Rationalism, Empiricism, Constructivism (Philosophy)
Module 04/M4_AssignmentInstructions.html
Module 4 Assignment: Rationalism, Empiricism, Constructivism Essay
Overview
For this module, you will have a choice to write on ONE of two general essay topics. The first option is based on the Module 3 content. The second option is based on Module 4 content. Please do not write on both Option 1 and Option 2. If you do, you will automatically lose 25 points. Again, choose EITHER (but not both) Option 1 or Option 2.
Option 1: Free Will and Determinism
Overview
According to the principle of determinism, every event that takes place in the world has a cause. Whether or not the event is snow falling, birds chirping or humans thinking, the determinist asserts that each and every event that occurs in the world has a cause, or series of causes, that makes the event, and everything connected to it, inevitable.
Now consider what this means for your thoughts at this present moment and for your forthcoming Module 3 Essay. Presumably, at this present moment, you are thinking very deeply about formulating a thesis that is interesting, compelling, specific and shows good understanding of the material. And, hopefully, these thoughts will lead to a high-quality essay. However, if determinism is true (and, of course, there are very good reasons for thinking that it is), EVERY single thing that you are thinking at this present moment is the unavoidable product of your personality (e.g., brain state, genetics and upbringing), the situation that you find yourself in, along with basic laws of nature. The same goes for your forthcoming essay. In this way, the particular thesis that you will end up “choosing,” the quality of your essay and the words that you will employ, all would be inevitable and indeed predictable (in principle) from the moment of your birth. In such a case, would it make sense to say that you deserve the grade that you will get on your essay?
Notice that the same type of question can be posed for ANY human event for which we might be inclined to ascribe praise and blame. Did Mother Teresa deserve to be praised for her charitable acts? Did Hitler deserve to be condemned for his moral atrocities? Ultimately, the answer to these questions depends on one’s view of the complex relationship between determinism, freedom and moral responsibility.
Essay Question: Which theory best explains the true nature of moral responsibility and its relation to human freedom and determinism--libertarianism, hard determinism or compatibilism? In your answer, be sure to demonstrate an understanding of each of the three theories.
Option 2: Epistemology
Overview
Rationalism is the view that reason itself provides the foundation of knowledge. In other words, according to the rationalist, the mind is wired or implanted with certain a priori capacities/ideas, and it is in virtue of these a priori capacities/ideas that we can explain the source and foundation of knowledge. As to which ideas/capacities are the important ones when it comes to giving a robust account of knowledge, this is a matter of considerable dispute. However, regardless of any potential lack of historical convergence on which aspects of our thinking are innate, it is important to note that the rationalistic tradition has a long, resilient history that extends to the modern day. Indeed contemporary studies on childhood development are often cited in support of rationalism.
While opposite in its conclusion to rationalism, empiricism has a likewise long and storied history with deep anchor points in the history of Western thought and contemporary intellectual life. It also has its fair share of passionate adherents and critics. According to empiricism, the foundations of knowledge can only be captured through an appeal to particular experiences over reason itself. Thus, whereas the metaphor of a mind that is wired or implanted with certain capacities/ideas was used to illustrate rationalism, empiricism is perhaps best thought of in terms of a blank slate or an empty vessel. In this way, empiricism denies that there are innate or a priori ideas, and is therefore in direct opposition to rationalism.
A third main theory of knowledge, and what is often considered a hybrid of rationalism and empiricism, is constructivism. According to it, knowledge must be explained by both an appeal to reason itself (a priori) and by reference to experience (a posteriori). In this way, the constructivist holds that knowledge requires a fusion between the innate capacities of the mind and our experiences. A metaphor that is sometimes used to express the complex and deep union between reason and experience is that of a cookie cutter and dough. Under this characterization, the innate aspects of mind (e.g., space and time) can be equated with the cookie cutter, the dough represents sense-data, and the cookie signifies our ideas and ultimately our knowledge.
