to developing positive relationships that lead to positive human relations and work
success.
K E Y T A K E A W A Y S
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• Diversity is the real or perceived differences between individuals. This can include race, gender, sexual
orientation, size, cultural background, and much more.
• Multiculturalism is a term that is similar to diversity, but it focuses on development of a greater
understanding of how power in society can be unequal due to race, gender, sexual orientation, power,
and privilege.
• Power and privilege is a system of advantages based on one’s race, gender, and sexual orientation. This
system can often be invisible (to those who have it), which results in one race or gender having unequal
power in the workplace. Of course, this unequal power results in unfairness, which may be of legal
concern.
• Diversity is important to the success of organizations. Many studies have shown a direct link between the
amount of diversity in a workplace and the company’s success.
E X E R C I S E S
1. Perform an Internet search to find a specific diversity policy for an organization. What is the policy? From
what you know of the organization, do you believe they follow this policy in reality?
2. Visit the website http://www.diversityinc.com and find their latest “top fifty list.” What criteria are used to
appear on this list? What are the top five companies for the current year?
Next
[1] Society for Human Resource Management, The 2007 State of Workplace Diversity Management Report, March
2008, accessed August 3,
2011,http://www.shrm.org/Publications/HRNews/Pages/DiversityBusinessImperative.aspx.
[2] Victoria C. Plaut, Kecia M. Thomas, and Matt J. Goren, “Is Multiculturalism or Color Blindness Better for
Minorities?” Psychological Science 20, no. 4 (2009): 444–46.
[3] Cedric Herring, “Does Diversity Pay? Racial Composition of Firms and the Business Case for Diversity” (paper
presented at the annual meeting of the American Sociological Association, Montreal, Canada, August 11, 2006),
accessed May 5, 2009,http://www.allacademic.com/meta/p101792_index.html.
[4] Scott E. Page, The Difference: How the Power of Diversity Creates Better Groups, Firms, Schools, and
Societies (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2007).
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[5] William J. Holstein, “Diversity Is Even More Important in Hard Times,” New York Times, February 13, 2009,
accessed August 25, 2011,http://www.nytimes.com/2009/02/14/business/14interview.html.
[6] Roy Adler, “Women in the Executive Suite Correlate to High Profits,” Glass Ceiling Research Center.
[7] Melissa Lauber, “Studies Show That Diversity in Workplace Is Profitable,” Project Equality, n.d., accessed July
11, 2011,http://www.villagelife.org/news/archives/diversity.html.
[8] National Latina Business Women Association, “Women and Minorities on Corporate Boards Still Lags Far Behind
National Population,” accessed August 24, 2011,http://www.voxxi.com/minority-women-lagging/.
10.2 Multiculturalism and the Law
L E A R N I N G O B JE C T I V E S
1. Define the role of the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC).
2. Explain the various types of laws covered by the EEOC.
As we already know, it is in an organization’s best interest to hire and promote a multicultural and
diverse workforce. It is also in our best interest to work with a variety of people as it enables us to
develop skills working with people who may not be exactly like us. Although most people believe in
fairness, sometimes people are still discriminated against at work. As a result, a federal agency has
been established to ensure employees have a place to file complaints should they feel discriminated
against. Should you feel you have been discriminated against at work, knowing these laws can benefit
you in knowing who to turn to for help.
Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC)
The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) is a federal agency charged with the
task of enforcing federal employment discrimination laws. The laws include those that protect people
from discrimination in all areas of employment, such as discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex,
national origin, age, and disability. People who have filed a discrimination charge are also protected
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against discrimination under the EEOC. Employers with at least fifteen employees (twenty for age
discrimination) are covered under the EEOC. This agency covers not only discrimination in hiring but also
discrimination in all types of work situations such as firing, promotions, harassment, training, wages, and
benefits. The EEOC has the authority to investigate charges of discrimination against employers. The
agency investigates the claims, makes a finding, and then tries to settle the charge. If they are
unsuccessful in settling the charge, the EEOC has the right to file a lawsuit on behalf of the complainants.
The EEOC has headquarters in Washington, DC, with fifty-three field offices throughout the United
States.
If a company has more than one hundred employees, a form called the EEO-1 must be filled out yearly.
This form confirms the demographics of an organization based on different job categories. [1] An
organization that employs more than fifty people and works for the federal government must also file an
EEO-1 yearly, with the deadline normally in September. In addition, organizations must post the EEOC
notice, which you have probably seen before, perhaps in the company break room. Finally, organizations
should keep on file records such as hiring statistics in the event of an EEOC investigation.
It is necessary to mention here that while there is a legal compliance concern, as discussed before, it is in
the company’s best interest to hire a diverse workforce. So while we can discuss the legal aspects,
remember that the purpose of having a diverse workforce is not just to meet EEOC requirements but to
create a better, more profitable workplace that better serves customers.
Table 10.1 How the EEOC Process Works and Requirements for Employers
Requirements by EEOC
Post Federal and State EEOC notices
File yearly report called EEO-1
Keep copies of documents on file
Process for Investigation
1. The EEOC complaint is filed.
2. The EEOC notifies the organization of the charges.
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3. The EEOC acts as a mediator between the employee and the employer to find a solution.
4. If step 3 is unsuccessful, the EEOC will initiate an investigation.
5. The EEOC makes a determination, and then the employer has the option of remedying the situation or face a potential lawsuit.
EEOC Federal Legislation
While the EEOC is the larger governing body, many pieces of legislation relating to multicultural practices
are part of the EEOC family of laws. Many of these laws began with Title VII of the Civil Rights Act in
1964. This act, enforced by the EEOC, covers several areas in which discrimination was rampant.
However, a bona fide occupational qualification (BFOQ) is a quality or attribute employers are
allowed to consider when making decisions during the selection process. Examples of BFOQs are a
maximum age limit for airline pilots for safety reasons and a Christian college’s requirement that the
president of the college be Christian.
These EEOC laws relate the following protected groups in terms of discrimination in the workplace:
1. Age
2. Disability
3. Equal pay
4. Genetic information
5. National origin
6. Pregnancy
7. Race/color
8. Religion
9. Retaliation
10. Sex
11. Sexual harassment
Age
Age discrimination involves treating someone less favorably because of his or her age. Created in 1967, the
Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA) is enforced by the EEOC. This law covers people
who are age forty or older. It does not cover favoring an older worker over a younger worker, if the older
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worker is forty years or older. The law covers any aspect of employment such as hiring, firing, pay, job
assignments, promotions, layoffs, training, fringe benefits, and any other condition or term of
employment.
The law also goes deeper by forbidding harassment of someone based on age. While simple teasing or
offhand comments are not covered, more serious offensive remarks about age are covered by this EEOC
law.
Disability
The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) prohibits discrimination against those with disabilities
and is enforced by the EEOC. Discrimination based on disability means treating a qualified person
unfavorably because of a disability. For example, if someone has AIDS that is controlled, the employee
cannot be treated unfavorably. The law requires an employer to provide
reasonable accommodation to an employee or applicant with a disability, unless this accommodation
would cause significant difficulty or expense for the employer. A reasonable accommodation is defined by
the EEOC as any change in the work environment or in the way things are customarily done that enables
an individual with a disability to enjoy equal employment opportunities. A reasonable accommodation
might include making the workplace accessible for wheelchair use or providing equipment for someone
who is hearing or vision impaired.
This law does not mean that organizations are required to hire unqualified people. The law specifically
states the person must be qualified for the job and have a disability defined by the law. A disability defined
by the law can include the following:
1. Physical or mental condition that limits a major life activity (walking, talking, seeing, hearing, or
learning)
2. History of a disability (e.g., cancer that is in remission)
3. Physical or mental impairment that is not transitory (lasting or expected to last less than six
months)
The law places limits on employers when it comes to asking job applicants questions about medical
history or asking a person to take a medical exam.
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Equal Pay/Compensation
The basis of this law is that people are paid the same for the same type of work, and the law specifically
addresses gender pay differences. Rather than job title, job content is used to determine if the job is the
same work. In addition to covering salary, it deals with overtime pay, bonus, stock options, profit sharing,
and other types of bonus plans such as vacation and holiday pay. If inequality in pay is found, the
employer cannot reduce the wages of either sex to equalize the pay.
An employee who files an equal pay charge has the option to go directly to court rather than the EEOC.
Genetic Information
This law is one of the newer EEOC laws, which took effect in November 2009. The EEOC’s definition of
genetic information includes family medical information or information about the manifestation of a
disease or disorder in an individual’s family. For example, an employer cannot discriminate against an
employee whose family has a history of diabetes or cancer. This information could be used to discriminate
against an employee who has an increased risk of getting a disease and may make health care costs more
expensive for the organization.
In addition, the employer is not allowed to seek out genetic information by requesting, requiring, or
purchasing this information. However, there are some situations in which receiving this information
would not be illegal:
1. A manager or supervisor overhears an employee talking about a family member’s illness.
2. Information is received based on wellness programs offered on a voluntary basis.
3. If the information is required as documentation to receive benefits for the Family and Medical
Leave Act (FMLA). FMLA will be discussed in the section about pregnancy.
4. If the information is commercial, such as the appearance of information in a newspaper, as long as
the employer is not specifically searching those sources for the purpose of finding genetic
information.
5. If genetic information is required through a monitoring program that looks at the biological effects
of toxic substances in the workplace.
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6. For those professions that require DNA testing, such as law enforcement agencies. In this case, the
genetic information may only be used for analysis in relation to the specific case at hand.
This law also covers how information about genetics should be kept. For example, genetic information
must be kept separate from an employee’s regular file.
National Origin
It is illegal to treat people unfavorably because they are from a particular country or part of the world,
because of their accent, or because they appear to be of a particular descent (even if they are not). The law
protecting employees based on national origin refers to all aspects of employment: hiring, firing, pay, job
assignments, promotions, layoffs, training, and fringe benefits. An employer can require an employee to
speak English only if it is necessary to perform the job effectively. An English-only policy is allowed only if
it is needed to ensure the safe or efficient operations of the employer’s business. An employer may not
base an employment decision on a foreign accent, unless the accent seriously interferes with job
performance.
Pregnancy
This section of the EEOC refers to the unfavorable treatment of a woman because of pregnancy,
childbirth, or a medical condition related to pregnancy or childbirth. The Pregnancy Discrimination Act of
1978, added to the Civil Rights Act of 1964, is enforced by the EEOC. The female who is unable to perform
her job owing to pregnancy must be treated the same as other temporarily disabled employees. For
example, modified tasks or alternative assignments should be offered. This law refers not only to hiring
but also to firing, pay, job assignments, promotions, layoffs, training, and fringe benefits. In addition to
this law against discrimination of pregnant women, the Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA) is
enforced by the US Department of Labor. [2] The FMLA requires companies with fifty or more employees
to provide twelve weeks of unpaid leave for the following:
1. Birth and care of a newborn child
2. Care of an adopted child
3. Care for immediate family members (spouse, child, or parent) with a serious health condition
4. Medical leave for the employee who is unable to work because of a serious health condition
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In addition to the company size requirement, the employee must have worked at least 1,250 hours over
the past 12 months.
Race/Color
This type of discrimination refers to treating someone unfavorably because he or she is of a certain race or
because of certain characteristics associated with race. These characteristics might include hair texture,
skin color, or facial features. Discrimination can occur when the person discriminating is the same race or
color of the person who is being discriminated against. EEOC law also protects people who are married to
or associated with someone of a certain race or color. As with the other types of antidiscrimination laws
we have discussed, this law refers not only to the initial hiring but also to firing, pay, job assignments,
promotions, layoffs, training, and fringe benefits.
Religion
This part of the EEOC refers to treating a person unfavorably because of their religious beliefs. This law
requires a company to reasonably accommodate an employee’s religious beliefs or practices, unless doing
so would burden the organization’s operations. For example, allowing flexible scheduling during certain
religious periods of time might be considered a reasonable accommodation. This law also covers
accommodations in dress and grooming, such as a headscarf, religious dress, or uncut hair and a beard in
the case of a Sikh. Ideally, the employee or applicant would notify the employer that he or she needs such
an accommodation for religious reasons, and then a discussion of the request would occur. If it wouldn’t
pose hardship, the employer should honor the request. If the request might cause a safety issue, decrease
efficiency, or infringe on the rights of other employees, it may not be honored.
Sex and Sexual Harassment
Sex discrimination involves treating someone unfavorably because of their sex. As with all EEOC laws,
this relates to hiring, firing, pay, job assignments, promotions, layoffs, training, and fringe benefits. This
law directly ties into sexual harassment laws, which include unwelcome sexual advances, requests for
sexual favors, and other verbal or physical harassment of a sexual nature. The victim can be male or
female, and sexual harassment can occur female to female, female to male, male to female, and male to
male.
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Retaliation
In all the laws mentioned, the EEOC set of laws makes it illegal to fire, demote, harass, or retaliate against
people because they filed a charge of discrimination, complained about discrimination, or participated in
employment discrimination proceedings. Perhaps one of the most high-profile sexual harassment and
retaliation cases was that of Sanders v. Thomas. Isiah Thomas, then coach of the New York Knicks, fired
Anucha Browne Sanders because she hired an attorney to file sexual harassment claims charges. The jury
awarded Browne Sanders $11.6 million in punitive charges because of the hostile work environment
Thomas created and another $5.6 million because Browne Sanders was fired for complaining. [3] A portion
of the lawsuit was to be paid by Madison Square Garden and James Dolan, chairman of Cablevision, the
parent company of Madison Square Garden and the Knicks. Browne Sanders’s lawyers successfully argued
that the inner workings of Madison Square Garden were hostile and lewd and that the former marketing
executive of the organization subjected her to hostility and sexual advances. Thomas left the organization
as coach and president in 2008. As in this case, there are large financial and public relations penalties not
only for sexual harassment but also for retaliation after a harassment suit has been filed.
Military Service
The Uniformed Services Employment and Reemployment Rights Act (USERR) protects people who serve
or have served in the armed forces, Reserves, National Guard, or other uniformed services. The act
ensures these individuals are not disadvantaged in their civilian careers because of their service. It also
requires they be reemployed in their civilian jobs upon return to service and prohibits discrimination
based on past, present, or future military service.
K E Y T A K E A W A Y S
• The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) is a federal agency charged with the development
and enforcement of laws relating to multiculturalism and diversity in the workplace.
• The EEOC covers discrimination based on several areas. Companies cannot discriminate based on age;
EEOC law covers people who are forty years or older.
• Employers cannot discriminate against people with disabilities and must provide reasonable
accommodations, such as the addition of a wheelchair ramp to accommodate those with disabilities.
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• Equal pay refers to the fact that people should be paid the same amount for performing the same type of
work, even if the job title is different.
• The newest addition to EEOC law prohibits discrimination based on genetic information, such as a history
of cancer in a family.
• Unfavorable treatment of people because they are from a particular country or part of the world or have
an accent is covered by the EEOC. An organization cannot require people to speak English, unless it is a
requirement for the job or needed for safety and efficient operation of the organization.
• Women can’t be discriminated against because they are pregnant. The inability to perform certain tasks
due to pregnancy should be treated as a temporary disability; accommodation can be in the form of
modified tasks or alternative assignments.
