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ESSENTIALS OF

LIFE-SPAN

DEVELOPMENT 6e

John W. Santrock

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

Chapter 1

Introduction

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Chapter Outline

• The life-span perspective

• The nature of development

• Theories of development

• Research on life-span development

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The Life-Span Perspective

• The importance of studying life-span development

• Characteristics of the life-span perspective

• Address contemporary concerns in the field

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The Importance of Studying Life-Span Development 1

• Prepares individual to take responsibility for children

• Gives insight about individuals’ lives

• Provides knowledge about what individuals’ lives will be like as they age

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The Importance of Studying Life-Span Development 2

Development

• Pattern of change beginning at conception and continuing throughout the life span

• Involves growth and decline brought on by aging and dying

Life-span perspective

• Involves growth, maintenance, and regulation

• Constructed through biological, sociocultural, and individual factors working together

• Emphasis on developmental change throughout adulthood and childhood

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Life Expectancy 1

The upper boundary of human lifespan is 122 years.

Life expectancy is 79 years.

• Prehistoric era average life expectancy was 18 years.

• People live longer in part due to better sanitation, nutrition and medicine.

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Characteristics of the Life-Span Perspective

Development is

• Lifelong

• Multidimensional

• Multidirectional

• Plastic

• Multidisciplinary

• Contextual

• Co-construction of biological, sociocultural, and individual factors

• A process involving growth, maintenance, and regulation of loss

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Types of Contextual Influences

Normative age-graded influences: similar for individuals in a particular age group

• For example, starting school, puberty, menopause

Common generational experiences due to historical events

• 1930’s Great Depression

• 1960s to 70s Civil and Women’s rights movements

• 9/11/2001 Terrorist attacks

Non-normative life events: unusual occurrences that have a major life impact

• For example, losing a parent as a child, winning the lottery

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The Life-Span Perspective 1

Contemporary concerns

• Health and well-being

• For example, positive connection between exercise and cognitive development

• Parenting and education

• For example, child care, parents’ relationship, early childhood education

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Life Expectancy 2

Rapid increase in life expectancy has negative implications on quality of life for older people.

• Society reflects the needs of younger people.

• Parks, transportation systems, etc., are built assuming they are used only by able-bodied people.

• Planning and building does not consider needs of low- strength or low-stamina people.

• Focus has been on what older adults lack, not what they can contribute to society

• Older citizens can share expertise, motivation to make a difference.

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The Life-Span Perspective 2

Sociocultural contexts and diversity

• Culture: interactions, behavior patterns, beliefs, and all other products of a group passed on from generation to generation

• Cross-cultural studies: comparing aspects of cultures to gain information about their developmental similarities

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The Life-Span Perspective 3

Ethnicity: based on cultural heritage, nationality characteristics, race, religion, and language

• Positive impact of ethnic identity and negative impact of discrimination on children’s development

Socioeconomic status: grouping of people with similar occupational, educational, and economic characteristics

Gender: characteristics of people as males, females, or transgender, and sociocultural challenges

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The Life-Span Perspective 4

Social policy: national government’s course of action designed to promote the welfare of its citizens

• Social Policy Issues

• Increase in number of children living in poverty and resulting stressors

• Well-being of older adults

• Escalating health care costs

• Older adults’ access to adequate health care

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The Life-Span Perspective 5

Technology

• Impact on child’s development

• Recent dramatic increase in technology for adults and children

Constant use of the internet, smart phones, advent of social media and its impact

©DaydreamsGirl/Getty Images

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The Nature of Development

• Biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes interact as individuals develop, and the process shapes development.

• Periods of development

• The significance of age

• Developmental issues

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Biological, Cognitive, and Socioemotional Processes 1

Biological processes

• Changes in an individual’s physical nature

• Science now allows for the study of individual’s genetic makeup

Cognitive processes

• Changes in an individual’s thought, intelligence, and language

Socioemotional processes

• Changes in an individual’s relationships, emotions, and personality

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Biological, Cognitive, and Socioemotional Processes 2

Processes are bidirectional and intertwined.

Connection is evident in following emerging fields

• Developmental cognitive neuroscience: explores links between development, cognitive processes, and the brain

• Developmental social neuroscience: examines connections between socioemotional processes, development, and the brain

• Both fields show that their influence on each other is a constant.