In terms of deciding which theory of knowledge is the stronger one, this is no small challenge. Each view has distinct advantages and disadvantages. However, it is worth noting that while there might be a strong initial temptation to go with the constructivist’s compromise between empiricism and rationalism, sometimes the best solutions to our problems do not involve a compromise. Rather, sometimes the best solutions are the simpler ones. So the challenge here is to decide whether or not a hybrid theory of knowledge really is more plausible than its more simple counterparts.
Essay Question: Choose ONE of the above three theories of knowledge covered in this module (i.e., empiricism, rationalism, constructivism) and ONE particular philosopher’s account of this same theory (e.g., Descartes’ rationalism, Locke’s empiricism or Kant’s constructivism) and explain why it is the strongest, most plausible theory of knowledge. Also, as a part of your essay, explain why the theory that you are defending is more plausible than what you regard as the second best alternative. For example, if you believe that constructivism is the most plausible theory of knowledge and that empiricism is a close second, carefully explain why.
Instructions
- Download and view the Essay Writing Guide.
- Write and submit a thoughtful, clear and succinct thesis writing assignment of 1000-1500 words, in direct response to the Module 4 assignment above.
- Draw directly upon our assigned textbook readings for Module 3 or Module 4 in carefully crafting your detailed response.
- In answering the essay question provided, carefully review, reflect upon, and attempt to integrate the textbook material. If you are writing on Option 1, this means integrating the material covered in Chapter 2: Sections 2.5-2.9. If you are writing on Option 2, this means integrating the material covered in Chapter 3: Sections 3.0-3.4.
- Please double-space your submission, include your name at the top of its first page, and be sure to cite all sources quoted or paraphrased from (even if it’s only our textbook). Please take careful note of the above formatting instructions.
- Don’t forget to include a bibliography or “works cited” page at the end!
See the Schedule in the Syllabus Module for due dates. Review the Rubric attached to the Assignment Submission Folder for grading information.
Module 02/EssayWritingGuide.pdf
Essay Writing Guide Essay Essential Elements
These are the essential elements that I will be looking for in your essay. Please note that this is just a brief summary. For a more detailed account of each of these elements, please carefully read the Guide to Writing a Philosophy Essay found just below. In order to have a greater understanding of what I will be looking for in your essay, it is necessary that you carefully read the complete Essay Writing Guide.
Introduction - Here you will briefly but accurately explain one or more of the main concepts that are essential for stating your thesis statement.
Thesis statement contained within the intro - Your thesis should be found in
your introduction and should state your conclusion/fundamental answer to the question, along with supporting reasons.
Definitions of central concepts, along with original examples - Definitions
and examples should be clear and should speak to the educated but uninformed reader.
Body of the essay 4-6 paragraphs long, not including the introduction or
conclusion - The body is where you will defend your thesis, define key terms and consider counterarguments.
Paragraphs of the essay 4-8 sentences long - This is a general guideline.
Avoid paragraphs that are too short or too long.
Two to three arguments that support your thesis - An argument can be defined as a set of premises that provide evidence and support for a definite conclusion. Arguments need to be clear and directly connected to your thesis.
One counterargument to your thesis - The counterargument that you explain
should represent a charitable interpretation of your hypothetical critic’s response to one or more aspects of your thesis.
One response to the counterargument to you thesis - Your task here is to
carefully respond to the prior counterargument that you laid out.
Two brief quotations properly cited from primary sources - Primary sources can come from our text or from an outside source.
Conclusion - Your conclusion will represent a summary of the key points of your
essay. Formatting and Mechanics
MLA or APA Formatting. See Start Here pages for more detail. Spelling/Punctuation/Grammar. See Start Here pages for more detail.
Total Points Possible: 50 pts Word Count: 1000-1500 words
Guide to Writing a Philosophy Essay
Why Writing a Philosophy Essay is Hard Work
George Walker Bush once said about being the President of the United States, “It’s hard work.” Such is also the case with writing a philosophy essay. What makes it hard work?
