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A Phenomenological Approach to Social Motivating Factors

for First-Generation Minority College Freshmen

Submitted by

Washica L. Little

A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree

Doctorate of Education

Grand Canyon University

Phoenix, Arizona

December 19, 2013

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Abstract

It is more important now than ever before to have a diverse, highly skilled, and better

educated workforce in order to compete in a global economy. Society has to increase the

number of college graduates to ensure positive economic growth and, more importantly,

to enhance society as a whole. Citizens who are better educated are more likely to vote

and participate in their civic duties. However, less than one-third of the U.S. population

holds a bachelor’s degree; the percentage is even lower among African Americans and

Hispanics. A key component of achieving the goal of increasing the number of a better

educated workforce is to increase the number of first-generation minority college

students. This research explored the social motivating factors that influence a first-

generation minority college freshman to pursue a postsecondary education. Based on the

results of this study, family influence was the most influential factor that influences first-

generation minority students to pursue a postsecondary education. The results of the

phenomenological research conducted in this dissertation could help create programs to

assist parents and school administrators to encourage more minority students to become

first-generation college students.

Keywords: first-generation minority college students, social motivating factors

Dedication

I would like to first acknowledge my Lord and Savior Jesus Christ for allowing

me to achieve a lifelong goal—to become Dr. Washica Little! I would also like to

acknowledge my family for all of their support and the sacrifices made in order for this

dream to be realized. I dedicate my efforts to my mother, Debra Jean Hagood, for the

strengths that she has shown as a single mother, proving that hard work truly pays off. I

would also like to dedicate this work to my deceased father, Joe C. Hagood, Jr., for

instilling high expectations in me that the sky is truly the limit. I also want to thank my

maternal grandmother, the late Betty Jean McGowens for inspiring me during the last

words that she shared with me: “You Can Do Anything.” I want to thank my two lovely

daughters, Ashley and Alia, for cheering me along the way! To the love of my life and

high school sweetheart, Michael Little, I want you to know that you have provided an

amazing shoulder for me to lean on and provided the best advice and encouragement

along the dissertation journey. Finally, I would also like to give special thanks to “The

best ever dissertation committee” for motivating me to continuously move forward.

Acknowledgments

I would like to thank Grand Canyon University for offering an outstanding

program where it is apparent that servant leadership is instilled in the students, along with

strong moral and ethical values.

I would like to give special thanks to my dissertation committee, Dr. Patricia

D’Urso, Dr. Robert Branch, and Dr. Daniel Smith for leading and guiding me in the right

direction for this dissertation journey. I appreciate your enthusiasm and dedication to the

field of education as you help practitioners like me to become scholars in our field of

expertise. WE DID IT! Thank you so much for being such a great committee (Dr. D’Urso,

Dr. Branch, and Dr. Smith—The Dream Team)!!!!

Finally, I would like to thank the survey participants for offering your time and

efforts in this study. It is my sincere hope that the information in this study will be useful

in helping to motivate first-generation minority college students to pursue a

postsecondary education.

vii

Table of Contents

List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... xi

List of Figures ................................................................................................................... xii

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study ....................................................................................1

Background of the Study .................................................................................................4

Problem Statement ..........................................................................................................7

Purpose of the Study ........................................................................................................9

Research Questions .......................................................................................................11

Advancing Scientific Knowledge ..................................................................................12

Significance of the Study ..............................................................................................13

Rationale for Methodology ...........................................................................................15

Nature of the Research Design for the Study ................................................................17

Definition of Terms .......................................................................................................18

Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitations ...............................................................20

Assumptions ..............................................................................................................20

Limitations and delimitations ...................................................................................21

Summary and Organization of the Remainder of the Study .........................................22

Chapter 2: Literature Review .............................................................................................24

Introduction ...................................................................................................................24

Background of the Study ...............................................................................................26

Definition of First-Generation College Students ...........................................................27

Theoretical Foundations ................................................................................................28

Self-Efficacy Theory .....................................................................................................29

Cultural Capital Theory .................................................................................................30

Status Attainment Theory ..............................................................................................31

viii

Summary of Theoretical Foundation .............................................................................31

Review of the Literature ................................................................................................32

Trends in Research ........................................................................................................33

Characteristics of first-generation college students ..................................................33

Student motivation ....................................................................................................34

Review of Themes in This Study ..................................................................................36

Self-efficacy ..............................................................................................................36

Locus of control ........................................................................................................38

Family influence .......................................................................................................39

Glass ceiling effect ....................................................................................................40

Peer influence............................................................................................................41

Relative functionalism ..............................................................................................42

Summary .......................................................................................................................43

Chapter 3: Methodology ....................................................................................................47

Statement of the Problem ..............................................................................................48

Research Questions .......................................................................................................48

Research Methodology ..................................................................................................49

Research Design ............................................................................................................50

Population and Sample Selection ..................................................................................51

Sources of Data .............................................................................................................54

Face-to-face interview ..............................................................................................54

Factors Influencing Pursuit of Higher Education (FIPHE) Questionnaire, College

Version, Part A and Part B ........................................................................................55

Validity and Reliability .................................................................................................60

Data Collection Procedures ...........................................................................................63

Data Analysis Procedures ..............................................................................................65

Ethical Considerations ...................................................................................................66

Limitations .....................................................................................................................67

Summary .......................................................................................................................67

Chapter 4: Data Analysis and Results ...............................................................................69

Descriptive Data ............................................................................................................69

Data Analysis Procedures ..............................................................................................73

Face-to-face interview ..............................................................................................74

Demographic survey and FIPHE survey ...................................................................83

Validity and reliability ..............................................................................................89

Results ...........................................................................................................................91

Summary .......................................................................................................................94

Chapter 5: Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations .............................................96

Summary of the Study ...................................................................................................98

Summary of Findings and Conclusions.......................................................................103

Implications .................................................................................................................111

Theoretical implications: Social motivating factors ...............................................113

Family influence .....................................................................................................113

Self-efficacy ............................................................................................................114

Locus of control ......................................................................................................114

Peer influence..........................................................................................................115

Relative functionalism ............................................................................................116

Glass ceiling ............................................................................................................116

Practical implications ..............................................................................................117

Future implications .................................................................................................118

Recommendations .......................................................................................................118

Recommendations for future research ....................................................................118

Recommendations for practice ...............................................................................121

Conclusion ...................................................................................................................122

References ........................................................................................................................124

Appendix A ......................................................................................................................136

Appendix B ......................................................................................................................138

Appendix C ......................................................................................................................141

Appendix D ......................................................................................................................149

Appendix E ......................................................................................................................151

Appendix F.......................................................................................................................153

List of Tables

Table 1. Participant Demographics ................................................................................... 71

Table 2. Summary of Face-to-Face Interviews ................................................................. 82

Table 3. Subscales by Gender ........................................................................................... 87

Table 4. Summary of Data Collected: FIPHE Survey, Subscales by Age ........................ 88

Table 5. Summary of Data Collected: FIPHE Survey, Subscales by Race ...................... 89

Table 6. Number of Participants Who Identified the Factors in the Face-to-Face

Interview ........................................................................................................................... 93

Table 7. Survey Results of Factors by Rating of Importance ......................................... 107

Table 8. Number of Participants who Identified the Factors in the Face-to-Face

Interview ......................................................................................................................... 108

Table 9. Summary of Findings for Social Motivating Factors of First-Generation

Minorities ........................................................................................................................ 108

xii

List of Figures

Figure 1. Gender of participants ....................................................................................... 72

Figure 2. Ethnicity/Race of participants ........................................................................... 72

Figure 3. Age of participants ............................................................................................. 73

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study

Across the United States, deciding the next step in life upon high school

graduation is a common and challenging dilemma that many students and their families

face each year. The decision made upon graduation directly impacts one’s outlook on

both short-term and long-term goals (Lindholm, 2006). The right decision can positively

impact one’s future ability to earn a substantial income while the wrong decision can

weigh negatively and have long lasting results (Tinto, 2004). It is imperative that

parents and school administrators play an active role in giving students the tools needed

to make an informed decision that will help them proceed to a postsecondary education

(Choy, 2011). Even when parents and school administrators do their best to empower the

students to make an informed decision, it is ultimately the decision of the student to

decide if he or she will pursue a postsecondary education. The study was designed to

contribute to the existing knowledge by providing a greater wealth of information for

school administrators to help students prepare for their post-high school plans. This

information may help develop programs that will further assist first-generation college

students and their families by giving them the knowledge and tools needed to succeed in

postsecondary education.