• The EEOC protects people from discrimination based on their race or color.
• Religion is also an aspect of the EEOC family of laws. The protection of religion doesn’t allow for
discrimination; accommodations include modifications of work schedules or dress to be made for
religious reasons.
• Discrimination on the basis of sex is illegal and covered by the EEOC. Sexual harassment is also covered by
the EEOC and states that all people, regardless of sex, should work in a harassment-free environment.
• Retaliation is also illegal. An organization cannot retaliate against anyone who has filed a complaint with
the EEOC or a discrimination lawsuit.
• The US Department of Labor oversees some aspects of EEOC laws, such as theFamily and Medical Leave
Act (FMLA). This act requires organizations to give twelve weeks of unpaid leave in the event of an
adoption, a birth, or a need to provide care to sick family members.
E X E R C I S E S
1. Visit the EEOC website at http://www.eeoc.gov and explain the methods an employee can use in filing a
complaint with the EEOC.
2. If an employer is found to have discriminated, what are some “remedies” listed on the EEOC website?
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Next
[1] Equal Opportunity Employment Commission, 2011 EEO-1 Survey, accessed December 20,
2010, http://www.eeoc.gov/employers/eeo1survey.
[2] US Department of Labor, Leave Benefits: Family and Medical Leave, US Department of Labor, accessed
December 20, 2010, http://www.dol.gov/dol/topic/benefits-leave/fmla.htm.
[3] Michael Schmidt, “Jury Awards $11.6 Million to Former Knicks Executive,” New York Times, October 2, 2007,
accessed July 12, 2011,http://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/02/sports/basketball/03garden-cnd.html.
10.3 Chapter Summary and Case
C H A P T E R S U M M A R Y
• Diversity is the real or perceived differences between individuals. Diversity can include race, gender,
sexual orientation, size, cultural background, and many other differences. Multiculturalism is similar to
diversity but focuses on the development of a greater understanding of how power in society can be
unequal because of race, gender, sexual orientation, power, and privilege.
• Power and privilege is a system of advantages based on one’s race, gender, and sexual orientation. This
system can often be invisible (to those who have it), which results in one race or gender having unequal
power in the workplace. Of course, this unequal power results in unfairness, which may be a legal
concern.
• Diversity is important to the success of organizations. Many studies have shown a direct link between the
amount of diversity in a workplace and the success of the company.
• The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) is a federal agency charged with development
and enforcement of laws relating to multiculturalism and diversity in the workplace.
• The EEOC covers discrimination based on several areas. Companies cannot discriminate based on age—
that is, against someone who is forty or older. They also can’t discriminate against people with disabilities
or on the basis of race, genetic information, national origin, gender, or religion.
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• Retaliation is also illegal, based on EEOC laws. An organization cannot retaliate against anyone who has
filed a complaint with the EEOC or a discrimination lawsuit.
• The US Department of Labor oversees some aspects of EEOC laws, such as the Family and Medical Leave
Act (FMLA). This act requires organizations to give twelve weeks of unpaid leave in the event of an
adoption, birth, or caregiving of sick family members.
C H A P T E R C A SE
But…It’s Our Company Culture!
You are the manager for a fifty-person firm that specializes in the development and marketing of plastics
technologies. When you were hired, you felt the company had little idea what you should be paid and just
made up a number, which you were able to negotiate to a slightly higher salary. While you have been on the
job for three months, you have noticed a few concerning things in the area of multiculturalism, besides the
way your salary was offered. The following are some of those items:
1. You know that some of the sales team, including the sales manager, get together once a month to have
drinks at a strip club.
2. A Hispanic worker left the organization, and in his exit interview, he complained of not seeing a path
toward promotion.
3. The only room available for breast-feeding mothers is the women’s restroom.
4. The organization has a policy of offering $200 to any employee who refers a friend, as long as the
friend is hired and stays at least six months.
5. The manufacturing floor has an English-only policy.
6. You have heard managers refer to those wearing turbans in a derogatory way.
What do you think needs to be done to create a more inclusive environment without losing the culture of the
company? What suggestions would you make to those involved in each of the situations?
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Chapter 11 Work with Labor Unions
You can't do it unless you organize.
- Samuel Gompers
Only a fool would try to deprive working men and working women of their right to join the union of
their choice.
- Dwight D. Eisenhower
Unhappy Employees Could Equal Unionization
One afternoon, one of your employees comes to you with some news. She tells you that she has heard
talk of employees unionizing if they do not receive pay raises within the next few months. She
expresses that the employees are very unhappy and productivity is suffering as a result. She says that
employees have already started the unionization process by contacting the National Labor Relations
Board and are in the process of proving 30 percent worker interest in unionization. As you mull over
this news, you are concerned because the organization has always had a family atmosphere, and a
union might change this. You are also concerned about the financial pressures to the organization
should the employees unionize and negotiate higher pay. You know you must take action to see that
this doesn’t happen. However, you know you and all managers are legally bound by rules relating to
unionization, and you need a refresher on what these rules are. You decide to call a meeting first with
the CEO and then with managers to discuss strategy and inform them of the legal implications of this
process. You feel confident that a resolution can be developed before the unionization happens.
11.1 The Nature of Unions
L E A R N I N G O B JE C T I V E S
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1. Be able to discuss the history of labor unions.
2. Explain some of the reasons for a decline in union membership over the past sixty years.
3. Be able to explain the process of unionization and laws that relate to unionization.
There is a good chance that, at some time in your career, you will join a labor union. The purpose of
this chapter is to give you some background about unions. Oftentimes, depending on your union
involvement, you may have to use a number of human relations skills you have gained so far from
reading this book. For example, the ability to work in a team and handle conflict are all aspects you
may experience as a union member—or a member of any organization. A labor union, or union, is
defined as workers banding together to meet common goals, such as better pay, benefits, or
promotion rules. In the United States, 11.9 percent of American workers belong to a union, down
from 20.1 percent in 1983. [1] In this section, we will discuss the history of unions, reasons for decline
in union membership, union labor laws, and the process employees go through to form a union.
First, however, we should discuss some of the reasons why people join unions.
People may feel their economic needs are not being met with their current wages and benefits and
believe that a union can help them receive better economic prospects. Fairness in the workplace is
another reason why people join unions. They may feel that scheduling, vacation time, transfers, and
promotions are not given fairly and feel that a union can help eliminate some of the unfairness
associated with these processes. Let’s discuss some basic information about unions before we discuss
the unionization process.
History and Organization of Unions
Trade unions were developed in Europe during the Industrial Revolution, when employees had little skill
and thus the entirety of power was shifted to the employer. When this power shifted, many employees
were treated unfairly and underpaid. In the United States, unionization increased with the building of
railroads in the late 1860s. Wages in the railroad industry were low and the threat of injury or death was
high, as was the case in many manufacturing facilities with little or no safety laws and regulations in place.
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As a result, the Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers and several other brotherhoods (focused on specific
tasks only, such as conductors and brakemen) were formed to protect workers’ rights, although many
workers were fired because of their membership.
The first local unions in the United States were formed in the eighteenth century, in the form of the
National Labor Union (NLU).
The National Labor Union, formed in 1866, paved the way for other labor organizations. The goal of
the NLU was to form a national labor federation that could lobby government for labor reforms on
behalf of the labor organizations. Its main focus was to limit the workday to eight hours. While the
NLU garnered many supporters, it excluded Chinese workers and only made some attempts to
defend the rights of African Americans and female workers. The NLU can be credited with the eight-
hour workday, which was passed in 1862. Because of a focus on government reform rather than
collective bargaining, many workers joined the Knights of Labor in the 1880s.
The Knights of Labor started as a fraternal organization, and when the NLU dissolved, the Knights
grew in popularity as the labor union of choice. The Knights promoted the social and cultural spirit
of the worker better than the NLU had. It originally grew as a labor union for coal miners but also
covered several other types of industries. The Knights of Labor initiated strikes that were successful
in increasing pay and benefits. When this occurred, membership increased. After only a few years,
though, membership declined because of unsuccessful strikes, which were a result of a too autocratic
structure, lack of organization, and poor management. Disagreements between members within the
organization also caused its demise.
The American Federation of Labor (AFL) was formed in 1886, mostly by people who wanted to see a
change from the Knights of Labor. The focus was on higher wages and job security. Infighting among
union members was minimized, creating a strong organization that still exists today: in the 1930s,
the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) was formed as a result of political differences in the
AFL. In 1955, the two unions joined together to form the AFL-CIO.
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Currently, the AFL-CIO is the largest federation of unions in the United States and is made up of
fifty-six national and international unions. The goal of the AFL-CIO isn’t to negotiate specific
contracts for employees but rather to support the efforts of local unions throughout the country.
Figure 11.1 The Complicated Structure of AFL-CIO
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Source: AFL-CIO.
Currently in the United States, there are two main national labor unions that oversee several industry-
specific local unions. There are also numerous independent national and international unions that are not
affiliated with either national union:
1. AFL-CIO: local unions include Airline Pilots Association, American Federation of Government
Employees, Associated Actors of America, and Federation of Professional Athletes
2. CTW (Change to Win Federation): includes the Teamsters, Service Employees International
Union, United Farm Workers of America, and United Food and Commercial Workers
3. Independent unions: Directors Guild of America, Fraternal Order of Police, Independent Pilots
Association, Major League Baseball Players Association
The national union plays an important role in legislative changes, while the local unions focus on
collective bargaining agreements and other labor concerns specific to the area. Every local union has
a union steward who represents the interests of union members. Normally, union stewards are elected
by their peers.
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A national union, besides focusing on legislative changes, also does the following:
1. Lobbies in government for worker rights laws
2. Resolves disputes between unions
3. Helps organize national protests
4. Works with allied organizations and sponsors various programs for the support of unions
For example, in 2011, the national Teamsters union organized demonstrations in eleven states to protest
the closing of an Ontario, California, parts distribution center. Meanwhile, Teamster Local 495 protested
at the Ontario plant. [2]
Current Union Challenges
The labor movement is currently experiencing several challenges, including a decrease in union
membership, globalization, and employers’ focus on maintaining nonunion status. As mentioned in the
opening of this section, the United States has seen a steady decline of union membership since the 1950s.
In the 1950s, 36 percent of all workers were unionized, [3] as opposed to just over 11 percent today.
Claude Fischer, a researcher from University of California Berkeley, believes the shift is cultural. His
research says the decline is a result of American workers preferring individualism as opposed to
collectivism. [4] Other research says the decline of unions is a result of globalization and the fact that many
jobs that used to be unionized in the manufacturing arena have now moved overseas. Other reasoning
points to management and that its unwillingness to work with unions has caused the decline in
membership. Others suggest that unions are on the decline because of themselves. Past corruption,
negative publicity, and hard-line tactics have made joining a union less favorable.
To fully understand unions, it is important to recognize the global aspect of unions. Statistics on a
worldwide scale show unions in all countries declining but still healthy in some countries. For example, in
eight of the twenty-seven European Union member states, more than half the working population is part
of a union. In fact, in the most populated countries, unionization rates are still at three times the
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unionization rate of the United States. [5] Italy has a unionization rate of 30 percent of all workers, while
the UK has 29 percent, and Germany has a unionization rate of 27 percent.
In March 2011, Wisconsin governor Scott Walker proposed limiting the collective bargaining rights of
state workers to save a flailing budget. Some called this move “union busting” and said this type of act is
illegal, as it takes away the basic rights of workers. The governor defended his position by saying there is
no other choice, since the state is in a budget crisis. Other states such as Ohio are considering similar
measures. Whatever happens, there is a clear shift for unions today.
Globalization is also a challenge in labor organizations today. As more and more goods and services are
produced overseas, unions lose not only membership but also union values in the stronghold of worker
culture. As globalization has increased, unions have continued to demand more governmental control but
have been only somewhat successful in these attempts. For example, free trade agreements such as the
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) have made it easier and more lucrative for companies to
manufacture goods overseas. For example, La-Z-Boy and Whirlpool closed production facilities in Dayton
and Cleveland, Ohio, and built new factories in Mexico to take advantage of cheaper labor and less
stringent environmental standards. Globalization creates options for companies to produce goods
wherever they think is best to produce them. As a result, unions are fighting the globalization trend to try
and keep jobs in the United States.
There are a number of reasons why companies do not want unions in their organizations, which we will
discuss in greater detail later. One of the main reasons, however, is increased cost and less management
control. As a result, companies are on a quest to maintain a union-free work environment. In doing so,
they try to provide higher wages and benefits so workers do not feel compelled to join a union. Companies
that want to stay union free constantly monitor their retention strategies and policies.
Labor Union Laws
The Railway Labor Act (RLA) of 1926 originally applied to railroads and in 1936 was amended to
cover airlines. The act received support from both management and unions. The goal of the act is to
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ensure no disruption of interstate commerce. The main provisions of the act include alternate dispute
resolution, arbitration, and mediation to resolve labor disputes. Any dispute must be resolved in this
manner before a strike can happen. The RLA is administered by the National Mediation Board (NMB), a
federal agency, and outlines very specific and detailed processes for dispute resolution in these industries.
The Norris-LaGuardia Act of 1932 (also known as the anti-injunction bill) barred federal courts from
issuing injunctions (a court order that requires a party to do something or refrain from doing something)
against nonviolent labor disputes and barred employers from interfering with workers joining a union.
The act was a result of common yellow-dog contracts, in which a worker agreed not to join a union
before accepting a job. The Norris-LaGuardia Act made yellow-dog contracts unenforceable in courts and
established that employees were free to join unions without employer interference.
In 1935, the Wagner Act (sometimes called the National Labor Relations Act) was passed, changing the
way employers can react to several aspects of unions. The Wagner Act had a few main aspects:
1. Employers must allow freedom of association and organization and cannot interfere with, restrain
or coerce employees who form a union.
2. Employers may not discriminate against employees who form or are part of a union or those who
file charges.
3. An employer must bargain collectively with representation of a union.
The National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) oversees this act, handling any complaints that may
arise from the act. For example, in April 2011, the NLRB worked with employees at Ozburn-Hessey
Logistics in Tennessee after they had been fired because of their involvement in forming a union. The
company was also accused of interrogating employees about their union activities and threatened
employees with loss of benefits should they form a union. The NLRB utilized their attorney to fight on
behalf of the employees, and a federal judge ordered the company to rehire the fired employees and also
to desist in other antiunion activities. [6]
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The Taft-Hartley Act also had major implications for unions. Passed in 1947, Taft-Hartley amended the
Wagner Act. The act was introduced because of the upsurge of strikes during this time period. While the
Wagner Act addressed unfair labor practices on the part of the company, the Taft-Hartley Act focused on
unfair acts by the unions. For example, it outlawed strikes that were not authorized by the union,
called wildcat strikes. It also prohibited secondary actions (or secondary boycotts) in which one
union goes on strike in sympathy for another union. The act allowed the executive branch of the federal
government to disallow a strike should the strike affect national health or security. One of the most
famous injunctions was made by President Ronald Reagan in 1981. Air traffic controllers had been off the
job for two days despite their no-strike oath, and Reagan ordered all of them (over eleven thousand)
discharged because they violated this federal law.