1. It’s abstract, and abstract thinking isn’t easy.
2. It’s technical, and technical writing requires considerable brain power.
3. It’s systematic, and being systematic requires being organized, which we all know is work.
4. It’s explicit, and being explicit entails knowing exactly what your point is and it requires the ability to find the correct language to convey this point, which can be a real pain.
5. It employs critical thinking skills, and critical thinking skills do not necessarily come naturally.
6. It’s foreign to many of us, and tasks that are foreign often require more time and effort to complete than tasks that aren’t foreign.
7. It can be emotionally challenging, and doing things that are emotionally challenging can be, well, difficult.
What a Philosophy Essay Isn’t
While there is considerable overlap between writing philosophy essays and writing of other sorts, a philosophy essay is unique in many respects. For example, being explicit, systematic and technical are characteristics of a good philosophy essay, yet if a short story was too explicit, systematic and technical it may end up being quite poor. For this reason, it is worth expanding on what a philosophy essay isn’t.
1. Creative writing—with creative writing, it can be quite important to be aesthetically
pleasing and to show, as opposed to tell, your reader what your point is. However, in a philosophy essay being aesthetically pleasing is by no means a requirement, and explicitly revealing your point is critical to the task at hand.
2. Poetry—while there can be philosophical ideas contained in poetry, a philosophy essay is distinct from this. Vagueness, ambiguity and the like can be virtues of a poem; not so when it comes to a philosophy essay.
3. Editorials—editorialized writing is often written with emotionally charged language and consists of a series of loosely connected opinions. In philosophy essays, this is not the case. Opinions need to be backed by arguments and bound by a distinct and well defined goal.
4. Purely descriptive writing—being properly descriptive is very important in a variety of settings. For example, if your boss emails you and asks you to describe the expenditures for a particular month, accurate descriptions are essential. Likewise, if you are telling an adventure story for magazine, a clear and true account of the adventure can be just what pulls the reader in. Yet, while correct descriptions of
events are important in a philosophy essay, they are not enough. An evaluative component is central. In essence, the task of a philosophy essay will be to not only describe a particular theory or position, but also to explain why it is a good one.
What a Philosophy Essay Is
In general, a philosophy essay is a carefully articulated defense of a thesis statement. A philosophy essay will have an introduction, a body and a conclusion. Each part of it will hang together in a clear and coherent manner.
1. Introduction—the introduction is where you will “set the stage” for what will follow. More specifically, you will briefly explain one or more of the main concepts you will be discussing in your essay that are essential for stating your thesis statement. Your introduction should be concise and dedicated to giving the reader just enough information for conveying the meaning and relevance of your thesis statement.
2. Thesis—your thesis should be expressed in one or more sentences. For this class, I would say no more than three. Here, you will state your position on a particular topic and give a basic sketch of why this is your position. That is, you will state the reasons that support your conclusion on the topic in question, i.e., you will state your basic philosophical argument. For a more detailed account of the characteristics of an argument, please visit this site:
http://www.philosophypages.com/lg/e01.htm. As you read it, carefully note the critical difference between an argument’s premises and conclusion, and the logical relationship that premises share with the conclusion.
3. Here are a few examples of theses that are problematic and why they are problematic. The last one is a good thesis.
a. “In this essay, I will answer the assigned essay question by giving my view of active euthanasia and whether or not it should be legal.” Don’t tell the reader that you will answer the essay question. State your answer to the essay question.
b. “I will argue that passive euthanasia is legal.” Uninteresting and merely descriptive. Passive euthanasia IS legal in all states.
c. “I will argue that euthanasia should be legal.” Too general. Which type of euthanasia?
d. “I will argue that active euthanasia should be legal.” This is better, although the thesis is not informative enough. Why should it be legal? State your reasons.
e. “I will argue that active voluntary euthanasia should be legal because it is supported by the principle of beneficence and principle of autonomy. Moreover, I will argue that the most common slippery slope arguments that are used against active euthanasia are not decisive.” Eureka!