The phenomenological study explored social motivating factors for first-

generation minority college freshmen that influenced them to pursue a postsecondary

education at a local university in the western region of the United States. The researcher

used a phenomenological design with triangulation of data collection to understand more

fully the social motivating factors for first-generation minority college freshmen pursuing

a postsecondary education. Creswell (2009) pointed out that using triangulation allows

the researcher to have a variety of data sources that can be analyzed to offset the strengths

and weaknesses of either of the data sources. The researcher collected the data using

face-to-face interview, a demographic survey, and the Factors Influencing Pursuit of

Higher Education Questionnaire (FIPHE). These data collection methods were employed

to explore theories resulting from the findings of this study.

A face-to-face interview using 12 open-ended questions was used to obtain text

data from the students regarding this study. Also, the researcher collected the data using

two surveys. One survey is a 12-question demographic survey used to collect

unidentified personal data regarding each student, such as age, ethnicity, and other

background information. The other survey is the FIPHE questionnaire, college version

(Harris, 2009). This survey consists of 92 questions regarding the factors that influenced

the students to pursue a postsecondary education. The FIPHE survey was developed by

Harris (2009) and approved for use in this study. Harris has granted written permission

for the researcher to use the FIPHE Questionnaire and FIPHE Demographic Survey,

which was created and developed specifically for first-year college students. The

researcher obtained data from 11 first-generation minority freshmen students at a local

university in the western region of the United States. All participants in this study needed

to meet the minimum qualifying factors to participate: (a) must be 18 years old or older,

(b) must be a first-generation college student, meaning that neither parent nor sibling has

attended or graduated from college, (c) must be a freshman first-year student with no

more than 18 college credit hours, and (d) must be a minority student.

The researcher evaluated the data collected from the survey using the Statistical

Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) program, version 19, software to arrive at

conclusions based on the research questions that guided this study. The Statistical

Package for Social Sciences software (SPSS version 19) was used to organize, sort, and

analyze the data collected from the FIPHE Questionnaire. The information obtained in

this study was examined by the researcher to determine the social motivating factors that

influence first-generation minority college freshmen to pursue a postsecondary education

and become first-generation college students. The researcher entered the data into a

Microsoft Excel Spreadsheet, where the text data were organized and sorted. The data

entered were verified by an objective observer with no vested interest in the project.

This study is unique because research is limited on the social motivating factors

that influence first-generation minority college freshmen to pursue a postsecondary

education. Tinto (2004) suggested that there is a gap in the information currently

available because the existing studies do not focus on the social motivating factors that

encourage minority first-generation students to choose a college education. This study

will fill a gap in existing literature because there are existing studies that evaluate the

characteristics of first-generation college students; however, they fail to evaluate the

social motivational factors that encourage first-generation college students to pursue a

postsecondary education. Olive (2008) found that there appeared to be minimal research

and literature that evaluated the motivational factors of students seeking higher education.

The motivating factors included self-determination, the ability to move up the financial

attainment ladder, and the opportunity to be the first-generation college student in their

family; these factors often influence first-generation college students to pursue a

postsecondary education (Olive, 2008).

Background of the Study

The educational history of minorities in America has been fraught with struggles.

The challenges minorities faced in obtaining an education resulted in an enormous gap in

first-generation college students (Bui, 2002). The NCES (2012) reported that the term

first-generation college student is generally synonymous with students of lower income

statuses, as opposed to non-first-generational college students. In the late 1800s,

important decisions regarding the educational welfare of Blacks was apparent as slave

masters knew that it was imperative to increase slave value by increasing their

intelligence, which would enable the slaves to perform their duties more efficiently. The

decision of whether or not to educate slaves and to what extent was a difficult one as the

slave masters feared that education was a means of enlightenment that would eventually

lead to additional slave rights. As the slave population became more educated, slave

masters began to limit and prohibit the quality and the amount of education that was

available to Blacks (Woodson, 2004). Slave masters also started limiting the social

circles of slaves as a means of decreasing opportunities for knowledge growth:

The more you cultivate the minds of slaves, the more unserviceable you make

them; you give them a higher relish for those privileges which they cannot attain

and turn what you intend for a blessing into a curse. If they are to remain in

slavery they should be kept in the lowest state of ignorance and degradation, and

the nearer you bring them to the condition of brutes the better chances they have

to retain their apathy (Woodson, 2004, p. 5).

Despite the attempts to prohibit Blacks from becoming educated, they continued

to meet at local churches to educate one another. In the northern states the desire for

additional educational opportunities in the Black community increased, which culminated

in the demand for an advanced education; however, higher education institutions

prohibited students of African blood to enter their institutions (Woodson, 2004). Locked

out of higher education establishments, Blacks were forced to create their own. In 1837

the first school for higher education for minorities, The Institute for Colored Youth, was

founded (Redd, 1998).

After World War II, obtaining an advanced education became even more popular

as families began to realize the value of higher education (Kinzie, 2004). Students

enrolled in college in the mid-forties were primarily white males from middle to upper

class families (Heller, 2003). It is speculated that one of the main causes for low

enrollment of minority students was the lack of educational resources and funding

opportunities. Minorities were underrepresented in higher education, and the percentage

of bachelor’s degrees earned by minorities is lower than that of the general population

(Hinton-Smith, 2012). In the 1950s, there were few races other than Caucasians that had

the capability to attend postsecondary educational institutions. In 1954, the Brown vs.

Board of Education federal case further helped to create additional educational

opportunities for minorities to attend higher education institutions that were once

segregated (McElroy & Armesto, 1998). Prior to the Brown vs. Board of Education

decision, unfair treatment, along with unequal educational opportunities, caused minority

groups, including African Americans, Mexican Americans, Asian Americans and Native

Americans to become disenfranchised (Contreras & Valverde, 1994). Minority groups

were denied formal schooling, which increased the inequalities in education for all

minorities (Contreras & Valverde). For example, Latino, Asian American, Native

American, and Mexican American students were often isolated from other students as

they were wrongfully placed into separate classrooms due to perceived language barriers

(Contreras & Valverde). In postsecondary education, Bonner (1986) contended that

administrators discriminated against disadvantaged minorities. Policies such as the G.I.

Bill were designed to boost college enrollment and stimulate access to post-secondary

education to make it more obtainable for everyone (Heller, 2003).

As a result of the civil rights movement in the 1960s and other initiatives, a

significant increase in government programs has helped to created increase postsecondary

educational opportunities for minorities (Baker, 1996). To address the issues of the war

on poverty, President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Economic Opportunity Act, giving

disadvantaged students equal financial opportunity to attend postsecondary educational

institutions (McElroy & Armesto, 1998). Studies have shown that only 47% of students

from low-income households enroll into postsecondary education programs while 82% of

all high-income household students enroll immediately upon graduation (NCES, 2011).

The Federal Trio Program (Trio) was created to encourage students to be the first in their

families to pursue higher education as first-generation college students (McElroy &

Armesto, 1998). It is probable that these programs have contributed to an increased

number of first-generation college students achieving success.

While it is viewed that obtaining a four-year degree is a direct path to economic

success and personal fulfillment, it is hypothesized that the social motivating factors for

minority students to attend postsecondary institutions is still unclear. For instance, Tinto

(2004) established that there are many reasons why students make the decision to attend

or not attend postsecondary education institutions. According to Baker (1996), the lack

of money, parental support, and academic preparedness have been the cause of the slow

increase in the growth of diverse populations attending postsecondary education

institutions. Tinto (2004) believed that students have a higher rate of success when they

have the tools needed to help them overcome the barriers and challenges associated with

postsecondary education. Pascarella and Terenzini (2005) added that obtaining a

bachelor’s degree aids in social mobility and movement up the educational ladder, which

greatly enhances one’s economic benefits. Evidence shows that the transfer of wealth

from one generation to the next perpetuates a cycle of wealth for future generations

(Ishitani, 2006).

Current research regarding first-generation college students suggests there are

several key motivating factors that contribute to the decision for high school students to

pursue a postsecondary education (Dennis, Phinney, & Chuateco, 2005). Researchers

assume that ethnicity, economic level, gender, educational suppression, and family

support are contributing factors affecting why students decide not to proceed with a

postsecondary education. The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES, 2011)

found 35% of Caucasians have earned their bachelor’s degree, as compared to only 18%

African American and 19% Hispanic. The research confirms there is still a significant

gap between Caucasians and minorities in attending postsecondary educational

institutions (NCES, 2011).