The Landrum Griffin Act, also known as the Labor Management Reporting and Disclosure
(LMRDA) Act, was passed in 1959. This act required unions to hold secret elections, required unions
to submit their annual financial reports to the US Department of Labor, and created standards
governing expulsion of a member from a union. This act was created because of racketeering charges
and corruption charges by unions. In fact, investigations of the Teamsters union found they were
linked to organized crime, and the Teamsters were banned from the AFL-CIO. The goal of this act
was to regulate the internal functioning of unions and to combat abuse of union members by union
leaders.
Figure 11.3 Major Acts Regarding Unions, at a Glance
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The Unionization Process
There are one of two ways in which a unionization process can begin. First, the union may contact
several employees and discuss the possibility of a union, or employees may contact a union on their
own. The union will then help employees gather signatures to show that the employees want to be
part of a union. To hold an election, the union must show signatures from over 30 percent of the
employees of the organization.
Figure 11.4 The Unionization Process
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Once the signatures are gathered, the National Labor Relations Board is petitioned to move forward
with a secret-ballot election. An alternative to the secret-ballot election is the card check method, in
which the union organizer provides the company with authorization cards signed by a simple
majority (half plus one). The employer can accept the cards as proof that the employees desire a
union in their organization. The NLRB then certifies the union as the employees’ collective
bargaining representative.
If the organization does not accept the card check method as authorization for a union, the second
option is via a secret ballot. Before this method is used, a petition must be filed by the NLRB, and an
election is usually held two months after the petition is filed. In essence, the employees vote whether
to unionize or not, and there must be a simple majority (half plus one). The NLRB is responsible for
election logistics and counting of ballots. Observers from all parties can be present during the
counting of votes. Once votes are counted, a decision on unionization occurs, and at that time, the
collective bargaining process begins.
Once the NLRB is involved, there are many limits as to what the employer can say or do during the
process to prevent unionization of the organization. It is advisable for HR and management to be
educated on what can legally and illegally be said during this process. It is illegal to threaten or
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intimidate employees if they are discussing a union. You cannot threaten job, pay, or benefits loss as
a result of forming a union. Figure 11.5 "Things That Shouldn’t Be Said to Employees during a
Unionization Process" includes information on what should legally be avoided if employees are
considering unionization.
Figure 11.5 Things That Shouldn’t Be Said to Employees during a Unionization Process
Obviously, it is in the best interest of the union to have as many members as possible. Because of this,
unions may use many tactics during the organizing process. For example, many unions are also politically
involved and support candidates who they feel best represent labor. They provide training to organizers
and sometimes even encourage union supporters to apply for jobs in nonunion environments to actively
work to unionize other employees when they are hired. This practice is called union salting. Unions,
especially on the national level, can be involved in corporate campaigns that boycott certain products or
companies because of their labor practices. The United Food and Commercial Workers (UFCW), for
example, has a “Wake Up Walmart Campaign” that targets the labor practices of this organization.
Strategies Companies Use to Avoid Unionization
Most organizations feel the constraints of having a union organization are too great. It affects the cost to
the organization and operation efficiency. Collective bargaining at times can put management at odds
with its employees and cost more to produce products and services. Ideally, companies will provide safe
working conditions, fair pay, and benefits so the employees do not feel they need to form a union.
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When a union vote may occur, most organizations will develop specific strategies to encourage employees
to vote “no” for the union. Some of the arguments that might be used include talking with the employee
and mentioning the following:
1. Union dues are costly.
2. Employees could be forced to go on strike.
3. Employees and management may no longer be able to discuss matters informally and individually.
4. Unionization can create more bureaucracy within the company.
5. Individual issues may not be discussed.
6. Many decisions within a union, such as vacation time, are based on seniority only.
Organizations such as Change to Win are in the process of trying to increase union membership. This
organization has four affiliated unions, with a goal to strengthen the labor movement. Teamsters, United
Food and Commercial Workers, United Farm Workers, and Service Employees International Union are all
unions affiliated with this organization. [7] The next few years will be telling as to the fate of unions in
today’s organizations.
The Impact of Unions on Organizations
You may wonder why organizations are opposed to unions. As we have mentioned, since union workers
do receive higher wages, this can be a negative impact on the organization. Unionization also impacts the
ability of managers to make certain decisions and limits their freedom when working with employees. For
example, if an employee is constantly late to work, the union contract will specify how to discipline in this
situation, resulting in little management freedom to handle this situation on a case-by-case basis. In 2010,
for example, the Art Institute of Seattle faculty filed signatures and voted on unionization. [8]Some of the
major issues were scheduling issues and office space, not necessarily pay and benefits. While the
particular National Labor Relations Board vote was no to unionization, a yes vote could have given less
freedom to management in scheduling, since scheduling would be based on collective bargaining
contracts. Another concern about unionization for management is the ability to promote workers. A union
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contract may stipulate certain terms (such as seniority) for promotion, which means the manager has less
control over the employees he or she can promote.
Section 11.2 "Collective Bargaining" and Section 11.3 "Grievance Process" discuss the collective bargaining
and grievance processes.
K E Y T A K E A W A Y S
• Union membership in the United States has been slowly declining. Today, union membership consists of
about 11.9 percent of the workforce, while in 1983 it consisted of 20 percent of the workforce.
• The reasons for decline are varied, depending on whom you ask. Some say the moving of jobs overseas is
the reason for the decline, while others say unions’ hard-line tactics put them out of favor.
• Besides declining membership, union challenges today include globalization and companies’ wanting a
union-free workplace.
• The United States began its first labor movement in the 1800s. This was a result of low wages, no vacation
time, safety issues, and other issues.
• Many labor organizations have disappeared, but the American Federation of Labor (AFL) still exists today,
although it merged with the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) and is now known as the AFL-CIO.
It is the largest labor union and represents local labor unions in a variety of industries.
• The United States has a low number of union members compared with other countries. Much of Europe,
for example, has over 30 percent of their workforce in labor unions, while in some countries as much as
50 percent of the workforce are members of a labor union.
• Legislation has been created over time to support both labor unions and the companies who have labor
unions. The Railway Labor Act applies to airlines and railroads and stipulates that employees may not
strike until they have gone through an extensive dispute resolution process. The Norris-LaGuardia
Act made yellow-dog contracts illegal and barred courts from issuing injunctions.
• The Wagner Act was created to protect employees from retaliation should they join a union. The Taft-
Hartley Act was developed to protect companies from unfair labor practices by unions.
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• The National Labor Relations Board is the overseeing body for labor unions, and it handles disputes
between companies as well as facilitates the process of new labor unions in the developing stages. Its job
is to enforce both the Wagner Act and the Taft-Hartley Act.
• The Landrum Griffin Act was created in 1959 to combat corruption in labor unions during this time period.
• To form a union, the organizer must have signatures from 30 percent of the employees. If this occurs, the
National Labor Relations Board will facilitate a card check to determine more than 50 percent of the
workforce at that company is in agreement with union representation. If the company does not accept
this, then the NLRB holds secret elections to determine if the employees will be unionized. A collective
bargaining agreement is put into place if the vote is yes.
• Companies prefer to not have unions in their organizations because it affects costs and operational
productivity. Companies will usually try to prevent a union from organizing in their workplace.
• Managers are impacted when a company does unionize. For example, management rights are affected,
and everything must be guided by the contract instead of management prerogative.
E X E R C I S E S
1. Visit the National Labor Relations Board website. View the “weekly case summary” and discuss it in at least
two paragraphs, stating your opinion on this case.
2. Do you agree with unionization within organizations? Why or why not? List the advantages and
disadvantages of unions to the employee and the company.
Next
[1] “Union Members: 2010,” Bureau of Labor Statistics, US Department of Labor, news release, January 21, 2011,
accessed April 4, 2011,http://www.bls.gov/news.release/pdf/union2.pdf.
[2] “Teamsters Escalate BMW Protests across America,” PR Newswire, August 2, 2011, accessed August 15,
2011, http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/teamsters-escalate-bmw-protests-across-america-
126619168.html.
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[3] Gerald Friedman, “Labor Unions in the United States,” Economic History Association, February 2, 2010,
accessed April 4, 2011,http://eh.net/encyclopedia/article/friedman.unions.us.
[4] Claude Fischer, “Why Has Union Membership Declined?” Economist’s View, September 11, 2010, accessed April
11, 2011,http://economistsview.typepad.com/economistsview/2010/09/why-has-union-membership-
declined.html.
[5] Federation of European Employers, “Trade Unions across Europe,” accessed April 4,
2011, http://www.fedee.com/tradeunions.html.
[6] “Federal Judge Orders Employer to Reinstate Three Memphis Warehouse Workers and Stop Threatening Union
Supporters While Case Proceeds at NLRB,” Office of Public Affairs, National Labor Relations Board, news release,
April 7, 2011, accessed April 7, 2011,http://www.nlrb.gov/news/federal-judge-orders-employer-reinstate-three-
memphis-warehouse-workers- and-stop-threatening-un.
[7] Change to Win website, accessed April 7, 2011, http://www.changetowin.org.
[8] “Union Push in For-Profit Higher Ed,” Inside Higher Ed, May 24, 2010, accessed August 15,
2011, http://www.insidehighered.com/news/2010/05/24/union.
11.2 Collective Bargaining
L E A R N I N G O B JE C T I V E S
1. Be able to describe the process of collective bargaining.
2. Understand the types of bargaining issues and the rights of management.
3. Discuss some strategies if you become part of a union.
When employees of an organization vote to unionize, the process for collective bargaining
begins. Collective bargaining is the process of negotiations between the company and
representatives of the union. You probably remember our discussion on negotiations in Chapter 9
"Handle Conflict and Negotiation". Many of the tips in that chapter can help you should you ever be
in a position to negotiate on behalf of a union or management.
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The goal is for management and the union to reach a contract agreement, which is put into place for
a specified period of time. Once this time is up, a new contract is negotiated. In this section, we will
discuss the components of the collective bargaining agreement.
The Process of Collective Bargaining
In any bargaining agreement, certain management rights are not negotiable, including the right to
manage and operate the business, hire, promote, or discharge employees. However, in the negotiated
agreement there may be a process outlined by the union for how these processes should work.
Management rights also include the ability of the organization to direct the work of the employees and to
establish operational policies.
Another important point in the collective bargaining process is the aspect of union security. Obviously, it
is in the union’s best interest to collect dues from members and recruit as many new members as possible.
In the contract, a checkoff provision may be negotiated. This provision occurs when the employer, on
behalf of the union, automatically deducts dues from union members’ paychecks. This ensures that a
steady stream of dues is paid to the union.
To recruit new members, the union may require something called a union shop. A union shop requires a
person to join the union within a certain time period of joining the organization. In right-to-
work states a union shop may be illegal. Twenty-two states have passed right-to-work laws, as you can
see in Figure 11.6 "Map of Right-to-Work States". These laws prohibit a requirement to join a union or pay
dues and fees to a union. To get around these laws, agency shops were created. An agency shop is
similar to a union shop in that workers do not have to join the union but still must pay union dues. Agency
shop union fees are known as agency fees and may be illegal in right-to-work states. A
closed shop used to be a mechanism for a steady flow of membership. In this arrangement, a person
must be a union member to be hired. This, however, was made illegal under the Taft-Hartley Act.
According to a study by CNBC, all twenty-two right-to-work states are in the top twenty-five states for
having the best workforces. [1] However, according to the AFL-CIO, the average worker in a right-to-work
state makes $5,333 less per year than other workers. [2]
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Figure 11.6 Map of Right-to-Work States
In a collective bargaining process, both parties are legally bound to bargain in good faith. This means
they have a mutual obligation to participate actively in the deliberations and indicate a desire to find
a basis for agreement. There are three main classification of bargaining topics: mandatory,
permissive, and illegal. Wages, health and safety, management rights, work conditions, and benefits
fall into the mandatory category. Permissive topics are those that are not required but may be
brought up during the process. An example might include the requirement of drug testing for
candidates or the required tools that must be provided to the employee to perform the job, such as a
cellular phone or computer. It is important to note that while management is not required by labor
laws to bargain on these issues, refusing to do so could affect employee morale. We can also classify
bargaining issues as illegal topics, which obviously cannot be discussed. These types of illegal issues
may be of a discriminatory nature or anything that would be considered illegal outside the
agreement.
Examples of Bargaining Topics
• Pay rate and structure
• Health benefits
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• Incentive programs
• Job classification
• Performance assessment procedure
• Vacation time and sick leave
• Health plans
• Layoff procedures
• Seniority
• Training process
• Severance pay
• Tools provided to employees
• Process for new applicants
The collective bargaining process has five main steps; we will discuss each of these steps next. The
first step is the preparation of both parties. The negotiation team should consist of individuals with
knowledge of the organization and the skills to be an effective negotiator. An understanding of the
working conditions and dissatisfaction with working conditions is an important part of this
preparation step. Establishing objectives for the negotiation and reviewing the old contract are key
components to this step. Both sides should also prepare and anticipate demands, to better prepare
for compromises.
Figure 11.7 Steps in Collective Bargaining
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The second step of the process involves both parties agreeing on how the timelines will be set for the
negotiations. In addition, setting ground rules for how the negotiation will occur is an important step, as it
lays the foundation for the work to come.
In the third step, each party comes to the table with proposals. It will likely involve initial opening
statements and options that exist to resolve any situations that exist. The key to a successful proposal is to
come to the table with a “let’s make this work” attitude. An initial discussion is had and then each party
generally goes back to determine which requests it can honor and which it can’t. At this point, another
meeting is generally set up to continue further discussion.
Once the group comes to an agreement or settlement (which may take many months and proposals), a
new contract is written and the union members vote on whether to accept the agreement. If the union
doesn’t agree, then the process begins all over again.
Ramifications of a Bargaining Impasse
When the two parties are unable to reach consensus on the collective bargaining agreement, this is called
a bargaining impasse. Various kinds of strikes are used to show the displeasure of workers regarding a
bargaining impasse. An economic strike is a strike stemming from unhappiness about the economic
conditions during contract negotiations. For example, 45,000 Verizon workers rallied in the summer of
2011 when contract negotiations failed. [3] The two unions, Communications Workers of America and the
International Brotherhood of Electric Workers, claim that the new contract is unfair, as it asks Verizon
workers to contribute more to health plans, and the company is also looking to freeze pensions at the end
of the year and reduce sick time. [4] Verizon says the telecommunications business is changing, and it
cannot afford these expenses. An unfair labor practices strike can happen during negotiations. The goal of
an unfair labor practices strike is to get the organization to cease committing what the union believes
to be an unfair labor practice. A bargaining impasse could mean the union goes on strike or a lockout
occurs. The goal of a lockout, which prevents workers from working, is to put pressure on the union to
accept the contract. A lockout can only be legally conducted when the existing collective bargaining
agreement has expired and there is truly an impasse in contract negotiations. In summer 2011, the
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National Basketball Association locked out players when the collective bargaining agreement expired,
jeopardizing the 2011–12 season [5] while putting pressure on the players to accept the agreement.
Similarly, the goal of a strike is to put pressure on the organization to accept the proposed contract.
Some organizations will impose a lockout if workers engage in slowdowns, an intentional reduction in
productivity. Some unions will engage in a slowdown instead of a strike, because the workers still earn
pay, while in a strike they do not. A sick-out is when members of a union call in sick, which may be illegal
since they are using allotted time, while a walk-out is an unannounced refusal to perform work.