For more information on writing thesis statements and to help you formulate your own thesis, please consult the following two webpages:
http://writingcenter.fas.harvard.edu/pages/developing-thesis http://twp.duke.edu/uploads/assets/developing%20a%20central%20claim.pdf
4. Body—The body of your essay is where you will defend your thesis. Here, you will
carefully explain and provide original examples for key concepts/theories/substantive points. Each concept/theory/substantive point that you make needs its own distinct paragraph. Moreover, it should be clear to the reader just what point each paragraph is making and how each paragraph relates to the thesis. So, if your thesis was that ethical egoism is an implausible moral theory because it suffers from three significant weaknesses (you would state the weaknesses in your thesis), the body of your essay would involve, among other things, carefully stating and explaining ethical egoism, as well as dedicating at least one paragraph to each of the three weaknesses. Finally, it is important to explain and address at least one of your opponent’s best arguments. For the purposes of this class, your opponent’s arguments, which in some manner oppose your thesis, are called counterarguments. For a more information on counterarguments, please read the following page:
http://revelle.ucsd.edu/humanities/writing-info/argument/counterargument.html
5. Conclusion—in the last paragraph or two of your essay, you will give a brief summary of the key points. In addition, a statement of your view is needed. It is a nice touch to frame your view in manner that also addresses your opponent’s perspective and the basic shortcomings or your opponent’s perspective. Your conclusion should be as brief as possible. For our purposes, one paragraph should suffice.
Final Thoughts
So, it should now be clear that being President of the United States AND writing a philosophy essay are both hard work and, perhaps, even for some of the same reasons. At the same time, it is also important to note that this guide is very incomplete. The intention here is not to give an exhaustive account of what constitutes a quality philosophy essay, but rather to give you some of the basics of a good philosophy essay.[1] With this in mind, let me leave you with a few things to avoid in writing your philosophy paper:
1. Relying on quotations—quotations are good, but use them sparingly to highlight key passages that you will also explain in your own words.
2. Being informal—avoid all slang in your essay. Your audience is intelligent and desires an intelligently written essay.
3. Historical pieces—don’t attempt to give a history lesson in your essay or write the ideas off as “a product of the time.”
4. Psychological profiles—don’t attempt to reduce a philosopher’s views to his/her personal psychology. Freud may have been spanked as a child, but this is not relevant to whether or not his theory of the mind is plausible.
5. Begging the question—if you said that God exists because everything written in the Bible is true, you have essentially assumed what you are trying to prove. In order for
the Bible to be true, God must exist in the first place, so appealing to it is unhelpful.
6. Trying to accomplish too much—be very careful of trying to address every single argument on a particular topic. Usually the best approach is to pick two or three arguments that support your position and explain them well.
7. Not giving print to one or more opposing viewpoints—in general, you should explain one or two counterarguments that oppose your position and why they are not decisive.
8. Straw man characterizations of one or more opposing viewpoints—always characterize counterarguments in a charitable manner. Failing to do so is a bad practice.
9. Attacking the character of someone—Clinton may have been adulterer, but this feature of his character is not a relevant criticism of his views on War in Iraq.
10. Using a dictionary as a source—rarely do dictionaries solve philosophical disputes. Dictionaries report the common usage of a term, which is usually inadequate for philosophical purposes.
11. Using a religious text as a source—Religious texts are profoundly important in many contexts, but they don’t carry much weight in a philosophy essay. See begging the question.
12. Using Wikipedia as a source—Wikipedia is a great source of information, but sometimes it is incorrect and misleading.
13. Saying “I believe” or “I feel” too much.
14. Being too wordy.
15. Asserting things without support.
16. Using emotionally charged language.
17. Using a word that you aren’t sure what it means.
18. Having a thesis that you aren’t sure what it means.
19. Hyperboles and silly or clicheish metaphors.
20. Telling the reader that “this topic has been debated since the beginning of time.”
[1] For an exhaustive account of writing a philosophy essay, see Lewis Vaughn, Writing Philosophy: A Student’s Guide to Philosophy Essays (Oxford University Press, 2006).