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Processes and Periods of Development

Periods of Development

Prenatal period (conception to

birth)

Infancy (birth to 18 to 24

months)

Early childhood (3 to 5 years)

Middle and late childhood (6 to 10/ 11 years)

Adolescence (10 to 12 to 18

to 21 years)

Early adulthood (20s and 30s)

Middle adulthood

(40s and 50s)

Late adulthood (60s to 70s to

death)

(Photo credit left to right) ©Brand X Pictures/PunchStock; Courtesy of Dr. John Santrock; ©Laurence Mouton/Photoalto/ PictureQuest; ©Digital Vision/Getty Images; ©SW Productions/Getty Images; ©Blue Moon Stock/Alamy Images; ©Sam Edwards/Glow Images; ©Ronnie Kaufman/Blend Images LLC

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Periods of Development 1

Developmental period: a time frame in a person’s life characterized by certain features

• The 9 periods are

• Prenatal period: conception to birth

• Infancy: birth to 18 to 24 months

• Early childhood: 3 to 5 years old

• Middle and late childhood: 6 to 10 or 11 years old

• Adolescence: 10 to 12 to 18 to 21 years old

• Emerging Adulthood: 18 to 25 years

• Early adulthood: 20’s and 30’s

• Middle adulthood: 40’s and 50’s

• Late adulthood: 60’s to 70’s to death

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Periods of Development 2

Three Developmental Patterns of Aging

• Normal aging

• Describes most individuals with psychological functioning peaking early middle-age

• Pathological aging

• Describes individuals with above average decline in early old age, developing a condition leading to mild cognitive impairment

• Successful aging

• Describes individuals maintaining positive physical, cognitive, and socioemotional development longer in life

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Periods of Development 3

Three Developmental Patterns of Aging

• Provides a portrait of how aging can involve individual variation.

Connections Across Periods of Development

• Significant interaction between periods of the lifespan, just as with socioemotional, biological, and cognitive processes

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Significance of Age

Full evaluation of age requires consideration of chronological, biological, psychological, and social age.

• Chronological age

• Number of years that have elapsed since birth

• Biological age

• Age in terms of biological health

• Psychological age

• Individual’s adaptive capacities compared with people of the same chronological age

• Social age

• Connectedness with others and social roles people adopt

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Developmental Issues 1

Nature-nurture issue: debate about whether development is primarily influenced by nature or nurture

• Nature - organism’s biological inheritance

• Nurture - environmental experiences

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Developmental Issues 2

Stability-change issue: debate about the degree to which an individual

• Becomes older version of the early self with same traits persisting through life

• Develops into someone different from who they were at an earlier point in development

Continuity-discontinuity issue: debate about the extent to which development involves gradual, cumulative change, or distinct stages.

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Developmental Issues 3

Evaluating the Developmental Issues

• Most developmentalists acknowledge that development is combination of each of these view.

• The extent of their individual influences is still highly debated

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Main Theories of Development 1

• Psychoanalytic theories

• Cognitive theories

• Behavioral and social cognitive theories

• Ethological theory

• Ecological theory

• An eclectic theoretical orientation

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Main Theories of Development 2

Scientific method: 4-step approach that can be used to obtain accurate information

• Conceptualize a process or problem

• Collect data

• Analyze the data

• Draw conclusions

Following the four-step process, revise research conclusions and theory

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Main Theories of Development 3

• Theory: interrelated, coherent set of ideas that helps to explain phenomena and facilitate predictions

• Hypotheses: specific assertions and predictions that can be tested to determine their accuracy

• They are connected because the theory may suggest the hypothesis.

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Psychoanalytic Theories 1

Freudian Stages of Development: adult personality is determined by how conflicts at each stage between sources of pleasure and the demands of reality are resolved

• Unresolved conflict leads to problems.

Five stages of Freudian development

• Oral Stage

• Birth to 1 ½ Years

• Infant’s pleasure centers on the mouth

• Anal Stage

• 1 ½ to 3 Years

• Child’s pleasure focuses on the anus

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Psychoanalytic Theories 2

Phallic Stage

• 3 to 6 Years

• Child’s pleasure focuses on the genitals

Latency Stage

• 6 Years to Puberty

• Child represses sexual interest and develops social and intellectual skills

Genital Stage

• Puberty Onward

• A time of sexual reawakening: source of sexual pleasure becomes someone outside the family

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Psychoanalytic Theories 3

• Describe development as primarily unconscious and heavily colored by emotion.