However, this type of tactic may be illegal if the conduct is irresponsible or indefensible, according to a
judge. Jurisdictional strikes are used to put pressure on an employer to assign work to members of
one union versus another (if there are two unions within the same organization) or to put pressure on
management to recognize one union representation when it currently recognizes another. The goal of a
sick-out strike is to show the organization how unproductive the company would be if the workers did go
on strike. As mentioned under the Taft-Hartley Act, wildcat strikes are illegal, as they are not authorized
by the union and usually violate a collective bargaining agreement. Sympathy strikes are work
stoppages by other unions designed to show support for the union on strike. While they are not illegal,
they may violate the terms of the collective bargaining agreement.
Working with Labor Unions as Management
First and foremost, when working with labor unions, a clear understanding of the contract is imperative
for all managers. The contract (also called the collective bargaining agreement) is the guiding document
for all decisions relating to employees. All human resources (HR) professionals and managers should have
intimate knowledge of the document and be aware of the components of the contract that can affect
dealings with employees. The agreement outlines all requirements of managers and usually outlines how
discipline, promotion, and transfers will work.
Because as managers we will be working with members of the union on a daily basis, a positive
relationship can not only assist the day-to-day operations but also create an easier bargaining process.
Solicitation of input from the union before decisions are made can be one step to creating this positive
relationship. Transparent communication is another way to achieve this goal.
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K E Y T A K E A W A Y S
• A union has two goals: to add new members and to collect dues. A check-off provision of a contract
compels the organization to take union dues out of the paycheck of union members.
• In a union shop, people must join the union within a specified time period after joining the organization.
This is illegal in right-to-work states. An agency shop is one where union membership is not required but
union dues are still required to be paid. This may also be illegal in right-to-work states.
• Made illegal by the Taft-Hartley Act, a closed shop allows only union members to apply and be hired for a
job.
• Collective bargaining is the process of negotiating the contact with union representatives. Collective
bargaining, to be legal, must always be done in good faith.
• There are three categories of collective bargaining issues. Mandatory issuesmight include pay and
benefits. Permissive bargaining items may include things such as drug testing or the required equipment
the organization must supply to employees. Illegal issues are those things that cannot be discussed, which
can include issues that could be considered discriminatory.
• The collective bargaining process can take time. Both parties prepare for the process by gathering
information and reviewing the old contract. They then set timelines for the bargaining and reveal their
wants and negotiate those wants. A bargaining impasse occurs when members cannot come to an
agreement.
• When a bargaining impasse occurs, a strike or lockout of workers can occur. An economic strike occurs
during negotiations, while an unfair labor practices strike can occur anytime, even during negotiations.
A sick-out can also be used, which is when workers call in sick for the day. These strategies can be used to
encourage the other side to agree to collective bargaining terms.
• Some tips for working with unions include knowing and following the contract, involving unions in
company decisions, and communicating with transparency.
E X E R C I S E S
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1. Research negotiation techniques, and then list and describe the options. Which do you think would work
best when negotiating with unions or management?
2. Of the list of bargaining issues, which would be most important to you and why?
Next
[1] “Best Workforces Are in Right to Work States,” Redstate, June 30, 2011, accessed August 14,
2011, http://www.redstate.com/laborunionreport/2011/06/30/best-workforces-are-in-right-to-work-states-
survey-finds/.
[2] “Right to Work for Less,” AFL-CIO, accessed August 14, 2011,http://www.aflcio.org/Legislation-and-
Politics/State-Legislative-Battles/Ongoing-State-Legislative-Attacks/Right-to-Work-for-Less.
[3] Dan Goldberg, “Verizon Strike Could Last Months,” New Jersey News, August 7, 2011, accessed August 15,
2011,http://www.nj.com/news/index.ssf/2011/08/verizon_workers_outline_differ.html.
[4] Dan Goldberg, “Verizon Strike Could Last Months,” New Jersey News, August 7, 2011, accessed August 15,
2011,http://www.nj.com/news/index.ssf/2011/08/verizon_workers_outline_differ.html.
[5] Steve Kyler, “Division among Owners?” HoopsWorld, August 8, 2011, accessed August 15,
2011, http://www.hoopsworld.com/nba-am-division-among-nba-owners/.
11.3 Grievance Process
L E A R N I N G O B JE C T I V E
1. Be able to explain how a grievance process works.
A grievance procedure or process is normally created within the collective bargaining agreement.
The grievance procedure outlines the process by which grievances over contract violations will be
handled. As you have probably already identified, the grievance procedure is a formalized conflict, as
we discussed in Chapter 9 "Handle Conflict and Negotiation". Learning how to handle this type of
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conflict takes self-management skills—or the ability to avoid taking things personally—and
relationship management skills. This will be the focus of our next section.
Procedures for Grievances
A violation of the contract terms or perception of violation normally results in a grievance. The process is
specific to each contract, so we will discuss the process in generalities. A grievance is normally initiated by
an employee and then handled by union representatives. Most contracts specify how the grievance is to be
initiated, the steps to complete the procedure, and identification of representatives from both sides who
will hear the grievance. Normally, the human relations department is involved in most steps of this
process. The basic process is shown in Figure 11.8 "A Sample Grievance Process".
Figure 11.8 A Sample Grievance Process
Why Human Relations? The discussion of labor unions in this chapter applies to many of the human relations skills
we have discussed so far—for example, negotiation, handling conflict, teamwork, and
communication. Without these important aspects, effective running of unions would not be possible.
Because conflicts happen between union and management, the ability to manage the conflict in a positive
way (relationship management emotional intelligence skill) can not only help the negotiations but also
help you achieve success with a contract everyone is happy with.
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While it pertains to all companies, human relations skills become that much more
important to those that have a union environment where management and employees
must work together. Conflict in these situations can result in major issues on both sides, such as
grievances and strikes. Employing effective human relations skills can reduce conflict and raise
productivity in a union environment.
The first step is normally an informal conversation with the manager, employee, and possibly a
union representative. Many grievances never go further than this step, because often the complaint is
a result of a misunderstanding.
If the complaint is unresolved at this point, the union will normally initiate the grievance process by
formally expressing it in writing. At this time, HR and management may discuss the grievance with a
union representative. If the result is unsatisfactory to both parties, the complaint may be brought to
the company’s union grievance committee. This can be in the form of an informal meeting or a more
formal hearing.
After discussion, management will then submit a formalized response to the grievance. It may decide
to remedy the grievance or may outline why the complaint does not violate the contract. At this
point, the process is escalated.
Further discussion will likely occur, and if management and the union cannot come to an agreement,
the dispute will normally be brought to a national union officer, who will work with management to
try and resolve the issue. A mediator may be called in, who acts as an impartial third party and tries
to resolve the issue. Any recommendation made by the mediator is not binding for either of the
parties involved. Mediators can work both on grievance processes and collective bargaining issues.
For example, when the National Football League (NFL) and its players failed to reach a collective
bargaining agreement, they agreed to try mediation. [1] In this case, the agreement to go to mediation
was a positive sign after several months of failed negotiations. In the end, the mediation worked, and
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the NFL players started the 2011–12 season on time. In Washington State (as well as most other
states), a nonprofit organization is available to assist in mediations (either grievance or collective
bargaining related) and arbitrations. The goal of such an organization is to avoid disruptions to
public services and to facilitate the dispute resolution process. In Washington, the organization is
called the Public Employment Relations Commission (PERC). Figure 11.9 "The Mediation Process for
the Public Employment Relations Commission in Washington State" shows the typical grievance
handling process utilizing the free PERC services.
Figure 11.9 The Mediation Process for the Public Employment Relations Commission in
Washington State
If no resolution develops, an arbitrator might be asked to review the evidence and make a decision.
An arbitrator is an impartial third party who is selected by both parties and who ultimately makes a
binding decision in the situation. Thus arbitration is the final aspect of a grievance.
Some examples of grievances might include the following:
1. One employee was promoted over another, even though he had seniority.
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2. An employee doesn’t have the tools needed to perform his or her job, as outlined in the contract.
3. An employee was terminated, although the termination violated the rules of the contract.
4. An employee was improperly trained on chemical handling in a department.
Most grievances fall within one of four categories. There are individual/personal grievances, in
which one member of the union feels he or she has been mistreated. A group grievance occurs if
several union members have been mistreated in the same way. A principle grievance deals with
basic contract issues surrounding seniority or pay, for example. If an employee or group is not
willing to formally file a grievance, the union may file a union or policy grievance on behalf of that
individual or group.
The important things to remember about a grievance are that it should not be taken personally and,
if used correctly, can be a fair, clear process to solving problems within the organization.
K E Y T A K E A W A Y S
• The grievance process is a formal process to address any complaints about contract violations.
• The grievance process varies from contract to contract. It is an important part of the contract that ensures
a fair process for both union members and management.
• HR is normally involved in this process, since it has intimate knowledge of the contract and laws that
guide the contract.
• The grievance process can consist of any number of steps. First, the complaint is discussed with the
manager, employee, and union representative. If no solution occurs, the grievance is put into writing by
the union. Then HR, management, and the union discuss the process, sometimes in the form of a hearing
in which both sides are able to express their opinion.
• Management then expresses its decision in writing to the union.
• If the union decides to escalate the grievance, the grievance may be brought to the national union for a
decision. At this point, an arbitrator may be brought in, suitable to both parties, to make the final binding
decision.
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• There are four main types of grievances. First, the individual grievance is filed when one member of the
union feels mistreated. A group grievance occurs when several members of the union feel they have been
mistreated and file a grievance as a group. A principle grievance may be filed on behalf of the union and is
usually based on a larger issue, such as a policy or contract issue. A union or policy grievance may be filed
if the employee does not wish to file individually.
• Grievances should not be taken personally and should be considered a fair way in which to solve
problems that can come up between the union and management.
E X E R C I S E
1. What are the advantages of a grievance process? What disadvantages do you see with a formalized
grievance process?
Next
[1] Associated Press, “NFL, Union Agree to Mediation,” February 17, 2011, accessed August 15,
2011, http://msn.foxsports.com/nfl/story/NFL-players-union-agree-to-mediation-federal-for-labor-talks-CBA-
021711.
11.4 Chapter Summary and Case
C H A P T E R S U M M A R Y
• Union membership in the United States has been slowly declining. Today, union membership consists of
about 11.9 percent of the workforce, while in 1983 it consisted of 20 percent of the workforce.
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• The reasons for decline are varied, depending on who you ask. Some say the moving of jobs overseas is
the reason for the decline, while others say unions’ hard-line tactics put them out of favor.
• The United States began its first labor movement in the 1800s. This was a result of low wages, no vacation
time, safety issues, and other issues.
• Many labor organizations have disappeared, but the American Federation of Labor (AFL) still exists today,
although it merged with the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) and is now known as the AFL-CIO.
It is the largest labor union and represents local labor unions in a variety of industries.
• The United States has a low number of union members compared with other countries. Much of Europe,
for example, has over 30 percent of their workforce in labor unions, while in some countries as much as
50 percent of the workforce are members of a labor union.
• Legislation has been created over time to support both labor unions and the companies who have labor
unions. The Wagner Act was created to protect employees from retaliation should they join a union.
The Taft-Hartley Act was developed to protect companies from unfair labor practices by unions.
• The National Labor Relations Board is the overseeing body for labor unions, and it handles disputes
between companies as well as facilitates the process of certifying new labor unions. Its job is to enforce
the Wagner and Taft-Hartley acts.
• The Landrum Griffin Act was created in 1959 to combat corruption in labor unions during this time period.
• To form a union, the organizer must have signatures from 30 percent of the employees. If this occurs, the
National Labor Relations Board will facilitate a card check to determine whether more than 50 percent of
the workforce at that company is in agreement with union representation. If the company does not
accept this, then the NLRB holds secret elections to determine if the employees will be unionized.
• A union has two goals: to add new members and to collect dues. The checkoff provision of a contract
compels the organization to take union dues out of the paycheck of union members.
• In a union shop, people must join the union within a specified time period of joining the organization. This
is illegal in right-to-work states.
• Made illegal by the Taft-Hartley Act, a closed shop allows only union members to apply and be hired for a
job.
• Collective bargaining is the process of negotiating the contact with union representatives. Collective
bargaining, to be legal, must always be done in good faith.
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• There are three categories of collective bargaining issues. Mandatory issuesmight include pay and
benefits. Permissive bargaining items may include things such as drug testing or the required equipment
the organization must supply to employees. Illegal issues are those things that cannot be discussed, which
can include issues that could be considered discriminatory.
• The collective bargaining process can take time. Both parties prepare for the process by gathering
information and reviewing the old contract. They then set timelines for the bargaining and reveal their
wants and negotiate those wants. A bargaining impasse occurs when members cannot come to an
agreement.
• When a bargaining impasse occurs, a strike or lockout of workers can occur. These are both strategies
that can be used to encourage the other side to agree to collective bargaining terms.
• The grievance process is a formal process that addresses any complaints about contract violations.
• The grievance process varies from contract to contract. It is an important part of the contract that ensures
a fair process for both union members and management.
• The grievance process can consist of any number of steps. First, the complaint is discussed with the
manager, employee, and union representative. If no solution occurs, the grievance is put into writing by
the union. Management then expresses its decision in writing to the union. If the union decides to
escalate the grievance, the grievance may be brought to the national union for a decision. At this point,
an arbitrator may be brought in, suitable to both parties, to make the final binding decision.
• There are four main types of grievances. First, the individual grievance is filed when one member of the
union feels mistreated. A group grievance occurs when several members of the union feel they have been
mistreated and file a grievance as a group. A principle grievance may be filed on behalf of the union and is
usually based on a larger issue, such as a policy or contract issue. Aunion or policy grievance may be filed
if the employee does not wish to file the grievance individually.
• Grievances should not be taken personally and should be considered a fair way in which to solve
problems that can come up between the union and management.
C H A P T E R C A SE
To File or Not?
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You work in a large logistics company that is also unionized. Because of the union, your organization has
very set pay levels and specific rules for promotion. Recently, your organization has received many big
orders and as a result, your manager promoted a fellow employee who did not meet the criteria outlined
by the union. You felt you would have been good for the job and are disappointed that you were not
selected. You are deciding whether or not to file a grievance.
1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of filing a grievance in this situation?
2. What type of grievance would this be?
3. Explain the process you might go through in order to file a grievance.
4. Would you file a grievance or not? Explain your answer.
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Chapter 12 Be a Leader
Leadership is action, not position.
- Donald H. McGannon
Leaders don't create followers, they create more leaders.
- Tom Peters
The Biggest Challenge
Casey is the Human Resource manager at your company. You set an appointment with him because
of some issues you are having with your supervisor.
“Casey,” you say, “I really need to vent. Can I sit down and talk with you?” Casey offers you a seat.
You begin to tell him about Sam, your supervisor, and the way he has been managing your team
lately.
You say, “Sam was a really great manager when he started here three months ago. He had individual
meetings with all of us, and he asked a lot of questions. We were all really excited to have him as our
new boss, because he really seemed to care and implemented some of our ideas.