Problem Statement

It was not known what social motivating factors influenced first-generation

minority college freshmen to pursue a postsecondary education. Many factors can

influence a student’s pursuit of a postsecondary education; the focus of this study was on

these factors: (a) self-efficacy, (b) locus of control, (c) family influence, (d) the glass

ceiling effect, (e) peer influence, and (f) relative functionalism (Harris, 2009). Research

shows that there is a tremendous need to increase the number of college students in order

to ensure positive economic growth and, more importantly, to enhance society as a whole

(Bui, 2002).

Based on a review of recent literature, there is a gap in knowledge of the social

motivating factors for minority first-generation college students (Olive, 2008). By 2018,

Carnevele, Smith, and Strohl (2010) predicted there will be a need for 22 million new

college degreed employees, and it is predicted that number will be short by at least 3

million postsecondary degreed graduates. Researchers identified that “better educated

members of society are more likely to vote, assume civic leadership positions, use new

technologies and support advanced education for their children and their communities”

(Kinzie, 2004, p. 4). Kinzie’s research indicated that it is imperative to increase the

overall number of citizens with a higher level of education; a key component of achieving

that goal is to increase the number of first-generation college students. This study could

improve the preparation of families and school administrators to motivate students to

pursue a postsecondary educational program. Corak (2006) contended that, through

advanced education and training, first-year college students and their families can achieve

generational wealth. A continuation of success is highly anticipated when family

members present themselves as positive educational role models for their offspring

(Corak, 2006). Thus, it is critical for society to discover what the social motivating

factors are that encourage first-generation minority college students to pursue a

postsecondary education.

It is highly probable that increasing the overall number of college graduates will

increase the average U.S. household income. The National Association of Colleges and

Employers (NACE, 2012) claimed that the overall average salary for bachelor’s degree

graduates from the graduating class of 2011 was $41,701 per year. Because of economic

factors, in the proposed study, it was deemed essential to determine social factors that

motivate minority high school students to become first-generation college students.

According to Admon (2012), only 30% of Americans hold a bachelor’s degree, which

makes it difficult for the United States to compete in a global marketplace. Of the 15

million students that enroll in postsecondary institutions, 30% of the students are low-

income, first-generation college students (NCES, 2012). According to the U.S. Census

Bureau (2012), the average household income among all Americans is only $51,914 per

year. Admon found that employers are now requiring applicants to possess advanced

degrees more than ever before. Earning a college degree may better equip applicants

with the job skills needed to be successful in the labor market.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this qualitative hermeneutic phenomenological study was to

explore the social motivating factors that influence first-generation minority college

freshmen in the western region of the United States to pursue a postsecondary education

at a local university. The results of this phenomenological research study could help

create programs that will assist school administrators to encourage more minority

students to pursue a postsecondary education. This study was expected to reveal new

themes and provide understanding in areas such as self-efficacy, locus of control, family

influence, glass ceiling effect, peer influence, and relative functionalism.

Existing research confirms that there is a significant gap in the numbers of

Caucasians and minorities attending postsecondary education institutions (Choy, 2011).

Therefore, it is imperative that research is conducted for the minority population on how

to influence first-generation college minority students to pursue a postsecondary

education. The participants of the study were 11 first-generation minority college

freshmen at a local university in the western region of the United States. Onwuegbuzie

and Leech (2007) established that phenomenological studies should have a sample size of

6 to 10 participants. Only 47% of high school graduates from low-income families

choose to pursue a postsecondary education right after high school (Choy, 2011).

Therefore, a close examination of how to increase the number of students seeking a

postsecondary education is essential to ensure that society increases its numbers of well-

educated and highly skilled citizens.

This study used a phenomenological approach in an effort to explore and realize

the meanings of the participant responses to the surveys and interviews. A purposeful

homogeneous sampling technique was used in this study because the participants selected

were students in a subgroup that possesses certain characteristics within a particular

location (Creswell, 2009). The study plan was to select homogeneous sample of 20

college minority freshmen from the population of a local university situated in the

western region of the United States. The participants were conveniently selected from

two general education courses that were offered during the spring 2013 semester. The

data collected were obtained from 11 minority college freshmen who were first-

generation college students. Each participant replied to the face-to-face interview,

demographic survey, and FIPHE questionnaire, which was studied using a thematic

analysis. A thematic analysis is a descriptive analytical approach used in qualitative

studies as a way to demonstrate how the themes are related within a given study (Pringle,

Drummond, McLafferty, & Hendry, 2011). In this research a thematic analysis was

employed to display the ordinal data, to include a data matrix, a frequency table with

responses to each social motivating factor, and a summary of open-ended questions.

Through the investigation of the social motivating factors that inspire first-generation

minority students to become first-generation college students, the results may help

educators to create more effective programs aimed at increasing a larger number of

college educated citizens. Wellman (1999) claimed that the economic benefits to society

are plentiful as the nation profits from a more educated citizenry. The research method

for this study was qualitative. Creswell (2008) suggested that in qualitative research, the

researcher is able to seek specific participants and locations tailored towards helping the

researcher understand the central phenomena. This study was designed to investigate the

significance of social motivating factors that influence first-generation minority college

freshmen. The study results may contribute in the field of education by revealing that

social motivating factors directly relate to the decision of the minority high school

student to become a first-generation college student.

Research Questions

The research objective of this phenomenological study was to explore the social

motivating factors that influence first-generation minority college freshmen to pursue a

postsecondary education. This qualitative phenomenological research study focused on

the central phenomenon of the social motivating factors that influenced first-generation

minority college freshmen to pursue a postsecondary education. Creswell (2009)

emphasized that research questions are developed by the researcher as an attempt to

narrow the purpose statement into questions that will derive to answers within a study.

In an effort to investigate fully the above problem, the following research

questions will guide this study:

R1: Why do minority students, who are also first-generation college students,

enroll in college?

R2: What are the major social factors that motivate first-generation minority

students to enroll in college?

The findings of this study revealed the reasons why first-generation college

minority candidates decide to act on a particular decision regarding postsecondary

education. In addition, these findings may provide useful knowledge to both educators

and students’ families to better prepare students for post-high school education.

Advancing Scientific Knowledge

Choy (2011) found that the study of first-generation college students is an

emerging field for researchers. There is a gap in literature that does not identify the

social motivating factors that influence first-generation minority college freshmen to

pursue a postsecondary education. But there are few studies that explain the social

motivating factors that contribute to a student’s decisions to further their education after

attending high school. Olive (2008) pointed out that there appears to be minimal research

in literature that evaluates the motivation factors of students seeking higher education.

According to the NCES (2012), the population of first-generation college students is

generally synonymous with that of students of lower income statuses, in comparison to

non-first-generational college students. Of the 15 million students that enroll in

postsecondary institutions during the 21st century, 30% of the students are low income

first-generation college students (NCES). Although it is speculated that fewer numbers

of low income students enroll into postsecondary educational institutions as first-

generation college students, it is still not understood why more of these students do not

immediately enroll in postsecondary education programs. The study could advance the

scientific knowledge base by revealing the key social factors that motivate a minority

high school first-generation college student to attend postsecondary institutions. By

understanding the social motivating factors that influence the decision for minority

students to be the first in their families to attend college, programs can be enhanced with

the goal of substantially increasing the number of first-generation college students. High

school and postsecondary administrators have made a tremendous effort in recent years to

increase the knowledge level of college preparedness (Martinez, 2003). This study is

grounded in the field of education as it pertains to advancing one’s level of educational

plans after high school. This study’s findings could reveal the reasons why first-

generation college candidates decide to act on a particular decision regarding

postsecondary education. These findings also may provide useful knowledge to both

educators and the student families to better prepare students for post-high school

education.

Significance of the Study

This study is significant and justified as needed because researchers view the

benefit of obtaining a postsecondary education as one of the best ways to achieve

economic success and personal fulfillment (Kinzie, 2004). The aim of this study was to

uncover the social motivating factors for first-generation minority college freshmen to

pursue a postsecondary education. It is assumed that obtaining a higher education can

produce social, economic, and racial benefits. The NACE (2012) realized that the

average starting salary for a new college graduate was $41,701. In 2010, the average

salary for an individual with a bachelor’s degree was $45,000 per year while the average

salary for an individual without a high school diploma was $21,000. The statistics

indicate that individuals with bachelor’s degrees earned more than twice the salary of

individuals who do not possess a high school diploma (NCES, 2012). Research shows

that there is a tremendous need to increase the number of college students in order to

ensure positive economic growth and, more important, to enhance society as a whole

(Bui, 2002). The U.S. Census Bureau (2012) suggested that, when comparing work life

earnings, individuals with a college degree will make an additional one million dollars in

their lifetime more than individuals who only possess a high school diploma. Admon

(2012) exerted that only 30% of the U.S. population possesses a bachelor’s degree, which

is needed to compete in the current labor market.