• Behavior is a surface characteristic, and the symbolic workings of the mind have to be analyzed to understand behavior.

• Early experiences with parents extensively shape development.

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Psychoanalytic Theories 4

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory for human behavior

• Motivation for behavior is social in nature.

• Personality and developmental change occurs throughout the life- span.

• Both early and later experiences are important.

©Jon Erikson/The Image Works

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Psychoanalytic Theories 5

Stages of human development

• Trust versus mistrust

• Autonomy versus shame and doubt

• Initiative versus guilt

• Industry versus inferiority

• Identity versus identity confusion

• Intimacy versus isolation

• Generativity versus stagnation

• Integrity versus despair

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Psychoanalytic Theories 6

Evaluation

• Emphasis on

• Developmental framework

• Family relationships

• Unconscious aspects of the mind

• Criticisms

• Lack of scientific support

• Too much emphasis on sexual underpinnings

• Image of people that is too negative

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Piaget’s Four Stages of Cognitive Development 1

Two processes underlie a child’s cognitive construction of the

world

• Organization

• Adaptation

• Birth to 2 to 3 Years

• Sensorimotor Stage

• Infants coordinate sensory experiences with physical actions to

construct an understanding of the world.

• Infants progress from reflexive, instinctual action at birth to the

beginning of symbolic thought toward the end of the stage.

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Piaget’s Four Stages of Cognitive Development 2

2 to 7 Years of Age

• Preoperational Stage

• The child begins to represent the world with words and images. These words and images reflect increased symbolic thinking and go beyond the connection of sensory information and physical action.

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Piaget’s Four Stages of Cognitive Development 3

7 to 11 Years of Age

• Concrete Operational Stage

• The child can now reason logically about concrete events and classify objects into different sets.

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Piaget’s Four Stages of Cognitive Development 4

11 Years of Age Through Adulthood

• Formal Operational Stage

• The adolescent reasons in more abstract, idealistic, and logical ways.

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Piaget’s Four Stages of Cognitive Development 5

Birth to 2 Years of Age

Sensorimotor Stage

The infant constructs an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences with physical actions. An infant progresses from reflexive, instinctual action at birth to the beginning of symbolic thought toward the end of the stage.

2 to 7 Years of Age

Preoperational Stage

The child begins to represent the world with words and images. These words and images reflect increased symbolic thinking and go beyond the connection of sensory information and physical action.

7 to 11 Years of Age

Concrete Operational Stage

The child can now reason logically about concrete events and classify objects into different sets.

11 Years of Age Through Adulthood

Formal Operational Stage

The adolescent reasons in more abstract, idealistic, and logical ways.

(Photo credit left to right) ©Stockbyte/Getty Images; ©BananaStock/PunchStock; ©image100/Corbis; ©Purestock/Getty Images

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Cognitive Theories 1

Vygotsky’s theory

• Emphasizes how culture and social interaction guide and are inseparable from cognitive development

Information-processing theory

• Emphasizes that individuals process information, monitor, and strategize about it

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Cognitive Theories 2

Evaluation

• Emphasis on

• Positive view of development

• Emphasis on the active construction of understanding

• Criticisms

• Skepticism about the pureness of Piaget’s stages

• Little attention to individual variations

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Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theories 1

Skinner’s operant conditioning

• Development consists of the pattern of behavioral changes brought about by rewards and punishments

Bandura’s social cognitive theory

• Emphasizes behavior, environment, and cognition as the key factors in development

• Relations between behavior, person/cognitive, and environmental factors are reciprocal

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Bandura’s Social Cognitive Model

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Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theories 2

Evaluation

• Emphasis on

• Scientific research and environmental as determinants of behavior

• Criticisms

• Little emphasis on cognition in Skinner’s view

• Inadequate attention paid to developmental changes

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Ethological Theory 1

Ethology: stresses that behavior is strongly influenced by biology, is tied to evolution, and is characterized by experiences during critical or sensitive periods

• Konrad Lorenz – helped bring ethology to prominence by showing developmental importance of imprinting behavior of geese

• John Bowlby - attachment to a caregiver over the first year of life has important consequences for optimal social relationship development throughout the life span

Ethological Theory 2

Evaluation

• Emphasis

• Contributions of ethological theory include a focus on the biological and evolutionary basis of development and the use of careful observations in naturalistic settings.