“Lately, though, he seems to be short-tempered and seems to want to make all of the decisions. I
have talked with him about it, but he doesn't seem to notice that it has become a problem. In fact, I
know of two people that are looking for other jobs because of it.”
Casey thinks about the situation and asks you if the timing of Casey's behavior change was around
the same time corporate people had come to visit.
"I hadn't thought of that before, but yes, the timing would be about right."
Casey explains that many of the managers have been told they need to make some changes in the
organization, and these changes are those that must be done without feedback from employees.
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Casey says that he knows it is different than the usual management style of the branch and asks you
if you can hang on for a little longer. He believes once the changes are made, Sam will be back to his
old self. In the meantime, Casey suggests you talk with your manager about your concerns.
Although you feel a bit nervous to do so, you feel talking with Sam might be the best thing for your
department.
12.1 Management Styles
L E A R N I N G O B JE C T I V E S
1. Define the various types of management styles you may be exposed to at work.
2. Explain how, when we become managers, we can determine which style to use in a variety of situations.
As we saw in the opening case, most managers will use a variety of management styles depending
upon the situation. In our scenario, Sam obviously may have gone too far in his use of management
style. As we will discuss in this chapter, there are several management styles that can be used in a
variety of situations. As you read this chapter, consider past managers and think about what style
they may have used. Understanding management styles can help us become better managers or
prepare us to take on the role of manager someday. In addition, understanding your manager’s style
can be beneficial to know—as it can help you relate to him or her better.
Management style ties in very closely with communication style. There isn’t necessarily one
management style that is better than another; they are simply different and might be used in a
variety of situations.
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Task Style versus People-Centered Style
When we look at the styles of management, we see that most styles fall into one of two categories: a task-
oriented management style or a people-centered style.
A manager with a task-oriented style will focus on the technical or task aspects of the job. The concern
for this manager is that employees know what is expected of them and have the tools needed to do their
job.
A people-oriented style is more concerned with the relationships in the workplace. The manager
emphasizes the interpersonal relations, as opposed to the task. The manager is most concerned about the
welfare of the employee and tends to be friendly and trusting.
Understanding these two main differences in management style, we will now look at other possible styles
a manager might use.
Participatory, Directing, or Teamwork Styles
Utilization of a participatory management style involves both a task-oriented style and a people-
centered style. This style emphasizes how the employee’s assigned task fits into the bigger picture. This
style will provide support and input where needed. As a result, the focus is on the task but also on the
person and the relationships required to get the task done. This style might be used when the employees
are experienced and the deadlines reasonable enough to provide the time needed to focus both on the task
and the person. If more hands-on management is required, [1] a directing management style might be
appropriate. Consider a very tight deadline or an emergency situation in which someone needs to be
calling the shots. For example, assume you own a business that creates specialty home-baked dog treats.
You just received an order for one hundred dog cookies by later this afternoon. You might consider using
a directing style with your employees to make sure it gets done on time. This style doesn’t focus on the
person but rather on getting the task done; hence it tends to be more of a task-oriented style.
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A manager who uses a teamwork management style believes there is a value (or necessity) in having
people work in teams. As a result, this style tends to require a people-centered approach. Relationships
are most important, and assuming the individuals work well together, the task will be successfully
accomplished. The advantage to this style, given the type of task and situation, is that as a manager you
are able to pool resources and abilities from several different people. Use of a team style can also provide
big benefits for the company. For example, Google uses a teamwork approach it calls “grouplets.” Google
believes that individuals should be able to spend time on something that interests them and is also
company related. Engineers at Google spend 20 percent of their time on this endeavor. As a result,
grouplets are formed, and the grouplet works on their idea with no specific budget. Some of the best ideas
from Google have come through this teamwork process. Gmail, in fact, was developed using a grouplet. [2]
Autocratic, Participative, and Free-Reign Styles
An autocratic style of management involves the task-oriented style. The focus is on getting things done,
and relationships are secondary. This type of manager tends to tell people what to do and takes a “my way
or the highway” approach. Another description for this type of manager is a taskmaster. This person uses
his or her authority and makes all the decisions as to who does what, how it is done, and when it should
get done.
On the other hand, a participative style constantly seeks input from the employees. Setting goals,
making plans, and determining objectives are viewed as a group effort, rather than the manager making
all the decisions.
At the other extreme, a free-rein style gives employees total freedom to make decisions on how things
will get done. The manager may establish a few objectives, but the employees can decide how those
objectives are met. In other words, the leader tends to be removed from the day-to-day activities but is
available to help employees deal with any situation that may come up.
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Path Goal Model for Leadership
The path goal theory says that the role of a leader is to define goals and lay down the path for the
employees to meet those goals. Aspects include clarification of the task and scope of the process.
Clarification of the employee’s role and clarification around how the success of the task will be measured
are key aspects in this model. The leader also is involved in guidance and coaching surrounding the goal
and removes obstacles for employees that might affect the completion of the task. The path goal theory
says that if employees are satisfied by the leadership style, they will be motivated toward the goals of
leadership. Part of the model also stresses that the skills, experience, and environmental contingencies of
the job play a role in the success of the leader.
Figure 12.1 Path Goal Model for Leadership
Applying Management Styles
It is great to talk about management style, but the application of that management style is just as
important as knowing the management styles. In this section, we will discuss how and when you
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might use each style when managing people. If you aren't managing people yet, consider the style
your current (or past) manager uses. Do you think it is effective based on our discussion?
Another way we can view leadership is through the situational leadership model. [3] This model,
developed by Ken Blanchard (author of the One Minute Manager series of books), does a good job
explaining how we might use one type of management style versus another.
The model looks at three areas: the relationship behavior of the manager, the task behavior of the
manager, and the readiness of employees. The relationship behavior means how supportive the
manager needs to be in helping employees. Task behavior refers to the type of style the manager
should use when managing employees based on their readiness level. Readiness includes the
willingness and skills to perform the task at hand. Depending on where the employees fall in each of
these areas, a manager might use a different style:
• D4—High competence, high commitment. Experienced at the job and comfortable with their own
ability to do it well. May even be more skilled than the leader.
• D3—High competence, variable commitment. Experienced and capable but may lack the
confidence to go it alone or the motivation to do it well/quickly.
• D2—Some competence, low commitment. May have some relevant skills but won’t be able to do
the job without help. The task or the situation may be new to them.
• D1—Low competence, high commitment. Generally lacking the specific skills required for the job
at hand but has the confidence and/or motivation to tackle it.
Based on the readiness and commitment of the employee, the leader can see what management style
and level of support the employee should experience:[4]
• S1—Telling/directing—High task focus, low relationship focus. Leaders define the roles and tasks
of the “follower” and supervise them closely. Decisions are made by the leader and announced, so
communication is largely one way. This style can be used with people who lack competence but
are enthusiastic and committed and who need direction and supervision to get them started.
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• S2—Selling/coaching—High task focus, high relationship focus. Leaders still define roles and
tasks but seek ideas and suggestions from the follower. Decisions remain the leader’s prerogative,
but communication is much more two-way. This approach can be used with people who have
some competence but lack commitment and who need direction and supervision because they are
still relatively inexperienced. These individuals may also need support and praise to build their
self-esteem and involvement in decision making to restore their commitment.
• S3—Participating/supporting—Low task focus, high relationship focus. Leaders pass day-to-day
decisions, such as task allocation and processes, to the follower. The leader facilitates and takes
part in decisions, but control is given to the follower. This style can be used with people who have
the necessary competence but lack confidence or motivation. These individuals may need little
direction because of their skills, but support is necessary to bolster their confidence and
motivation.
• S4—Delegating—Low task focus, low relationship focus. Leaders are still involved in decisions
and problem solving, but control is with the follower. The follower decides when and how the
leader will be involved. This style would work with people who have both competence and
commitment and who are able and willing to work on a project by themselves with little
supervision or support.
The bottom line when discussing management style is that no one style works best in all situations.
We may be more comfortable with one style versus another, but we need to change our management
style depending on the person and task we are working with. For example, if you have an employee
who is brand new, you will likely work with that person using a more directive style. As she develops,
you might change to a participative style. Likewise, someone who does good work and has lots of
experience may prefer a free-rein style. Many managers make the mistake of trying to use the same
style with every person in every situation. To be a great manager, we must change our styles based on
the situation and the individual involved.
Figure 12.2 Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Model
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How does this relate to human relations? First, how people are managed is one of the most important
aspects to motivation in any organization. Understanding "good" management and "not so good"
management can help develop us for when we are placed in management positions, if we aren't already.
K E Y T A K E A W A Y S
• Just like in communication, a different management style should be used depending on the employee.
• Task styles focus on getting the job done, while people-centered styles focus on relationships.
• A participatory style involves both task-oriented and people-centered styles. A directing style is focused
on the task and doesn’t allow for employee participation. A teamwork style focuses on teamwork and is a
people-oriented style. The advantage of this style is the ability to use strengths from everyone on the
team.
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• An autocratic style doesn’t allow much room for employee decision making; the focus is on getting the
task done. A participative style constantly requires input from employees. The free-rein style gives
employees freedom to make decisions on how things will get done.
• The situational leadership model, which looks at relationship behavior, task behavior, and the readiness of
employees, is used to recommend different management styles.
• No one management style works in all situations. Just like with communication, you will likely want to
vary your approach based on the situation to get the best results.
E X E R C I S E S
1. Why is it important to understand management style in a human relations course? Discuss at least three
points.
2. What combinations of management style might you use in each of these situations and why?
a. You are considering a major change in the way your company does business. Your staff has an
excellent record of achieving goals, and your relationship with them is trusting and supportive.
b. Your employees do a great job. A situation has developed in which you need to make quick
decisions and finish a project by the end of the week.
c. Your employees are having trouble getting the job done. Their performance as a whole is less
than expected.
d. You have an employee who is very motivated but has little experience.
Next
[1] “Three Effective Management Styles,” Dun & Bradstreet Credibility Corp., 2010, accessed February 5,
2010, http://smallbusiness.dnb.com/human-resources/workforce-management/11438-1.html.
[2] Bharat Mediratta, as told to Julie Bick, “The Google Way: Give Engineers Room,” New York Times, October 21,
2007, accessed February 15, 2010,http://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/21/jobs/21pre.html.
[3] Ken Blanchard, Patricia Zigarmi, and Drea Zigarmi, Leadership and the One Minute Manager (New York:
HarperCollins Entertainment, 2000).
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[4] Situational Leadership Grid, Chimaera Consulting, 2008, accessed February 4,
2010,http://www.chimaeraconsulting.com/models.htm.
12.2 Leadership versus Management
L E A R N I N G O B JE C T I V E S
1. Describe the process you may use for leadership development.
2. Describe several different leadership styles you may use and their likely influence on followers.
Leadership
Many people use the term leadership as interchangeable with management, but the two terms are actually
quite different. The term management implies someone has been given a position, and through that
position or title they have power to guide others. Leadership, on the other hand, does not require specific
titles. Consider the last group project you worked on for school. It was likely that someone took on the
leadership role for this project, such as coordinating schedules, e-mailing the team, and so forth. This
person did not have a formal title but lead the group anyway. This is an example of leadership. To be
successful at our jobs, we must show leadership skills. These leadership skills can come from our
emotional intelligence skills—for example, self-awareness, self-management, relationship management,
and social awareness. All emotional intelligence skills are needed to be a successful leader. For example, if
you are the informal leader for your group project and feel frustrated with response times, you must have
the ability to be aware of this emotion and manage it by not yelling at your team member when you see
them!
Getting the team to work better together requires social awareness skills, or the ability to understand how
actions of one team member may affect another. Finally, relationship management is necessary to manage
group conflict and maintain good relationships with your team. As you can see, leadership encompasses
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all of the emotional intelligence skills we have been discussing throughout the book. Do you think
leadership comes natural to some and not to others?
Whether or not there is a “natural leader,” born with a combination of talents and traits that enable a
person to lead others, has been a subject of debate across time. In a modern context, we have come to
recognize that leadership comes in many form and representations. Once it was thought that someone
with presence of mind, innate intelligence, and an engaging personality was destined for leadership, but
modern research and experience shows us otherwise. Just as a successful heart surgeon has a series of
skill sets, so does a dynamic leader. A television producer must both direct and provide space for talent to
create, balancing control with confidence and trust. This awareness of various leadership styles serves our
discussion as groups and teams often have leaders, and they may not always be the person who holds the
title, status, or role.
Leaders take on the role because they are appointed, elected, or emerge into the role. The group members
play an important role in this process. An appointed leader is designated by an authority to serve in
that capacity, irrespective of the thoughts or wishes of the group. They may serve as the leader and
accomplish all the designated tasks, but if the group does not accept their role as leader, it can prove to be
a challenge. As Bruce Tuckman [1] notes, “storming” occurs as group members come to know each other
and communicate more freely, and an appointed leader who lacks the endorsement of the group may
experience challenges to his or her authority.
A democratic leader is elected or chosen by the group but may also face serious challenges. If
individual group members or constituent groups feel neglected or ignored, they may assert that the
democratic leader does not represent their interests. The democratic leader involves the group in the
decision-making process and ensures group ownership of the resulting decisions and actions as a result.
Open and free discussions are representative of this process, and the democratic leader acknowledges this
diversity of opinion.
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An emergent leader contrasts the first two paths to the role by growing into the role, often out of
necessity. The appointed leader may know little about the topic or content, and group members will
naturally look to the senior member with the most experience for leadership. If the democratic leader fails
to bring the group together or does not represent the whole group, subgroups may form, each with an
informal leader serving as spokesperson.
Types of Leaders
Thomas Harris and John Sherblom [2] specifically note three leadership styles that characterize the
modern business or organization and reflect our modern economy. We are not born leaders but may
become them if the context or environment requires our skill set. A leader-as-technician role often
occurs when we have skills that others do not. If you can fix the copy machine at the office, your
leadership and ability to get it running again are prized and sought-after skills. You may instruct others on
how to load the paper or how to change the toner, and even though your pay grade may not reflect this
leadership role, you are looked to by the group as a leader within that context. Technical skills, from
Internet technology to facilities maintenance, may experience moments where their particular area of
knowledge is required to solve a problem. Their leadership will be in demand.
The leader-as-conductor involves a central role of bringing people together for a common goal. In the
common analogy, a conductor leads an orchestra and integrates the specialized skills and sounds of the
various components the musical group comprises. In the same way, a leader who conducts may set a
vision, create benchmarks, and collaborate with a group as they interpret a set script. Whether it is a
beautiful movement in music or a group of teams that comes together to address a common challenge, the
leader-as-conductor keeps the time and tempo of the group.
Coaches are often discussed in business-related books as models of leadership for good reason. A leader-
as-coach combines many of the talents and skills we’ve discussed here, serving as a teacher, motivator,
and keeper of the goals of the group. A coach may be autocratic at times, give pointed direction without
input from the group, and stand on the sidelines while the players do what they’ve been trained to do and
make the points. The coach may look out for the group and defend it against bad calls and may motivate
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players with words of encouragement. We can recognize some of the behaviors of coaches, but what
specific traits have a positive influence on the group? Thomas Peters and Nancy Austin [3] identify five
important traits that produce results:
1. Orientation and education
2. Nurturing and encouragement
3. Assessment and correction
4. Listening and counseling
5. Establishing group emphasis
Coaches are teachers, motivators, and keepers of the goals of the group. There are times when members of
the team forget that there is no “I” in the word “team.” At such times, coaches serve to redirect the
attention and energy of the individuals to the overall goals of the group. They conduct the group with a
sense of timing and tempo, and at times, they relax and let the members demonstrate their talents.