The social motivating factors explored for first-generation minority college

freshmen might enable educators and administrators to have a positive influence on

individuals who may be deciding on whether or not to pursue a postsecondary education

upon graduating from high school. The educational programs designed could potentially

help influence a student’s decision by enlightening the student about the multiple benefits

attainable by earning a postsecondary education. The results may have profound effects

on the field of education as it may lead to more interest and research regarding the social

motivating factors surrounding first-generation college minority students. Ultimately, the

results may lead to an increased number of high school students who decide to pursue a

postsecondary education. For example, the knowledge gained in this study may help a

student understand the benefits of a postsecondary education.

It is assumed that, if there is a significant increase of college students over time, it

will positively impact the economy over time. Studies have shown that increasing the

levels of postsecondary education leads to better career mobility, along with higher

salaries and an increased quality of life (Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005). The results of

this study may reveal to high school students the importance of earning a postsecondary

education so they can fully understand the social advantages that are associated with

earning a postsecondary education.

Rationale for Methodology

The overall focus of the study was to examine the social motivating factors that

influence first-generation minority students to continue on to a postsecondary education.

The research method was qualitative. This method is justified as most suitable for the

study because it allows the researcher to generate ideas and derive themes based on the

data collected from the participants (Creswell, 2008). The qualitative method provides a

means to understand the viewpoints of the participants in determining the central

phenomena related to the study (Creswell, 2009). Qualitative research studies use

interviews, focus groups, observations, journals, and surveys that allow the researcher to

utilize useful information in the data collection process (Creswell, 2008). The procedure

will involve the researcher analyzing the data collected using a triangular method of

surveys and face-to-face open-ended interviews. The researcher used the FIPHE College

Version survey questionnaire, a demographic survey, and face-to-face open-ended

interviews completed by 11 first-generation minority college freshmen at a local

university in the western region of the United States. Data were collected using a 4-point

Likert scale, yielding ordinal data. Once the data were collected, the results of the

information were sorted and analyzed. The researcher used the SPSS version 19 data

analysis program to arrange and analyze the data collected from the FIPHE College

Version survey questionnaire. The SPSS allowed the researcher to store, arrange, sort,

and categorize the information collected with each student’s unique ID (Nicholls, 2001).

Creswell (2009) offered that qualitative researchers display their findings as visual

displays, such as charts, graphs, and figures, along with a narrative discussion of the

details.

This research could contribute to the body of knowledge by revealing the social

motivating factors of first-generation minority college freshmen. There are several

studies regarding first-generation college students, however, there is a gap in the research

that specifies the social motivating factors that stimulate first-generation minority college

students to pursue postsecondary education. In addition, there is a lack in research that

evaluates the social motivating factors of students seeking higher education (Olive,

2008).

This study was based on students attending a university in the western region of

the United States. The researcher gained permission from both the IRB Board and the

College of Education from the university that was used in this study to recruit and solicit

first-generation minority college freshmen to be a part of the survey and interview

session. The information derived from these first-generation minority college freshmen

from the study university was used to explore the central phenomenon of the proposed

study. Conducting this study could help provide greater knowledge of what motivates

high school students to become the first in their families to attend college. By

determining the social motivating factors that influence first-generation minority college

freshmen, educators may be able to enhance programs designed to increase the number of

students that will decide to pursue a postsecondary education.

Nature of the Research Design for the Study

A qualitative methodology was adopted to explore the social motivating factors

that influence first-generation minority college students to pursue a postsecondary

education. Creswell (2009) advised that a qualitative methodology is a subjective

approach that solely relies on research questions in order for the researcher to derive to

emerging themes. Furthermore, Creswell declared that qualitative data can be analyzed

from factual information stemming from interviews, observations, focus groups, journals,

and questionnaires, which were used by the researcher in this study. For this particular

qualitative study, the researcher collected and analyzed raw data from the survey event at

the local university in the western region of the United States. Creswell also expressed

that qualitative methodologies are subjective approaches where the researcher analyzes

the whole picture of the objectives being studied. The qualitative method was selected

rather than the quantitative method because the study warrants an approach that does not

include the use of statistical measures to answer the hypothesis predictions of the study

(Creswell). Qualitative analysis is a “nonnumerical examination and interpretation of

observations, for the purpose of discovering underlying meanings and patterns of

relationships” (Babbie, 2013, p. G9).

Research has shown that there is a commonality among first-generation college

students in that they share certain characteristics. First-generation students are viewed as

a group of individuals who share a common thread of distinctive goals, motivation, and

constraints (Ayala & Striplen, 2002). However, it is not known how the social motivating

factors contribute to the reason first-generation minority college freshmen pursue a

postsecondary education. The purpose of this qualitative phenomenological study was to

explore social motivating factors that could explain why first-generation minority college

students pursue a postsecondary education. The rationale behind uncovering the social

motivating factors and their influence on first-generation minority college freshmen is

that it can give parents and educators greater ability to understand student motivation and

perhaps persuade students to pursue a postsecondary education. The data collected were

derived from the open-ended interviews and surveys of 11 first-generation minority

college freshmen at a local university in the western region of the United States. The

data were analyzed to understand the social motivating factors that influence first-

generation minority college students regarding their decision to pursue a postsecondary

education.

Definition of Terms

There are several key operational terms used throughout this study. The

definitions of the terminology used in this dissertation are listed below:

First-Generation College Students (FGCS). Students that are attending college

for the first time in a household where neither parent has attended college (Choy, 2011).

Glass ceiling effect. The belief that society places limitations on minorities to

reduce education and employment advancements (Lockwood, 2004).

Graduation rates. The measurement of students who complete a program of

study and receive a degree from an educational institution (Brainard, 2010).

Internal locus of control. A student’s internal willingness to succeed (Deci &

Ryan, 2002).

Maslow’s Hierarchy Theory. A psychological theory that shows that one has the

potential to reach self-actualization to achieve his or her full personal potential once all

basic and mental needs are met (Heylighen, 1992).

Minority group. A sociological term that refers to a racially distinct group of

people that is numerically subordinate to the mass population (Woodson, 2004).

Postsecondary education. The third level of education that takes place after high

school in a vocational school, two-year college, or four-year higher learning institution

(Bakvis & David, 2000).

Self-determination theory. A theory evaluating human motivation and

personality in one’s drive to succeed without the influence of external factors (Deci &

Ryan, 2002).

Self-efficacy. An individual’s ability to succeed in various situations (Bandura,

2002).

Status attainment theory. A theory supporting the thoughts that one’s social

class and status attainment is directly correlated to one’s occupational opportunities and

income level (Beeghley, 2008).

Socioeconomic status. An individual’s position on a social hierarchy structure

that is influenced by one’s education, income, wealth, or occupation (Teese, 2000).

Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitations

There are significant assumptions that are inherent with the research focus

regarding the social motivating factors affecting first-generation and first-year minority

college freshmen.

Assumptions. First, it is assumed that the social status of first-generation students

often motivates them to pursue a postsecondary education in hopes of achieving financial

success. According to Ayala and Striplen (2002), first-generation college students are

motivated to obtain a postsecondary education as a means to improve their economic,

social, and occupational opportunities. Earning a bachelor’s degree can provide upward

social mobility and economic benefits (Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005). This assumption is

rationalized as Choy (2011) found that first-generation college students make up the

largest sector of disproportioned, overrepresented, and disadvantaged groups that suffer

from social and economic issues and racial disparity.

Second, it is assumed that first-generation college students are motivated to

pursue a postsecondary education in order to achieve a higher social status by being

college educated and the first in their families to earn a degree. Byrd and MacDonald

(2005) added that first-generation students are motivated by a unique set of goals and

aspirations that are different from their counterparts whose parents are college graduates.

The commonality among a majority of first-generation college students is the reason for

them to become the first in their family to attend college (Byrd & MacDonald). The

rationale for the last assumption is that obtaining a college degree has been considered a

ticket to achieving a white-collar high paying job with a pleasant and lavish lifestyle

(Kinzie, 2004). Admon (2012) noted that only 30% of the U.S. population possesses a

bachelor’s degree, which is needed to compete in the current labor market. According to

Cooper (2009), sociological and economic reasons are likely to increase attainment or

educational aspirations among first-generation minority college students.

Limitations and delimitations. One limitation with this study is that it is reliant

on purposeful homogeneous sampling. The required sample for this study requires the

participation of first-generation minority college freshmen with less than 18 credit hours

in their bachelor’s program.