Through their listening skills and counseling, they come to know each member as an individual but keep
the team focus for all to see. They set an example. Coaches, however, are human and by definition are not
perfect. They can and do prefer some players over others and can display less than professional sideline
behavior when they don’t agree with the referee, but the style of leadership is worthy of your
consideration in its multidisciplinary approach. Coaches use more than one style of leadership and adapt
to the context and environment. A skilled business communicator will recognize that this approach has its
merits.
Since we have discussed both leadership and management in this chapter, you can see where the
difference between the two is not altogether clear. Either way, looking toward future careers it can be
valuable to understand both management and management styles as well as the process of leader
development over time.
Why Human Relations?
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As we have discussed in this chapter, you do not need a fancy title to be a leader. To be an effective
leader, you must exhibit all aspects of emotional intelligence skills. For example, good leaders
will know themselves well and know their strengths and weaknesses. Good leaders also know their
feelings from moment to moment and they have learned how to handle those emotions. Good leaders
have many similar qualities, such as empathy, ethics, understanding, and patience. These skills are also
emotional intelligence skills—specifically, social awareness and relationship management skills.
Social awareness skills are key in leadership, including reading and interpreting social
cues and body language, setting goals, resolving conflict, understanding the perspectives of
others, and a positive attitude. A leader is someone people want to be around, because they have a
certain charisma that draws us to them! Leaders are also excellent at relationship management in that
they handle relationships with others well. Remember, you do not need a fancy title to be a leader, but
showing these skills in the workplace can not only make you a happier person but also show your
supervisor you are ready to move up within your organization.
K E Y T A K E A W A Y S
• Leadership is a bit different than management in that management includes a "title" while leadership and
the leadership development process can occur without a title.
• Leaders can be appointed into a role, elected into the role, or emerge into the role of leader.
• There are three types of leaders. The first is leader as technician—meaning the person who takes the
leadership role has skills we may not have.
• The second, leader as conductor role, involves a central role of bringing people together to reach a
common goal.
• The third, leader as coach, combines many talents and skills, such as teacher and motivator.
• Many leaders will use a variety of approaches, depending on the situation.
E X E R C I S E
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1. Think of a leader you admire and respect. How did this individual become a leader—for example, by
appointment, democratic selection, or emergence? How would you characterize this leader’s style—is the
leader autocratic or laissez-faire, a technician or a coach? Write three paragraphs and describe.
Next
[1] Tuckman, B. (1965). Developmental sequence in small groups. Psychological Bulletin, 63, 384–99.
[2] T. Harris and J. Sherblom, Small group and team communication (Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon, 1999).
[3] T. Peters and N. Austin, A Passion for Excellence: The Leadership Difference (New York, NY: Random House,
1985).
12.3 Chapter Summary and Case
C H A P T E R S U M M A R Y
• Just like in communication, a different management style should be used depending on the employee.
• Task styles focus on getting the job done, while people-centered styles focus on relationships.
• A participatory style involves both task-oriented and people-centered styles. Adirecting style is focused on
the task and doesn’t allow for employee participation.
• A teamwork style focuses on teamwork and is a people-oriented style. The advantage of this style is the
ability to use strengths from everyone on the team.
• An autocratic style doesn’t allow much room for employee decision making; the focus is on getting the
task done. A participative style constantly requires input from employees. The free-rein style gives
employees freedom to make decisions on how things will get done.
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• The situational leadership model, which looks at relationship behavior, task behavior, and the readiness of
employees, is used to recommend different management styles.
• No one management style works in all situations. Just like with communication, you will likely want to
vary your approach based on the situation to get the best results.
• Leadership and management are similar, although management implies a specific title. Leadership may be
selected in a variety of ways, such as an appointment leader, democratic leader or emergent leader.
Some people may be excellent leaders, although they may not have a formal title within an organization.
• Depending on the situation, a leader may take on a variety of roles to solve challenges.
C H A P T E R C A SE
You own a regional gifts store in your town. The store opened in 2009 and the same four people have worked
together since that time. Recently, the manager left and you need to hire a new manager. You have decided
that one of the four people currently working for you would definitely be great for the job, but you need to
create a list of criteria for the job and then compare it with the skills of your existing employees. Your task is
to develop specific criteria or a "wish list" of skills and abilities for this job based on three different aspects:
1. Skills needed for the job
2. Human relations skills
3. Leadership skills
Once you have created the criteria, rank the skills in each category and provide a written description as to why
you ranked as you did.
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Chapter 13 Manage Your Career
I long to accomplish a great and noble task, but it is my chief duty to accomplish small tasks as if they
were great and noble.
- Helen Keller
A journey of a thousand miles begins with a single step.
- Lao-Tzu
A Shining Star
In the morning, Jackson gives a lot of thought to what he is going to wear to work. Not only does he
want to look nice, but he also finds that clients respect him more and look to him for answers when
he dresses up. His company has a casual policy, but Jackson always wears at least dress pants and a
button-up shirt. The program director wears the same outfit, and Jackson wants to be promoted
some time, so he assumes it is best to look the part.
Another thing Jackson does for career success is to have an awareness of his power position. To
create a stronger power position, Jackson is helpful to his colleagues, has a positive attitude, shows
his problem-solving ability, and handles conflicts with people well. He also rarely complains. These
are all human relations skills he has learned over his ten-year career. Jackson is a positive, upbeat
person who others like to be around. He is polite, friendly, and confident, but not in an egotistical
way.
Jackson’s manager says he is a prime candidate for a promotion. He is dedicated, commits himself to
client satisfaction, and tries to continuously learn new things. When a deadline is looming, Jackson
stays late to help his colleagues finish projects. Jackson always recognizes people’s contributions to
the organization. Jackson epitomizes someone who is emotionally intelligent, which in turn, creates
better relationships and thus more career opportunities.
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Like Jackson, you can do many things to achieve career success, no matter what career you choose. It
is impossible to achieve career success without human relations skills. This chapter will discuss some
of the strategies, such as understanding power positions, dealing with change, and dressing and
networking that can help propel anyone to have positive human relations and high emotional
intelligence, which are both ingredients to career success.
13.1 Career Growth: Power Positioning and Power Sources
L E A R N I N G O B JE C T I V E
1. Apply power positioning techniques to your career.
Remember our ongoing discussion on emotional intelligence skills and their necessity for career
success? Here is how emotional intelligence skills tie into our chapter on career success.
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Throughout this book, we have discussed the factors that create good human relations with our work
relationships and personal relationships. When you started reading this book, you learned how your
personality, attitude, and self-esteem could impact your human relations with other people. We also
talked about the following:
• The importance of emotional intelligence when relating to other people, both professionally and
personally.
• Understanding diversity, and how our own diversity and that of others could impact our human
relations.
• How to work in teams, as working on a team is a mainstay of the workplace, and working with
others is required in most jobs and careers.
• Communication styles—both ours and others can impact how we relate to people and how they
relate to us.
• Handling conflict in the workplace. The ability to handle conflict in a constructive manner
ensures our ability to manage our relations with others.
• People respect others who are ethical; therefore, making ethical decisions can assist us in creating
good relationships with others.
• Having an understanding of human motivation can give us perspective into how others “tick,”
allowing us to handle our relationships better.
• Knowing what it means to have personal success can create happiness—which leads to better
human relations skills.
• The ability to make sound decisions relates to human relations, in that these skills can help us
think logically and not emotionally, which can improve how we relate to others in group decision
making. Knowing how to make sound decisions also relates to conflict management and the
ability to handle conflict in group decision-making processes.
• Managing stress so it doesn’t create negative human relations with others.
With an understanding and practice in all of these areas, we can become successful people in our
careers. This is the focus of the chapter—the skills it takes to be productive individuals through
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positive human relations. The first step is developing an understanding of how we can use power
both at work and in our personal life.
Understanding power and power structure in our organizations can assist us in being more
successful in our career. Power refers to our ability to influence others and convince them to do
what we want them to do. Power is different than influence, in that influence is the application of
the power we have to get people to do what we want them to do. Although it may seem this only
applies to managers, we all use power in a variety of ways, both in our personal and professional
lives. For example, Abbey may use her power to convince Amy they should have sushi for dinner
tonight, but that doesn’t mean that Amy thinks it is the right thing to do. It isn’t until Abbey uses her
influence that Amy agrees to eat sushi. Please keep in mind that power is not a negative thing if used
in the correct way. Power and influence, ultimately, are what allow things to get done in our
organizations. [1] Whether or not we are leaders in our organization, power can come in many forms.
A study by John French and Bertram Raven in 1959 identified the ways leaders can influence
others. [2] They include the following:
1. Reward power. Reward power refers to a person’s ability to present the receiver some type of
reward, should they do something in return. For example, a manager may use raises or praise. If
John wants to reward his employees, he might use reward power by offering them a bonus if they
meet certain sales goals. John, as a parent, may promise dessert if his son finishes his dinner.
2. Coercive power. Coercive power refers to the power of someone to punish someone should they
not do something the person wants them to do. For example, John may say, “If you don’t meet the
sales goal, you will have to look for another job.” This type of power is focused on punishment
rather than rewards. As a parent, John may tell his son he will be grounded if his son does not do
what is asked.
3. Legitimate power. This type of power refers to the ability to make another feel obligated or
responsible. Because John’s title is manager, for example, this gives him the power or the right to
make certain decisions. This can be powerful at first, but over time it can become less important if
trust does not exist. Have you ever heard your Mom say, “Because I said so,” without further
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explanation? This is an example of legitimate power. The mother has the power simply because
she is the mother.
4. Expert power. Sometimes people have power because they have a lot of knowledge or are known
as experts in a certain area. John, for example, might use expert power by saying, “I know you can
meet the sales goal because I was able to meet this same sales goal last year.” Because John is an
expert salesperson, his employees respect his abilities and this respect gives him power. If John is
using expert power with his son when teaching him to play baseball, he might tell his son about the
years of experience he has had playing the sport—therefore, John’s son is motivated to listen to
him.
5. Referent power. Referent power is often referred to as charisma, charm, or appeal. This type of
power comes from one person respecting and liking another, so they are willing to do what the
leader says. For example, if John’s employees really like and respect him, his source of power is the
fact that people want to do what he says. If John is a convincing person with charisma, he may also
use his power to convince his friends to go to the movie he wants to see.
Again, we feel it is important to point out there is nothing wrong with utilizing power to make things
happen; the concern is when an individual is power-compulsive. Power compulsive means the
person’s personality has a lust for power and may use it for personal gain. This is the opposite of
the power-shy personality, who prefers not to be in charge of things and is not comfortable using
power. Power-shy individuals may not be positive either, in that at some point, people must be
willing to use power to make decisions. Keep in mind, we all use power, no matter what title we hold
at work.
Figure 13.1
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Managers may use various types of power depending on the person they are trying to influence. This figure
shows some of the strategies used for influence.
Source: David Kipnis et al., “Patterns of Managerial Influence: Shotgun Managers, Tacticians, and
Bystanders,” Organizational Dynamics 12, no. 3 (New York: American Management Association,
1984), 62.
As mentioned earlier, the idea of “power” often seems negative, but we can use power in an
appropriate way when getting ahead in our organizations. This is called power position. Power
position comes from the concept of feng shui, where the power position is the physical position in the
room for a business meeting. In this position, the person can see all entrances to the room and is
seated against a wall. Because of this, they are said to be the center of attention and thus in the power
position. Our meaning here refers to your ability to use conscientious techniques that can lead to
personal and professional organizational growth; these also happen to be the characteristics needed
for career success, and we can tie into emotional intelligence. Techniques that may help increase
your power position at work include the following:
1. Be authentic. Be yourself. Stay true to your values and those things you find important.
2. Refuse to let people push your buttons. This can result in conflict, which does not increase
your position power. Make an effort to try and get along with others.
3. Develop esteem and confidence. Esteem and confidence will give you the ability to take on
difficult tasks, help others, and contribute to the organization.
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4. Be a team player. Do all the things necessary to be part of a team. Get along with and help
others. Helping others shows leadership, ability, and good citizenship. It can put you in a position
of not only earning the respect of others but also showing your value to the organization.
5. Be someone that makes others feel good. Make others feel good when they are around you—
for example, by being genuinely interested in them.
6. Develop your communication skills. Work on your written, oral, and nonverbal language
skills. Learn to read and understand others’ body language.
7. Be visible in the workplace. Don’t take credit for others’ work, but do take credit for your own
work. Choose high-profile projects that can put you in a position where others see your work.
8. Don’t complain. Unless you can also provide a solution, don’t offer a complaint!
9. Be goal oriented and willing to take risks. Focus on goal setting personally and
professionally. Show managers and colleagues how you can help them meet goals.
10. Have positive psychological capital. There are four aspects to positive
psychological capital: hope, self-efficacy, optimism, and resiliency. Self-efficacy refers to belief
in your own abilities while optimism means to have a positive outlook. Resiliency is the ability to
make it through difficult circumstances. In a study by the Leadership Institute [3] on psychological
capital, there was a clear relationship between positive psychological capital and job
performance/job satisfaction—two very important components for good human relations!
In addition to the techniques, we can think about position power as a set of behaviors we exhibit on a daily
basis. These five behaviors can help us increase our power position at work. We can think about the
acronym POWER to remember these behaviors: [4]
• Positive approach. Having a positive approach to everything can help increase your power
position. Avoiding rumors, gossip, and other negative behaviors can gain the trust of others.
• Open. Being open to others, new ideas, and people can help increase your power position.
• Willingness. The willingness to do things different, try something new, and take risks can
increase your power position.
• Employing. Employing things like tact, common courtesies, humor, patience, and emotional
intelligence skills can increase your position power.
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• Remembering. Know your purpose, set goals, and always do your best.
Having an understanding of the types of power and how to improve your own power position at work can
increase your human relations at work and, therefore, your success—and probably make work more
enjoyable, too!
K E Y T A K E A W A Y S
• Power refers to our ability to influence others and convince them on what to do. This is different from
influence, which is the application of our power to get people to do what we want them to do. In other
words, power is our ability, while influence allows us to move someone to action.
• Someone who is power-compulsive may lust for power, while someone who is power-shy may try to
avoid situations where he or she might have to exert power.
• Our power position can help us achieve career success. Our power position refers to the use of our own
power to get ahead in organizations.
• Power positioning can be done using a variety of methods, but specific techniques and behaviors can be
used to up our power position. For example, the POWER method refers to behaviors we can exhibit to
increase our power position. They include positive approach, openness, willingness, employing things like
tact and social skills, and remembering our purpose and goals.
E X E R C I S E
1. In a small group, discuss examples you or your team members have experienced relating to each of the
sources of power. The discussion can be examples from past or present work experience, school, or home
life. Compile a list and then present to the rest of the class.