The delimitation of this study exists because the data analyzed were limited to

first-generation minority college freshmen only. The data were collected from a sample

population of 11 first-generation minority college freshmen who are students at a

university in the western region of the United States. The study sample was drawn from

a western university with a diverse representation of first-generation minority college

freshmen. Therefore, the data analyzed within this study may represent a variance in

results and findings if compared to other college campuses that have a smaller or larger

number of minorities that could be a part of the study sample. The generalizability of the

findings is limited to first-generation minority college students and their families in the

western region of the United States, attending a diverse university. The result of the

findings will be limited in the ability to help benefit second and third generation college

students where the motivating factors to attend postsecondary educational institutions are

not as influential in the decision for them to pursue a higher education. Pike and Kuh

(2005) quantified that there is a 15% difference in persistence rates among first- and

second-generation students.

Summary and Organization of the Remainder of the Study

As discussed, the purpose of this phenomenological study was to explore the

social motivating factors as potential reasons for first-generation minority college

freshmen to pursue a postsecondary education. It is assumed that it is extremely

important to understand the key social motivating factors that influence students to

become first-generation minority college students. For instance, society benefits on

multiple levels when the number of educated citizens is increased. According to Ayala

and Striplen (2002), first-generation college students are motivated to obtain a

postsecondary education as a means to improve their economic, social, and occupational

opportunities. The themes mentioned in this study include family influence, self-

efficacy, locus of control, glass ceiling effect, peer influence, and relative functionalism.

As previously discussed, there are many theories associated with the research questions

proposed for this study, which are further examined in Chapter 2.

In Chapter 2, the literature review connects the assumptions stemming from the

rationale in which the research questions were generated. Even though there is

significant research that inspects first-generation college students, a gap exists in the

literature regarding what motivates first-generation college students to attend

postsecondary institutions. Olive (2008) indicated that the personality traits, cognitive

development, first-year performance, and academic preparation have all been examined

by researchers, but there appears to be limited research conducted to explore the

motivation of first-generation college students. Details of the research design and

methodology are presented in Chapter 3. In Chapter 4, the researcher presents the data

collected, analyzes the themes, and other outcomes from the data collection, and presents

the findings. Finally, Chapter 5 elaborates on the findings of the study to include a

conclusion and discussion summarizing the implications of the study.

Chapter 2: Literature Review

Introduction

The purpose of this qualitative, hermeneutic phenomenological study was to

explore the social motivating factors that influence a first-generation minority college

freshman to pursue a postsecondary education. The results of this study are important to

improve the social, economic, and racial disparities in education and society as a whole.

According to Mortenson (2008), 47% of low-income high school graduates enroll in

postsecondary education programs upon graduating from high school. Admon (2012)

found that employers are now requiring more applicants to possess college degrees than

ever before. The overall importance of this study, to the field of education, is to increase

the number of college graduates that will better equip Americans with the education and

job skills needed to be successful in the labor market.

It is probable that educators and administrators need to learn more about the

motivating factors that influence a student’s decision to pursue a postsecondary

education. Through increased knowledge of how to motivate students, educators are more

likely to assist students in making the decision to attend a postsecondary institution.

According to Ayala and Striplen (2002), first-generation college students have a greater

motivation to enroll in college programs as an attempt to improve their social, economic,

and occupational standing. Studies show that earning a baccalaureate degree provides a

way to gain upward mobility on the economic and educational ladders (Pascarella &

Terenzini, 2005). To expound on the knowledge base for educators and administrators,

this study attempted to reveal the social motivating factors for first-generation minority

college freshman.

The literature review includes a summary of the existing literature regarding the

social motivating factors that influenced first-generation minority college freshmen to

become the first in their family to pursue a postsecondary education. It is speculated that

first-generation minority college students are persuaded by social motivating factors that

influence them to overcome the barriers that exist to becoming first-generation college

students. First-generation college students experience anxieties and difficulties involving

cultural, social, and academic transitions when going to college (Pascarella & Terenzini,

2005). This study could add to the limited amount of existing literature regarding the

social motivating factors that influence first-generation minority college freshmen. The

location of this study is at a local university in the western region of the United States.

The university presented in this study has a very diverse composition of minorities, which

will help depict a clear picture of the social motivating factors that influenced first-

generation minority college freshmen to pursue a postsecondary education.

The literature for this study was located by using a variety of methods. Scholarly

sources were located using the library to access journals, books, articles and research

dissertations. The following databases were accessed by conducting a search under

education: Education Research Complete, ERIC (EBSCO) database, Omni File,

ProQuest Educational Journal, and Academic Search Complete and Dissertations and

Theses: Humanities and Social Sciences Collection. The following keywords were

searched for as a part of the literature for this study: first-generation college students,

minority students, low income, postsecondary education, education, and leadership. By

searching these keywords more than 150 relevant sources published from 1982 to 2012

were found and considered for this literature review. Only sources that were 10 years or

less were reviewed for this study, with the exception of a few sources that were used to

define the definition and theories of regarding the evolution of first-generation college

students. The majority of sources were published within the past five years. Creswell

(2009) offered that the purpose of a literature review is for the researcher to locate all the

scholarly information that is relevant to the research topic and compile it into a written

report within the dissertation. When reviewing the literature, one sees that there is a

limited amount of data on the key motivating factors of first-generation minority college

students that encouraged them to attend postsecondary educational programs. This study

explored the social motivating factors of first-generation minority college freshmen that

influenced them to pursue a postsecondary education. The social motivating factors will

be discussed within the literature review, such as self-efficacy, locus of control, family

influence; the glass ceiling effect, peer influence, and relative functionalism. There

appears to be a gap in literature regarding the motivational factors of first-generation

college students that seek higher education (Olive, 2008). Therefore, this study was

needed to reveal the social motivating factors that influence first-generation minority

college freshmen, and it adds to the limited amount of literature currently available.

Background of the Study

Increasing the number of college graduates has been a governmental priority for

several decades (McElroy & Armesto, 1998). The goal of this study was to reveal the

social motivating factors that influenced first-generation minority college students’

decisions to pursue a postsecondary education. According to Baker (1996), the number

of college students has drastically increased since the 1960s. This is a result of

governmental efforts and programs that were created to increase the number of

disadvantaged groups and students, giving them an equal opportunity of obtaining an

advanced degree. In 1980, as a result of the reauthorization of the Higher Education Act,

the federal Trio program was developed to promote first-generation students to pursue a

higher education (McElroy & Armesto, 1998).

The Trio program aimed to increase the number of first-generation college

students as a way to close the educational gap in the United States. The educational gap

has a direct impact on minorities in regards to the social and economic disparities in

society. Of the 15 million students that enroll into postsecondary institutions, 30% of the

students are low income, first-generation college students (NCES, 2012). One of the

goals of the Trio program is to decrease the obstacles for minorities in earning a degree

and to ensure that the demographic profile for first-generation college students will

continue to positively change (U.S. Department of Education, 2012).

Definition of First-Generation College Students

The term first-generation college student was originally coined in the early

1980s by a theorist named Fuji A. Adachi (Billson & Terry, 1982). Billson and Terry

(1982) concluded that Adachi derived at this terminology as a way to describe a student

that is the first in his or her family to attend a college. As a pioneering researcher of

first-generation college students, Adachi (as cited in Billson & Terry) further theorized

that first-generation college students fit a different profile than the traditional second-

and third-generation college students. After diligent research, Adachi concluded that

the first-generation college student population is generally made up of minority students

who come from low-income households (as cited in Billson & Terry). Therefore, the

underrepresented classes of first-generation college students do not generally have the

knowledge required about the processes of college that are necessary to succeed (Tym,

2004). Because they lack the knowledge of college preparation skills, Vargas (2004)

contends that first-generation students often face obstacles, such as understanding the

steps to prepare for college, academic preparation, admission procedures, and financial

aid procurement.

Theoretical Foundations

Adachi’s (as cited in Billson & Terry, 1982) early research showed there needed

to be a thorough and fundamental evaluation to lay the groundwork for a theoretical

framework to study the population, personal traits, socioeconomic background, family

support, and academic preparedness of first-generation college students. McEwen

(2007) established that a successful theoretical framework is a construction of

understanding and interpretation. The theoretical foundation and predominant

framework for this study involves the following theories: self-efficacy theory, cultural

capital theory, and the status attainment theory.

A review of information about the characteristics, social status, ethnicity, and

socioeconomic status of first-generation college students shows that this is an emerging

field of research. Orbe (2008) realized that first-generation college students must

navigate among a multitude of identities that range from social, ethnic, personal,

cultural, and community. Theorists have avidly pursued achieving a thorough

understanding of the concepts through an examination of the theories as they relate to

the motivational factors of first-generation college students.

Providing the knowledge required to make an informative decision that college

is obtainable will provide more first-generation students the opportunity to attend

postsecondary education institutions. Moreover, additional information should be

disseminated to first-generation minority college students in an effort to highlight the

benefits associated with achieving a postsecondary education. By presenting a clear

depiction of the benefits associated with earning a college degree, the students will be

able to internalize social motivational factors that could influence their decision to

pursue a postsecondary education. Therefore, the cultural capital theory, the status

attainment theory, and the self-efficacy theory will be examined closely to show the

connection linking the emerging themes. The following research questions guided this

study:

R1: Why do minority students, who are also first-generation college students,

enroll in college?

R2: What are the major social factors that motivate first-generation minority

students to enroll in college?

Self-Efficacy Theory

According to Bandura (2002), the theory of self-efficacy is demonstrated when a

student believes in his or her individual ability to excel. For instance, the way a person

acts regarding a particular motive can be affected greatly by his or her inner self-efficacy.

Moreover, in the field of education, it is perceived that self-efficacy can produce an

impact on one’s educational goals. As witnessed in the review of the literature,

researchers indicate that there is an association between student achievement and self-

efficacy (Chemers, Hu, & Garcia, 2001). Brossard and Garrison (2004) claimed that

students who possess a higher personal and intellectual motivation often achieve higher

college grades than other types of motivation produce. Research shows that students

who have a weak academic performance generally have a low self-efficacy; therefore,

they are more likely to give up as a result of their low expectations (Margolis & McCabe,

2006). The theories of self-determination and self-efficacy were examined by Wentzel

and Wigfield (2009) as theories to be considered when evaluating motivating factors of

first-generation college students that drive them to succeed in postsecondary education.

Based on his research, Wentzel and Wigfield’s findings showed that social persuasion is

a contributing factor in strengthening one’s self-efficacy. Bandura suggested that one’s

self-efficacy has great power in producing the effects that he or she desires to achieve.

Therefore, it is speculated that self-efficacy is a major motivating factor in a student’s

desire to become a first-generation college student.

Cultural Capital Theory

One of the leading theoretical frameworks that guided this study is the cultural

capital theory. It is speculated that the cultural capital theory is one of the factors that

intrinsically motivate a first-generation college student to pursue a postsecondary

education. Bourdieu (1977) explained the cultural capital theory as one in which

nonfinancial social assets stimulates one’s social mobility, such as a person’s intellect,

educational pedigree, and appearance. For instance, a medical doctor has more cultural

capital than the average blue collar worker. Researchers posit that one of the primary

ways to achieve cultural capital is to obtain a higher education at a postsecondary

institution. Education has been viewed as an optimistic endeavor that helps foster

personal growth and development. Bourdieu also implied that education is a means for

achieving greater social equality and wealth. Based on the findings of Bourdieu, an

assumption can be made that cultural capital serves as a catalyst up the social ladder,

including accumulated knowledge which can translate into power and status.

Status Attainment Theory

Another theoretical framework that was useful in this study is the status

attainment theory. This sociological concept proposes that one’s status or social class in

society is affected by certain factors (Magee & Gainsay, 2008). Researchers describe

the concept of status attainment as a chain of social events that could lead to a change in

one’s social status; for example, students’ education will affect their occupational and

social level. One’s social status attainment can be achieved by his or her familial status

or by one’s own abilities and efforts. Students seek to obtain status attainment by

seeking advanced educational opportunities as a means to move upward in the social

class system (Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005). In this study, the status attainment theory

will help support the hypothesis that social motivating factors may exist to encourage

first-generation minority college students to pursue a postsecondary education.

Summary of Theoretical Foundation

The theories self-efficacy, cultural capital, and status attainment provided the

theoretical framework of this study. This study aligns with the other research in the

field because theorists have examined factors surrounding the success of a first-

generation college student. Although existing literature has been conducted regarding

first-generation college students, there is a gap in the research, as no previous studies

have identified the key social motivating factors that encourage first-generation

minority college students to pursue a postsecondary education. Olive (2008) concluded

there is a gap in research that examines the key social factors that motivate first-

generation college students to pursue a postsecondary education. Therefore, the

research questions for this study were created to explore the social motivating factors

that influence first-generation minority college students to pursue a postsecondary

education. This study explored the themes of self-efficacy, locus of control, family

influence, the glass ceiling effect, peer influence and relative functionalism. These

themes are interrelated because they may prove to be social motivating factors that

encouraged first-generation minority college freshmen to pursue a postsecondary

education. Once the social motivating factors are identified, they will be used to help

influence minority students with the desired effect of increasing the number of first-

generation minority college students who pursue a postsecondary education. Increasing

the number of first-generation college students can help improve the socioeconomic

status of society’s underrepresented groups (Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005). Of the 15

million students that enroll into postsecondary institutions, 30% of the students are low

income, first-generation college students (NCES, 2012).

Review of the Literature

The literature review is comprised of a variety of sources that show the various

aspects surrounding the characteristics and behaviors of diverse first-generation minority

college students. The increasing number of equal opportunity programs has allowed a

larger number of diverse students to attend postsecondary education programs, which will

continue to produce an appreciable number of first-generation minority college students

(Tierney, 2002). Stemming from Adachi’s research, other theorists began to emerge to

evaluate further first-generation college students. Similar studies have shown that

underrepresented diverse students tend to share the same barriers, which they find more

difficult to overcome than their white counterparts in postsecondary education, such as

the students’ ability, preparation, and support (Valdez, 2007). Theorists began

expounding more upon Adachi’s theoretical principles that define the concept of first-

generation college students.

Trends in Research

This literature review includes a foundation that explains the characteristics of

first-generation college students along with the students’ motivation to attend college

followed by an evaluation of the six categories that includes the following factors: self-

efficacy, locus of control, family influence, glass ceiling, peer influence, and relative

functionalism.

Characteristics of first-generation college students. In evaluating the

characteristics of first-generation college students, various research literatures were

analyzed to get a clearer depiction regarding student behaviors. First-generation college

students are pioneers of education as they are the first in their family to attend college

(London, 1996). According to Choy (2011) the term first-generation college student is

one that describes a category of students whose parents do not have experience with

postsecondary education. Bui (2002) found that first-generation college students

embody underrepresented ethnic backgrounds, and they comprise a class of students

who are more likely to come from lower socioeconomic classes. NCES (2012) stated

that 30% of the students that enroll into postsecondary institutions are low income, first-

generation college students.

Hawley and Harris (2005) added that first-generation college students are

motivated by a different set of standards and goals than students whose parents are

college graduates. First-generation college students are more likely to enroll in college

with limited access to information regarding college, along with less academic

preparation (Tym, 2004). Choy (2011) shared that first-generation college students,

when compared to students whose parents have a bachelor’s degree, are more likely to

depart from their studies prior to obtaining their degree. The knowledge obtained

regarding the characteristics of the first-generation college students was helpful to this

study; however, obtaining characteristics of the first-generation college students did not

directly help the researcher reveal the social motivating factors for first-generation

minority college freshmen who decided to pursue a postsecondary education. A useful

testing instrument to aid in testing the characteristics of incoming college freshmen is

the Cooperative Institutional Research Program (CIRP) Freshman Survey. This survey

is a part of the largest highest education study, collecting data from over 1,900

institutions and 13,000,000 students (Stratil, 2009). According to the Higher Education

Institute at the University of California, Los Angeles (2009), the purpose of the CIRP

Freshman Survey is to evaluate the characteristics and behaviors of incoming students

prior to experiencing college life. This survey is comprised of quantitative data

utilizing a Likert scale. The 42-question survey measures high school students’

behaviors and demographics, expectations for college, academic readiness, student

goals, and issues regarding college financial aid (Stratil).

Student motivation. It is known that there are reasons why students decide to

pursue a postsecondary education. However, it is not known how the social motivating

factors contribute to the reason first-generation minority college freshmen pursue a

postsecondary education. Lindholm (2006) noted that there are factors that motivate

and encourage first-generation students to excel in postsecondary education at a higher

rate, despite the challenges, obstacles, and lack of resources. According to the Institute

for Higher Education Policy (2005), there are social and economic benefits to achieving

a higher education. The Institute for Higher Education Policy recommended that some

of the social and economic benefits of obtaining a college degree could help one to

achieve the following: an improved quality of life, an increased personal status, upward

social and economic mobility, higher salaries, and better benefits.