Next
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[1] Mind Tools Website. (n.d.). French and Raven’s five forms of power, accessed March 12,
2012, http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newLDR_56.htm
[2] French, J. R. P., & Raven, B. (1959). The bases of social power. In D. Cartwright & A. Zander (Eds.). Group
dynamics. New York: Harper & Row.
[3] Luthans, F., Avolio, B. J., Avey, J. B., & Norman, S. M. (2007). Positive psychological capital: Measurement and
relationship with performance and satisfaction. Leadership Institute Faculty Publications. Paper
11.http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/leadershipfacpub/11
[4] Dawson, J. (2007–8) What good leaders do. ADI Performance website, accessed March 13,
2012, http://www.adiperformance.com/08/pub_article03.html
13.2 Career Growth: Behaviors and Change
L E A R N I N G O B JE C T I V E
1. Describe how you can be promoted in your current or future organization.
Since this chapter is all about professional growth, it makes sense to discuss planning strategies used
by people who want to further their careers. Each of these involves and requires emotional
intelligence skills discussed in Chapter 2 "Achieve Personal Success" and throughout the book.
Having emotional intelligence skills, as you may recall, is even more important than having a high
IQ. [1] Knowing ourselves and the ability to manage ourselves is the core of this section in the form of
a discussion on what kinds of human relations behaviors are necessary to achieve career success.
How to get promoted must be one of the questions managers are asked the most. Often earning a
promotion or movement into a higher level is dependent on not only one’s skills and abilities but also
certain behaviors. According to Long Yun Siang of Career Success for Newbies, [2] there are several
characteristics people have that can help them earn a promotion, and these areas fall into one of
three categories: plan, attitude, and action. They are as follows:
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1. Perform self-analysis. Where are you and why are you there? Is there a key strength that has
gotten you to where you are now? What skills can you continue to leverage to get that promotion?
Likewise, are there weaknesses you must handle before moving to the next level?
2. Keep your eye on the goals. Where do you want to be and how do you get there? Remember
our chapter on goal setting? Now is the time to apply those ideas! Using SMART objectives
(Chapter 2 "Achieve Personal Success"), determine where you want to be in the short, medium,
and long term. Then create objectives that will help you meet those goals.
3. Put pride, passion, and belief in everything you do. People who get promoted have pride in
their work; they enjoy what they are doing and have genuine enthusiasm. They work toward their
own goals but also the goals of the company and of the department.
4. Back it up with skills, knowledge, and direction. Do what needs to be done to acquire
skills. Take seminars and workshops and attend conferences. Make sure you continually update
your skills.
5. See challenges as opportunities. Avoid complaining and look at things to overcome as ways to
improve your skills but also to show others you are capable of solving problems.
6. Understand your role in helping the organization achieve goals.Be a team player to
understand what you must do to help the rest of the department and organization achieve.
7. Do your best and do more than necessary. Volunteer for more work or projects, and take
initiative. Look at how you can solve problems for the manager.
8. Do work from the next level up. Continue to do your own work, but try to take on
assignments that may be “above your pay grade” or above your normal expected workload. This
shows you are capable of the position you want.
9. Understand the importance of networking. Much of the business done today happens
through networking. [3] Networking events are where we can meet new clients, friends, and
employers. They might include events through your local chamber of commerce, charity functions,
and professional organization conferences and events. The ability to stay in touch with people we
meet at events has never been easier through the use of technology. Building relationships with
others takes time but also is worthwhile. People you meet today may be a future employer or client
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one year from now. Networking can also help us find mentors and gain new insights into our
industry.
Besides understanding the skills, attitudes, and abilities needed for promotion, learning how to
handle change is a great way to earn a promotion and obtain career success. We discussed change
in Chapter 2 "Achieve Personal Success"; because it’s necessary both from a personal and career
perspective, it is good to discuss it here from a career approach. Oftentimes, people get too
comfortable in their job, which does not allow them to move upwardly within the organization. We
know that change is a continual process, and the more comfortable we can get, the better, especially
to experience continued success at work. But why do people avoid change in their careers or jobs and
why would they avoid taking on more responsibility to obtain a promotion? Figure 13.2 gives some
examples.
Figure 13.2
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When considering making a career change, whether it be to move to a different company or to earn
a promotion, there are many reasons why people may be afraid of such a change.
It is important to identify the reasons why you may avoid change. When we identify them and our
behaviors, we can begin to understand why we behave the way we do, which is a key component to self-
knowledge and emotional intelligence skills. Another aspect to career success is knowing basic etiquette,
which we will discuss next.
K E Y T A K E A W A Y S
• Part of career success is making sure you know how to increase your power position and having an
awareness of your attitude and personality.
• There are three main aspects to optimizing career success: planning, attitude, and action. Examples
include being willing to go above and beyond your job description and having a specific path you know
you want to reach. Besides goal setting, having a positive, can-do attitude can help improve chances for
promotion.
• Besides attitude and personality, career promotion means being uncomfortable with possible changes.
People resist change because of fear of job security, the unknown, and failure; their individual
personality; and bad past experiences with change.
E X E R C I S E S
1. Go tohttp://images.barnesandnoble.com/pimages/resources/pdf/Change_Quiz.pdf and take the quiz
on change. Then answer these questions:
a. Based on your results, what are some things you could do to improve your resistance to change?
b. Why do you think the abilities to deal with change and with job promotion are so closely tied?
2. Discuss each of the personality ways to obtaining a promotion. If you were a manager, how important do
you think these are? Which would be the most important to you?
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Next
[1] Goleman, D. (n.d.). Emotional intelligence. New York Times, accessed May 23,
2012,http://www.nytimes.com/books/first/g/goleman-working.html
[2] Siang, L. Y. (2006). How to get promoted. Career Success for Newbies, accessed March 13,
2012, http://www.career-success-for-newbies.com/how-to-get-promoted.html
[3] Fox News. (2008, June 3). The importance of networking, accessed May 21,
2012,http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,362704,00.html
13.3 Career Growth: Impression Management
L E A R N I N G O B JE C T I V E
1. Be able to explain etiquette aspects that can help you achieve career success.
Perhaps the most important components to career success are how we manage our reputation and
the impression we give to others both in person and online. Learning how to manage our reputation
can be a key ingredient to developing good human relations, which often results in career success.
Although much of this will be a review, it is important to discuss key elements to making a good
impression in a professional environment.
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Introductions
An introduction to a person is possibly one of the most important aspects to etiquette. This nonverbal
behavior can send positive or not-so-positive messages to a person with whom you want to make a good
impression. [1] Here are the components to a good handshake and introduction:
1. Firm handshake. A firm handshake shows self-confidence. Try not to make it too firm or too
soft. Do not place your hand on top of the other person’s hand while shaking.
2. Web to web. When you shake someone’s hand, put your right hand out and the web of skin
between your thumb and pointer finger should touch the web of the other person. Try to avoid
grabbing someone’s fingers when shaking hands, as this could send a negative message.
3. Eye contact. As you shake the person’s hand, make direct eye contact. This can be challenging for
some people who grew up in a culture where direct eye contact would be considered rude. Make
sure to smile.
4. Say your name and repeat the other person’s name. As you are making eye contact and
shaking hands, you might say something like, “Hi, my name is Jane Doe. It is a pleasure to meet
you.” When they say their name, make sure to repeat it, which will make it easier to remember. In
fact, if they give you a business card, perhaps write down some of the things you discussed. This
way, when you meet again, you are more likely to connect their name with a personal or
professional interest.
5. Introducing two people. If you know two people and are introducing them, say both people’s
names and try to tell them something they have in common they can discuss. For example, “Casey,
meet Ms. Robins. Both of you went to the University of Washington-Bothell campus.” This gives
them a starting point to begin their conversation.
Good handshakes and introductions are important, but they also take practice. Often, people are too
worried about the impression they are making to focus on their handshake, eye contact, and other aspects.
The more comfortable you can get with this, the more second nature it will become and the better your
human relations will be!
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Dining Out
Often a time will come when you must have a business dinner with your supervisor or colleagues.
When we dine alone or with our family, sometimes we do not pay as much attention to table
manners as we should. Showing you have proper table manners in a business setting not only
conveys high emotional intelligence but also can create positive relationships with others. Let’s
discuss this as if we are starting a dinner from the beginning.
Sometimes the amount of dinnerware can be overwhelming! For forks, use the last one out and
work your way in. Make sure the napkin goes on your lap. Also be aware, your bread and
butter plate will always be on your left, while your glasses will be on your right.
First, it would be proper to make sure the host is seated before you sit. Unless the host is male, in
which case he would wait until all females are seated until he takes his seat. Likewise, in any
situation, such as a job interview, you should never sit unless invited. Next, you will want to put the
napkin on your lap. Avoid wiping your face or nose with the napkin. If you need to get up, leave the
napkin on either side of your plate.
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Try to order within the same price range as your host. Never order the most expensive menu item.
Also avoid ordering alcohol unless the host is ordering it, and even then, never drink more than your
limit in a business situation. When food is served, you should not begin eating until everyone has
received their food.
Any food dish on the left is yours; any glass that is yours is on the right. Most silverware is set so the
one you will use first is on the outside, and you work your way in. For example, the appetizer fork
might be on the outside, then the salad fork, then the dinner fork. When you are finished with your
meal, rest the silverware crosswise on your plate to indicate you are done.
Silverware resting together indicates to the server that you are finished with your meal.
If you are in a situation where food should be passed, always pass from left to right. Avoid reaching past
people’s plates to get something. If someone asks you for salt and pepper, always pass both together, even
if both were not requested. It goes without saying, but don’t talk with your mouth full or play with food on
your plate. If you don’t like something, try to take a few bites, but it is ok to leave food. If you have special
dietary restrictions—for example, if you are a vegetarian—don’t make a big deal out of it and just avoid
eating those things you wouldn’t normally eat.
Always say please and thank you to anyone who does something for you, such as refilling your water or
removing your plate. These basic manners can go a long way in showing politeness.
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When the check comes and there is no obvious host, reach for it. If there is an obvious host, such as your
supervisor had told everyone he was going to take the department to dinner, it is fine not to reach for the
check. If people are splitting the check, it is normal to split it evenly, unless of course people had
significantly different-priced items. For example, if one person had only a salad and another person had
the porterhouse steak, splitting might not be appropriate. [2] Likewise, if you had drinks but someone else
didn’t, offering to pay more would be appropriate. It is also customary to tip 15 to 20 percent, and not
doing so would be considered in poor taste. Please note that dining etiquette discussed here is specific to
the United States. Before you travel, consider doing research on proper etiquette.
Clothing
Dress is another consideration with etiquette. Dress will vary greatly from region to region. For example,
in the Seattle area, it is normal for many people to wear jeans to work, while in other parts of the country,
this would be considered inappropriate. When deciding what to wear, it is always best to be a bit
overdressed than underdressed. For job interviews, jeans or shorts would rarely, if ever, be acceptable.
Normally in job interviews, dressing one “step up” from what people wear at the company is a good rule of
thumb.
Showing too much skin or revealing tattoos or facial piercings in some work environments may prevent
upward movement in a company, as it sends the wrong message to your boss, or future boss (fair or not).
In a study by Peter Click, women in high-level positions who dress in what is seen as sexy attire are viewed
as less competent, regardless of their skill sets. [3] Fair or not, there are many unspoken rules about what is
appropriate and what is not. The best thing to do is to look at what the successful people around you are
wearing. For example, if all of the men in the workplace wear suit jackets and rarely take them off, this is
an indicator of expected workplace dress. If all of the women in the office wear closed toed shoes and
leave the flip flops at home, it might be a good idea for you to do the same as well. Personal style and
individuality are important, but in some professions, it makes sense to err on the side of caution when
choosing a work wardrobe.
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Technology
Another important thing to mention is the use of technology. Although many people do it, the
increased use of technology has actually made people more rude; according to an Intel survey, 9 of 10
Americans report they’ve seen others misuse technology and 75 percent agree that mobile etiquette is
worse than it was a year ago. [4] Here are some examples of basic etiquette when it comes to
technology:
• Don’t look at your phone while talking with someone else.
• Don’t use a phone for calls or texts while at the dinner table.
• Don’t talk loudly on the phone in a public space.
• Avoid letting “text speak” cross over into e-mails (i.e., “tho” is OK for texts, but spell it out—
“though”—for e-mails).
• Try to avoid multitasking with your phone in inappropriate places, such as when in the restroom.
• When sending e-mails, avoid clogging up peoples’ e-mail boxes with “reply all” messages.
• Use spell-check for e-mails.
• Try to answer e-mails within twenty-four hours, even if it is to say, “I am not sure about this but I
will get back to you.”
Another note related to technology is the use of social media and the Internet.
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Looking at your phone while talking with someone is the same thing as turning your back to them in the
middle of a conversation.
Reputation Management
Many companies pay hundreds, even thousands of dollars every month to monitor and clean up their
online reputations. The process of monitoring your online reputation is called reputation
management. Reputation.com, one of hundreds of firms that specializes in “fixing” online
reputations, has become popular for companies looking to enhance their online image. Reputation
management isn’t just for companies—individuals are using these services to make unflattering
things on the Internet about them disappear. [5]
Anything posted on the Internet, from a picture on Facebook to a comment on a blog, will be in
cyberspace indefinitely. Consider the case of a New York professor. Eight years earlier, he had been
charged with receiving grant money wrongfully. If you googled his name, you would find a press
release listing this charge as one of his name’s top search results, even though he had paid the
$2,000 fine. [6] Not exactly something he would want a potential or current employer to see! This is
exactly why it is important in career development to be aware of the kinds of things you post—
whether you are looking for a job or already have a job. For example, thirteen Virgin Airlines
employees were fired for a chat they had on Facebook about the plane’s safety, along with negative
comments about customers. [7] In yet another example, [8] a job seeker posted the following to Twitter:
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“Cisco just offered me a job! Now I have to weigh the utility of a fatty paycheck against the daily
commute to San Jose and hating the work.” And Cisco, who regularly monitors the Internet for
mentions of their name (reputation management), replied, “Who is the hiring manager. I’m sure they
would love to know that you will hate the work. We here at Cisco are versed in the web.” Needless to
say, the job offer to this future employee was rescinded.
Websites that allow for professional networking can be a great tool but can also be detrimental. For
example, BG, a natural gas company, had an employee post his resume on LinkedIn and clicked the
“job seeker” box. When his employer saw this, he was fired for expressing interest in other job
opportunities, along with his posting of disparaging comments about his employer. [9]
So how exactly can you monitor your online reputation? Here are some tips:
• Google yourself often and see what the search results return.
• Consider changing your privacy settings in Facebook, so people you are not friends with cannot
view your profile.
• Change your Facebook setting so you must approve posts that “tag” you.
• Be aware of your company’s policy on posting resumes on websites like LinkedIn.
• Do not talk about work on Twitter, Facebook, or any other social media site.
• Never mention your company name on social media sites.
Managing your online reputation can make sure that when an employer or potential employer sees
your online persona, they are seeing the side you want them to see. It will show them that you
represent the company in a positive light, which can enhance career success.
General Etiquette for Career Success
We should discuss other parts to etiquette that would be considered general politeness and show
professionalism, both skills that create positive relationships with others. Some of these include the
following:
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• Be on time for appointments. If you can’t be on time, call if you will be more than five minutes
late.