Research conducted by Dennis et al. (2005) examined a group of 100 ethnic

minorities in terms of their motivational characteristics and environmental support in

college outcomes. Dennis et al. emphasized the Model of The Effects of Personal

Motivations and Environmental Support on College Outcomes, which guided their study

and measured individualistic and collectivist motives for first-generation students to

attend postsecondary institutions.

With this survey instrument, the researchers also examined other types of

motivation, which were career, personal, and social support. Dennis et al. (2005)

hypothesized that the motivation factors would predict college success and that the

social support is relative to the overall college success of the student. A chi-square

analysis was used to determine the significant differences of the characteristics among

the participants. The chi-square calculations helped determine if there were significant

differences in the data analyzed (Creswell, 2008). For the study conducted by Dennis et

al., the Student Motivations for Attending University (SMAU) scale was used as a way

to measure the five scales using a 5-point Likert scale. The study was comprised

entirely of Latino first-generation college students. The researchers concluded that

interpersonal and career motivation had a direct impact on the success on the first-

generation college student (Dennis et al., 2005). As a result of this information, one can

conclude that these facts may positively influence a student’s decision to pursue a

postsecondary education. It is speculated that a potential student could analyze the

benefits of achieving a postsecondary education and use those findings to make a

decision about pursuing a postsecondary education. The current study could help to

reveal the social motivating factors that influenced a first-generation minority college

freshman to pursue a postsecondary education.

Review of Themes in This Study

Results of the findings from past studies show that first-generation college

students share a commonality of diverse backgrounds that are unique. Students who are

the first in their families to attend college have a different set of goals and aspirations that

encourage them to pursue a postsecondary education and motivate them to finish their

degree programs (Ayala & Striplen, 2002). The following themes were evaluated for this

study: self-efficacy, locus of control, family influence, the glass ceiling effect, peer

influence, and relative functionalism.

Self-efficacy. It is believed that a first-generation student can achieve success in

higher education in innumerable ways. In the literature reviewed, Tinto (2004) believed

there is a correlation between social integration and the impact it has on the success of

entering college freshmen. Tinto believed that academic and social integration work

together for the overall success of the entering college class. It is assumed that, when

new students accept and incorporate the academic norms of college, they will have

entered academic integration (Tinto). Researchers also believe that a student’s self-

efficacy plays an important role in the students’ overall success rate by allowing them to

integrate socially into the college environment (Vuong & Brown-Welty, 2010). One of

the studies reviewed to address this phenomenon was The Effects of Self Efficacy of the

Success of First-Generation College Sophomores. Vuong and Brown-Welty’s study

provided an array of pertinent details regarding the effect of self-efficacy and the effect it

has on first-generation college student success. Vuong and Brown-Welty studied a group

of sophomores from 23 California college campuses. Researchers of this study

hypothesized that self-efficacy beliefs greatly affect grade point average and persistence

rates, as shown in the student sample of sophomore first-generation college students

(Vuong & Brown-Welty). Choi (2005) indicated that many factors influence students to

be successful and continue in college, which is why he believed that self-efficacy

achievement is a primary determining factor. Self-efficacy is correlated to student

academic achievement in regards to postsecondary success by greatly affecting one’s

overall achievement level (Choi, 2005). The findings of Vuong and Brown-Welty’s study

showed that self-efficacy directly affects a student’s GPA.

Moschetti (2008) conducted a qualitative study that evaluated first-generation

college students transitioning from high school to college. The study consisted of 20

Caucasian students who were a part of the working class. The context of this study

existed in a community college setting situated in northern Nevada. A grounded theory

approach was used, which allowed the researcher to generate a theory from the data

collected and categorize it into concepts. Creswell (2008) suggested that a grounded

theory occurs in qualitative studies in the field of social sciences where the researcher

derives a new theory as a result of research. The findings concluded that motivation and

self-regulation were both factors that contributed to the student’s overall educational

success in a student’s transition from high school to college.

Davis (2008) conducted a qualitative study that assessed the pros and cons of the

federal Trio program. Trio is a federally funded program with the primary focus on

assisting disabled, low income, and first-generation college students (Gullatt, 2003). The

researcher hypothesized a correlation between self-efficacy and student retention. The

sample group was comprised of 140 Trio students located at Butte College in

Sacramento, CA. A Likert self-efficacy questionnaire was used in data collection to help

the researcher derive his findings. The data helped the researcher conclude that self-

efficacy promotes student retention. In addition, the students at Buttes College in the

Trio program were successful in remaining in their degree programs or transferring to a

four-year program.

Jean (2010) investigated the relationship between first-generation college students

and non-first-generation college students in regards to their academic and social

adjustment to academia. In this quantitative study, a chi-square test of independence was

utilized to analyze the data collected from 560 students from Tri State College. A

descriptive analysis of the findings showed that there was not a significant difference

between first-generation college students and non-first-generation college students, as

they had the same proficiencies in social and academic experiences. The students in this

study attended Tri-State College located in New York, New York.

Locus of control. Tinto (2004) concluded that students’ motivation can be

determined by the value they place on academic success. For instance, a student’s

internal willingness to succeed academically can be viewed as an internal locus of

control. In a review of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, one’s self-actualization attributes

to the motivation for self-fulfillment so as to become actualized of one’s full potential

(Adams, DeVaney, & Sawyer, 2009). Driscoll (2000) contended that students who

actively set goals generally persevere in their efforts until they reach their goals. As an

extension of self-actualization, Joughlin (2009) claimed that intrinsic motivation deals

with the deep inner desire to succeed, stemming from one’s internal satisfaction or

fulfillment. It is assumed that one of the reasons students pursue postsecondary

education is to meet the needs of self-actualization as a result of their intrinsic motivation

to obtain a postsecondary education. The driving force of self-determination is the

vehicle that satisfies the need for affiliation, autonomy, and competency (Deci & Ryan,

2002). Patterson (1985) contended that autonomy is expressed in the actions stemming

from one’s internal locus of control. After an evaluation of self-actualization, it is

speculated that one’s internal locus of control can impact one’s self-actualization.

Patterson pointed out that a person who has an internal locus of control has characteristics

of a person who has self-actualization tendencies.

Family influence. It is presumed that family influence can play a very

important role in a student’s pursuit of a postsecondary education. Saenz, Barrera,

Wolf, and Young (2007) concluded that 47% of first-generation college students

attribute parental encouragement as one of the top reasons why they pursue a

postsecondary education. Findings from the Cooperative Institutional Research

Program Freshman Survey-UCLA (CIRP) concluded that family influence is a key

factor among first-generation college students’ decision to pursue a postsecondary

education in comparison to their counterparts. The CIRP survey results showed that the

trend of parental influence on first-generation college students has more than doubled

since 1971, when compared to non-first-generation college students’ parental support

(Saenz et al.). Although the literature suggested that family influence is important in the

decision for first-generation college students, the majority of minorities still do not

choose to become the first in their families to pursue a postsecondary education.

According to a family survey conducted by the Department of Education, nine out of

ten Hispanic families expect their children to attend college. Even though parents of

Hispanic students have the desire for their students to attend college, it is difficult for

the parents to provide adequate support because they lack the knowledge of the college

process (Schmidt, 2003). First-generation college students are often deficient in the

support and resources needed to excel in postsecondary education (Vargas, 2004). It is

realized in the CIRP survey that students that come from college educated parents

generally have greater access to resources, as well as to social networks that prepare

them to be more successful in postsecondary education (Saenz et al.).

Glass ceiling effect. The glass ceiling effect occurs when society places

limitations on minorities in regards to employment or educational advances (Lockwood,

2004). The term glass ceiling was originally coined in 1986 in a Wall Street Journal

Report by Hymowitz and Schellhardt (as cited in Lockwood, 2004). Hymowitz and

Schellhardt concluded that the glass ceiling effect in education can deter minorities

from seeking entry into prestigious universities or being able to study complex majors.

For instance, the effects of the glass ceiling in education are still evident in society’s

workforce. Admon (2012) pointed out that minorities have a minority stake in

management and white collar positions while they are overrepresented in blue collar

positions. It can be assumed that the glass ceiling effect may negatively impact the

number of students that pursue a postsecondary education when a glass ceiling is placed

on first-generation college students by the very people whose job is to educate them

about postsecondary educational opportunities, school administrators. For example,

Guy Bluford, the first Black astronaut, was told by his guidance counselor that he would

never be able to go to college and therefore should go to a trade school to become a

mechanic (Cothran, 2006). However, through strong parental support for his education,

Guy was able to go to college and become a part of America’s history.