• RSVP when people send an invitation.
• Always use please and thank you.
• Always send thank you notes when someone goes out of their way for you.
• Apologize if you make a mistake.
• Always bring a gift, wine, or flowers to the host when dining at another person’s home.
• Hold the door—whether you are male or female—if you get to the door first.
• Make eye contact.
• When given a business card, always look at it before tucking it away. Do not put it in a pocket.
• Avoid hording a conversation. Learn how to ask questions and be interested in what others have
to say, too.
• Don’t use swear words in a professional environment.
• Don’t interrupt people.
Understanding and following general etiquette can help boost your career. People who do not have
manners may not be as respected, and as a result, they may not be promoted or experience career growth.
Etiquette is part of social intelligence skills, which—as we discussed in Chapter 2 "Achieve Personal
Success"—are proven to help people attain career success. Speaking of career growth, how does one
actually grow in their career? That will be the topic of Section 13.4 "Career Growth: Personality and
Strategies".
K E Y T A K E A W A Y S
• To ensure career success, there are a few main things to be concerned about. First impressions are
important, so having a firm handshake that is web to web is important.
• When meeting someone, shake their hand, look them in the eye, and repeat their name to help you
remember their name.
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• When dining, there are many etiquette rules. For example, place the napkin on your lap and use the right
forks and glasses. Generally speaking, the first forks you will use are farthest from the plate, and then you
work your way in. Dinnerware, such as a bread plate, is always on the left and glasses are always on your
right.
• Basic commonsense etiquette such as not using the napkin on your face or nose and waiting to begin
eating until everyone has their food would be important to consider in dining etiquette.
• The use of technology has increased and so has the rudeness, some studies show. Basic etiquette for
phones includes not texting while you are having a face-to-face conversation with someone and avoiding
speaking loudly.
• Other things to consider regarding technology might include not copying everyone on an e-mail, making
sure to use spell-check, and using proper grammar.
• Make sure to engage in careful consideration before posting comments on social media. This is called
reputation management.
• Other tips for etiquette include sending thank you cards (not e-mails), being on time, keeping
commitments, and making sure to involve others in a conversation.
E X E R C I S E S
1. Shake the hands of five people you know well. Ask them to give you feedback on your handshake, and
then write at least two to three paragraphs about it.
2. Visit a public place such as a mall or restaurant. Observe how people use technology when they are alone
and when others are around them. What did you observe? What would be considered rude and what
would be considered acceptable and normal behavior? Write four paragraphs on your observations and
bring to class to discuss.
Next
[1] Lorenz, K. (2009, September 9). Six tips for a perfect handshake. Career Builder, accessed March 15,
2012, http://www.careerbuilder.com/Article/CB-431-Getting-Hired-Six-Tips-for-a-Perfect-Handshake/
Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 387
[2] United States dining etiquette Guide, accessed March 15,
2012,http://whatscookingamerica.net/Menu/DiningEtiquetteGuide.htm
[3] Sinberg, L. (2009, July 22). What not to wear to work. Forbes, accessed May 21,
2012,http://www.forbes.com/2009/07/22/office-fashion-sexy-forbes-woman-style-clothes.html
[4] Bruzzese, A. (2011, March 27). Technology increases rudeness quotient. TribLive Business News, accessed
March 15, 2012,http://www.pittsburghlive.com/x/pittsburghtrib/business/s_729376.html
[5] Tozzi, J. (2008, April 30). Do reputation management services work? Businessweek, accessed May 22,
2012,http://www.businessweek.com/smallbiz/content/apr2008/sb20080430_356835.htm
[6] Bilton, N. (2011, April 1). Erasing the digital past. New York Times, accessed May 22,
2012, http://www.nytimes.com/2011/04/03/fashion/03reputation.html?pagewanted=all
[7] Bloomberg News. (2008, November 1). Facebook chat gets 13 Virgin Airlines employees fired, accessed March
22, 2012, http://www.nydailynews.com/news/money/facebook-chat-13-virgin-airlines-employees-fired-article-
1.335199
[8] Popkin, H. (2009, March 23). Twitter gets you fired in 140 characters or less. MSNBC.com, accessed May 22,
2012,http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/29796962/ns/technology_and_science-tech_and_gadgets/t/twitter-gets-
you-fired-characters-or-less/
[9] Nichols, S. (2012, January 5). Employee challenges dismissal after posting CV on LinkedIn. V3 Technology News,
accessed May 21, 2012, http://www.v3.co.uk/v3-uk/news/2135631/claims-firing-linkedin-cv-posting
13.4 Career Growth: Personality and Strategies
L E A R N I N G O B JE C T I V E S
1. Be able to explain the personality characteristics that can increase the chances for your personal career
growth.
2. Be able to explain why having a mentor can be an important part of your career growth.
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While this section doesn’t discuss job searching, resumes, and cover letters (since you do that in
other classes), we will discuss tips for developing a career after you already have the job. First, we
already know there are some personality characteristics that tend to be required for career success.
Please note that this is different than behaviors, which we discussed earlier. Personality is a stable set
of traits, while behavior is an expression of those traits in different circumstances. Although
personality traits tend to be stable over time, we can change our personality traits. For example,
Phil’s personality may normally not be career driven and motivated. This could come out in the way
he relates to others in his organization. But suppose Phil finds a job he really likes. His behavior can
change in that his satisfaction makes him confident, relaxed, and able to work well in teams. So
sometimes when we change our behavior, our personality can change—and our human relations can
change, too.
Some of the personality characteristics for success might include the following:
• Motivated
• Driven
• Good social skills
• Listening
• Reading body language
• Written communication
• Verbal communication
• Ability to make good decisions
• Ability to work with a diverse workforce
• Teamwork
• Handling conflict
• Managing emotions
• Managing stress
• Being ethical
• Positive attitude
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• Goal oriented
• Informing your supervisor that you want to grow your career
Of course this list is not exhaustive, but we have discussed many of these throughout the book. But
how do you develop these skills? First, being aware of your own need for self-improvement can go a
long way to improving these skills. Assume Steve isn’t a very good listener and he identifies this as an
area for improvement. Steve then needs to make a conscious effort to improve his listening skills.
Having an awareness of this need and then putting together an improvement plan is a step in the
right direction. But until we are able to recognize our strengths and weaknesses, we are not able to
improve upon them. In another example, assume Duana realizes she gets very stressed at work, and
that stress causes her to be short with people. Learning how to manage stress better can create better
relations with other people.
Why Human Relations? Human relations skills allow us to better deal with situations and people (us included) who are imperfect.
Human relations—and emotional intelligence—has shown to be twice as important to determine excellent
performance at work. [1] Not every work situation will be great. Bosses will be difficult to work for,
we will have colleagues who we don’t enjoy working with, and personal relationships will
have their ups and downs. How we handle these situations is the true measure of our
human relations skills. How well can we handle situations that are difficult or learn to make decisions
that may be challenging? By employing the human relations information throughout the book, we can
begin to analyze our own strengths and weaknesses in each of these areas. If we have an “I’m fine”
attitude, we are not able to improve, limiting our potential for positive human relations, thus, limiting our
career success.
To get better at human relations, we need to hone on our strengths and weaknesses (self-
awareness skills) and understand what human relations skills we should and could
improve upon. Those areas we identify as our strengths, we need to continue to develop
those strengths.
Sample assessment of strengths and weaknesses:
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• I want to improve e-mail communication (), so I am more focused and clear, resulting in the
receiver understanding my message more clearly.
• I tend to be impatient and protective of my time. Because of this personality trait (), I can
sometimes come across as too demanding to others.
• I want to improve the way I deal with difficult team or group situations (), so I don’t get so angry
when things don’t go the way I want.
• Improve conflict management skills. My emotions run too high when there is conflict and
disagreement. I want to improve this skill, because I know effective skills will allow me to resolve
situations and move forward in my relationships ().
• A strength is my ability to solve problems () in a logical manner. I will continue to employ logical
thinking in the decisions I make and teach others to do the same through the example I set.
• A strength is my understanding and appreciation of cultural differences. I understand people may
behave differently from me based upon their background (). Because I know this, I am
comfortable in a wide variety of work environments. I will continue to develop this skill by
reading about other cultures and traveling to experience the culture firsthand.
• A strength is my willingness to help team members. I try to always go above and beyond to assist
someone who may lack skills that I have (). I will make an effort to continually do this, even if it
isn’t convenient.
This example shows how you might assess your own strengths and weaknesses in relation to your own
human relations. As we know from this chapter, first acknowledging the need to further develop, then
making efforts to improve the skills are the first steps to a positive human relations—and a successful
career.
Soon, you will be taking final exams, working on final projects, and moving on to the next set of classes—
or maybe a new career. Don’t think of your journey for improving emotional intelligence skills
as ending; really, it is just beginning. As you begin the process of self-assessment and self-
awareness, you can do this more thoroughly because you know the components of good human relations.
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One of the ways we can develop the skill of recognizing your strengths and weaknesses is to utilize a
mentor. A mentor is someone who is a trusted counselor or teacher. Sometimes, companies have formal
mentorship programs. Often, though, the best mentorships come from relationships that form over time.
For example, when Paul started working at Ascent Corporation, he knew he wanted to move up the
company ranks but didn’t know how. When Paul was put on a project with Beth, a managing director, he
knew that he wanted to talk with her to find out how she made it to that position. Paul felt nervous
approaching Beth at first because she was so busy. But he decided to take the risk and invited her to have
coffee after their meeting. After that, they began to speak weekly and Beth took an interest in helping Paul
in his career. Together, the two worked to develop strategies and objectives for Paul’s career. When he had
questions about his career path, she helped him. When a position opened up, Beth coached Paul on the
interview and he was promoted.
Make sure you continue learning. Taking seminars and courses can help make you more marketable in
your field. Since most fields change on a regular basis, we must continually update our skills to build upon
what we already know and learn new things.
K E Y T A K E A W A Y S
• There are many personality characteristics that can help someone be successful at work. They include
learning how to manage emotions, being ethical, and learning how to deal with stress.
• Other factors to career success might include the ability to set goals, make decisions, and deal with
conflict.
• Knowing which of these things you are good at and which need work is an important part to making sure
you continually grow professionally and personally.
• Getting a mentor, that is, someone who can guide you through your career, is also a valuable tool for
making sure you experience career growth.
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• Continually learning is another way to grow in your career. Make sure you stay updated on new
technologies and discoveries in your field. This can happen through formal training courses or reading
publications from your industry.
E X E R C I S E S
1. Looking at the list of personality characteristics for success in this section, rate yourself on a scale from one
to ten, with ten being your strongest areas. Once you rate yourself, look at the three lowest areas. Create
specific goals and objectives that will help you overcome these weaknesses.
2. List at least three possible mentors for you, and then discuss how you might approach each one to ask
about his or her availability to mentor you.
Next
[1] Goleman, D. (2004, January). What makes a leader? Harvard Business Review, accessed May 23,
2012, http://hbr.org/2004/01/what-makes-a-leader/ar/1
13.5 Chapter Summary and Case
C H A P T E R S U M M A R Y
• Power refers to our ability to influence others and convince them on what to do. This is different from
influence, which is the application of our power to get people to do what we want them to do. In other
words, power is our ability, while influence allows us to move someone to action.
• Someone who is power-compulsive may lust for power, while someone who is power-shy may try to
avoid situations where he or she might have to exert power.
• Our power position can help us achieve career success. Our power position refers to the use of our own
power to get ahead in organizations.
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• Power positioning can be done using a variety of methods, but specific techniques and behaviors can be
used to up our power position. For example, the POWER method refers to behaviors we can exhibit to up
our power position. They include positive approach, open, willingness, employing things like tact and
social skills, and remembering our purpose and goals.
• Part of career success is making sure you know how to increase your power position, but it is also having
an awareness of your attitude and personality.
• There are three main behavioral aspects to optimizing career success: planning, attitude, and action.
Examples include being willing to go above and beyond your job description and having a specific path
you know you want to reach. Besides goal setting, having a positive, can-do attitude can help improve
chances for promotion.
• To ensure career success, there are a few main things one should be concerned about. First impressions
are important, so having a firm handshake that is web to web is important.
• When meeting someone, shake their hand, look them in the eye and repeat their name to help you
remember it.
• When dining, there are many etiquette rules—for example, placing the napkin on your lap and using the
right forks and glasses. Generally speaking, the first forks you will use are farthest from the plate, and
then you work your way in. Dinnerware, such as a bread plate, is always on the left and glasses are always
on your right.
• Basic commonsense etiquette such as not using the napkin on your face or nose, waiting to begin eating
until everyone has their food, and others would be considered important things to consider in dining
etiquette.
• The use of technology has increased and so has the rudeness, some studies show. Some basic etiquette
rules for phones include not texting while you are having a face-to-face conversation with someone and
avoid speaking loudly.
• Other things to consider regarding technology might include not copying everyone on an e-mail, making
sure to use spell check, and proper grammar.
• Other tips for etiquette include sending thank you cards (not e-mails), being on time, keeping
commitments, and making sure to involve others in a conversation.
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• Many personality characteristics can help someone be successful at work. They include many topics
discussed throughout this book, such as learning how to manage emotions, being ethical, and learning
how to deal with stress.
• Other factors to career success might include the ability to set goals, make decisions, and deal with
conflict.
• Knowing which of these things you are good at and which need work is an important part to making sure
you continually grow professionally and personally.
• Getting a mentor, that is, someone who can guide you through your career is also a valuable tool for
making sure you experience career growth.
• Continually learning is another way to grow in your career. Stay updated on new technologies and
discoveries in your field. This can happen through formal training courses or reading publications from
your industry.
C H A P T E R C A SE
Robert is a supervisor at a large bottling company. His job includes managing safety and breaks and setting
schedules for his twenty-five employees who use forklifts and other machinery to package and move filled
bottles on to trucks for delivery. Robert has career goals with the organization. First, he would like to become
the bottling manager, which is one step up from his current job. In five years, Robert would like to become the
director of operations who oversees the entire factory floor.
Robert is an excellent, well-liked manager by his employees, but when it comes to his supervisors, he is very
quiet. He never mentioned the fact that his shift had one hundred accident-free days in a row or that
productivity had increased 10 percent since he took over the shift. Robert is also a bit shy, so he avoids any
kind of social interaction such as the holiday party.
While Robert wants to be promoted in the organization, he knows he lacks some of the skills needed to do the
job, such as the ability to put together budgets. Because of this, he has identified two courses he would like to
take to improve his financial skills.
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Robert was recently asked to review the operational processes during his shift and excelled at it. In fact,
because of the shifts’ awareness, Robert motivated his staff to change some of the procedures to be more
cost effective. Since Robert would like a promotion, he knows he should assess his strengths and weaknesses.
1. Consider each of the following topics discussed in this chapter and discuss Robert’s strengths and
weaknesses in each of the following areas (making reasonable assumptions is fine). Then create a
plan addressing what Robert can do to improve in each area:
a. Power positioning
b. Planning, action, and attitude
c. Etiquette
d. Personality characteristics
e. Mentoring
f. Continual learning
2. Once you complete some ideas for Robert, think about your strengths and weaknesses in each area.
Make a plan on how you can improve on each point.