Peer influence. Society has drastically changed through the years, but one of

the constants is the need for students to socialize, including the influence their peers

have on one another. Peer influence sways students in many aspects of their lives, even

in regards to educational decisions that will have a lasting impact on the students.

Gandara and Bail (2001) theorized that students who affiliate with higher achieving

peers tend to increase their academic level to be comparable to the group. It is

speculated that forming peer groups fosters academic success among students in

secondary educational settings, encouraging them to pursue a college education. Peer

pressure to attend college is more prevalent with girls than boys in the high school

environment (Tierney, 2002). Some examples of the impact of peer pressure regarding

a student’s postsecondary education include the pressure on deciding if the student

wants to go to college and the educational institution the student decides to attend

(Goodman & Leiman, 2007). Although students may have the desire to pursue a

postsecondary education, it is assumed that peer influence may also negatively impact

the student’s decision to pursue a postsecondary education. For example, negative peer

influence in postsecondary education is sometimes a contributing factor that leads to a

student dropping out of school (Lagana, 2004).

Relative functionalism. Relative functionalism is one’s belief that education

greatly affects a person’s upward mobility within the social class system (Sue &

Okazaki, 1990). Bourdieu (1977) argued that, if one is born into an uneducated and

lower socio-economic class, he or she can access the knowledge of higher classes to

gain upward social mobility by obtaining a higher education. Pascarella and Terenzini

(2005) cited that obtaining a college degree can provide a direct pathway for economic

benefits and upward mobility. Admon (2012) found that only 30% of the U.S.

population holds a bachelor’s degree, and it is imperative to increase the number of

degree holders in order for the United States to continue to be a global leader. It is

assumed that one may believe he or she can achieve a better lifestyle as a result of being

a college-educated citizen. Cooper (2009) reported that sociological and economic

reasons are likely to increase attainment or educational aspirations among first-

generation college students. According to the U.S. Department of Education (2012),

college graduates with bachelor’s degrees earn 114% more than students who do not

possess a high school diploma or equivalent. Lopez (2001) suggested that students with

lower socioeconomic backgrounds use education as a means to avoid the difficult

financial lives experienced by their parents. First-generation college students are more

likely to believe it is highly important to be financially stable and to be able to give their

children a better opportunity than they would otherwise do (Nunez & Cuccaro-Alamin,

1998). Bowles (2011) claimed that the benefits of obtaining a higher education include

an economic advantage and enhanced social equality. Bui (2002) argued that one of the

driving forces for first-generation college students is the ability to have a good financial

life. Admon concluded that one’s advanced education can positively impact his or her

economic status.

Summary

The existing literature establishes a solid foundation regarding the historical

evolution of first-generation college students. The intent of this literature review was to

uncover information about first-generation minority college students generally and,

more specifically, to determine what information is available about social motivating

factors for this phenomenon. There is a gap in the literature that does not identify the

social motivating factors that influenced first-generation minority college freshmen to

pursue a postsecondary education. Olive (2008) identified that there appears to be little

in research that explores the motivational factors of students seeking higher education.

The overall strength of the research is that there have been several research

studies conducted by scholars to address the needs of first-generation college students

and the factors motivating them to pursue a postsecondary education. Researchers

agree that first-generation minority college students come from unique backgrounds and

have distinctive characteristics that must be understood prior to being able to offer them

effective support to overcome the obstacles in being the first in their families to attend

college. As such, a wealth of information has been derived from the research. The

weakness found in the studies resulted in an opportunity for the researcher to identify

the social motivating factors that influence first-generation minority college freshmen to

pursue a postsecondary education. Researchers address and agree that motivating

factors exists; however, they failed to specifically state what the social motivating

factors are that influenced first-generation minority college freshmen to pursue a

postsecondary education.

Although the review of the literature contains research of accredited scholars,

there has not been sufficient research defining what the social motivating factors are

that encouraged first-generation minority college freshmen to pursue a postsecondary

education. In this study social factors were explored as potential motivating factors that

influenced first-generation minority college freshmen to pursue a postsecondary

education. There are gaps in the literature covering the empirical basis for this study,

and there are opportunities for additional studies to evolve based on the various

categories of economics, ethnicity, and gender of first-generation college students.

Olive (2008) identified that there appears to be little in the research that explores the

motivational factors of students seeking higher education.

Once the social motivating factors have been identified, the next steps in the

research were to explore further the social motivating factors and the forces that drive

students to positively move in the right direction of deciding their postsecondary plans.

Additionally, programs can be created that will enable more students to understand and

determine the social motivating factors for pursuing a postsecondary education. It is

imperative that further research is conducted so researchers will be able to identify the

ways to increase student motivation and have the ability to help students decide to

pursue a postsecondary education upon high school graduation.

The literature review of this study addressed the unidentified social motivating

factors that influence a first-generation minority college student’s decision to pursue a

postsecondary education. It is not known what motivates students to pursue a

postsecondary education; therefore, social motivating factors were evaluated. The study

is new to the field of educational research because, in the past, studies have not been

geared towards identifying the social motivating factors for first-generation minority

college students. Furthermore, this study extended prior research by further

investigating what the social motivating factors truly are when a student makes his or

her final decision about the next step in their educational career. Finally, the study

addressed the current literature omissions by taking the opportunity to delve into the

motivating factors that are important in impacting one’s future in the areas of social

motivation.

Past researchers have agreed that there are motivating factors that help influence

a first-generation college student’s decision to pursue a postsecondary education;

however, they have not identified the specific social motivating factors that influence

first-generation minority college freshmen. Based on the omissions in the literature

reviewed, the following research questions were needed for this qualitative study:

R1: Why do minority students, who are also first-generation college students,

enroll in college?

R2: What are the major social factors that motivate first-generation minority

students to enroll in college?

Chapter 3 explains the research methodology selected for the study in answering

the research questions. The research design, population, and sampling procedure, data

collection procedure, instrumentation, and data analysis procedures are included to

inform the reader about the process that was adhered to in answering the research

questions posed in this study. By the end of Chapter 3, the reader will have read about

the methodology used in this study, along with the data collection process and the

procedure for the analysis of the data. The results of the data collection process will help

to provide the findings in Chapter 4, which contains the results and findings of the study.

Chapter 3: Methodology

The purpose of this qualitative phenomenological study was to explore the

social motivating factors that influenced first-generation minority college freshmen to

pursue a postsecondary education. Moustakas (1994) stated that phenomenology is a

research approach used in the field of human science that aids researchers in gaining an

understanding through human experiences. Triangulation of data collected was

employed to understand more fully the social motivating factors for first-generation

minority college freshmen in their pursuit of a postsecondary education. This study

could advance the knowledge base by revealing the key factors that motivate first-

generation minority college students to attend postsecondary institutions. There is a

need for this type of study to enhance programs designed to encourage high school

students, particularly minority high school students, to make the decision to pursue a

postsecondary education. The purpose of this qualitative hermeneutic study was to

explore the lived experiences and social motivating factors for 11 minority high school

students who chose to become first-generation college students by enrolling in and

attending a local university in the western region of the United States. Onwuegbuzie

and Leech (2007) stated that it is most appropriate in qualitative studies for the

researcher to collect the data up to the point of saturation. In this phenomenological

hermeneutic study, the research population was 20 minority students, and the sample

size was 11. Onwuegbuzie and Leech established that phenomenological studies should

have a sample size of 6 to 10 participants.

The information regarding the students’ experiences was gathered using a

triangular design incorporating the following instruments: The FIPHE questionnaire,

the demographic survey, and face-to-face interviews. These instruments were used to

explore the reasons and factors that motivate first-generation college students’ to pursue

a postsecondary education (Harris, 2009). The instruments measured the social factors

and the reasons first-generation college minority students pursue a postsecondary

education. This study was deemed to be necessary to help educators and administrators

determine the motivating factors that influence students to pursue a postsecondary

education. The results of this study could help minority students understand the

importance of a college education and influence them to pursue a postsecondary

education.

Statement of the Problem

It was not known what social motivating factors influence first-generation

minority college freshmen to pursue a postsecondary education. Many factors can

influence a student’s pursuit of a postsecondary education. The focus of this study was

on these factors: (a) self-efficacy, (b) locus of control, (c) family influence, (d) the glass

ceiling effect, (e) peer influence, and (f) relative functionalism (Harris, 2009). Research

shows that there is a tremendous need to increase the number of college students in order

to ensure positive economic growth and, more importantly, to enhance society as a whole

(Bui, 2002). A review of recent literature demonstrates that there is a gap in knowledge

of the social motivating factors for minority first-generation college students (Olive,