• Criticisms

• Too much emphasis on biological foundations

• The critical and sensitive period concepts might be too rigid.

Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory of Development

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Five Environmental Systems In Bronfenbrenner’s Mode

• Microsystem: setting in which the individual lives and helps to construct

• Mesosystem: relations between microsystems or connections between contexts

• Exosystem: links between a social setting in which the individual has a passive role and their immediate context

• Macrosystem: the culture in which individuals live

• All systems are affected by each other and by events occurring over time.

Ecological Theory

Evaluation

• Emphasis

• Contributions include the systematic examination of macro and micro dimensions of environmental systems.

• Attention to connections between environmental systems

• Emphasis on a range of social contexts besides family influences child’s development, for example, neighborhood, religion, school, and workplace

• Criticisms

• Inadequate attention to biological factors

• Little emphasis on cognitive factors

Eclectic Theoretical Orientation

Does not follow any one theoretical approach

• Selects from each theory whatever is considered the best features

• Allows for seeing the study of development as it actually exists, for example, different theorists making different assumptions, stressing different empirical problems, and discovering information using different strategies

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Comparison of Theories and Issues in Life-span Development 1

Theory Continuity/discontinuity, early versus later experience

Biological and environmental factors

Psychoanalytic

Discontinuity between stages—continuity between early experiences and later development; early experiences very important; later changes in development emphasized in Erikson's theory

Freud's biological determination interacting with early family experiences; Erikson’s more balanced biological- cultural interaction perspective

Cognitive

Discontinuity between stages—continuity between early experiences and later development; early experiences very important; later changes in development emphasized in Erikson's theory

Piaget's emphasis on interaction and adaptation; environment provides the setting for cognitive structures to develop; information-processing view has not addressed this issue extensively but mainly emphasizes

biological-environmental interaction

Comparison of Theories and Issues in Life-span Development 2

Theory Continuity/discontinuity , early versus later experience

Biological and environmental factors

Behavioral and social cognitive

Continuity (no stages): experience at all points of development important

Environment viewed as the cause of behavior in both views

Ethological

Discontinuity but no stages; critical or sensitive periods emphasized; early experiences very important

Strong biological view

Ecological

Little attention to continuity/discontinuity; change emphasized more than stability

Strong environmental view

Research in Life-Span Development

Research tests and refines features of theories

Conducting Research

• Methods for collecting data

• Research designs

• Time span of research

• Conducting ethical research

• Minimizing bias

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Methods for Collecting Data 1

Observation

• Laboratory: controlled setting where complex real-world factors are removed

• Naturalistic observation: studies involving observing behavior in real- world settings

Survey and interview

• Survey: administering a standard set of questions on a topic using unbiased questions to obtain unambiguous answers

• Interview: individuals directly asked to self-report

Methods for Collecting Data 2

Standardized test: administered and scored utilizing uniform procedures

Case study: in-depth look at a single individual

Physiological measures

• Measure of hormones such as cortisol

• Neuroimaging or fMRI

• Electroencephalography

• Gene testing

Research Designs 1

Descriptive research: designed to observe and record behavior

Correlational research: describes the strength of the relationship between two or more events or characteristics

• Correlation coefficient: number based on statistical analysis that is used to describe the degree of association between two variables

• Ranges from −1.00 to +1.00

• The higher the correlation coefficient (whether positive or negative), the stronger the association between the two variables.

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Research Designs 2

Experimental research is designed to study causality.

• Experiment: one or more of the factors are manipulated while all other factors are held constant

• Independent and dependent variables

• Experimental and control groups

Possible Explanations of Correlational Data 1

Observed Correlation: as permissive parenting increases, children’s self-control decreases

Possible explanations for this observed correlation

• An observed correlation between two events cannot be used to conclude that one event causes the second event. Other possibilities are that the second event causes the first event or that a third event causes the correlation between the first two events.

Possible Explanations of Correlational Data 2

• Permissive parenting causes children’s lack of self-control.

• Children’s lack of self-control causes permissive parenting.

• A third factor such as genetic tendencies or poverty causes both permissive parenting and children’s lack of self-control.

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Possible Explanations of Correlational Data 3

An observed correlation between two events cannot be used to conclude that one event causes the second event. Other possibilities are that the second event causes the first event or that a third event causes the correlation between the first

two events.

Principles of Experimental Research

Participants randomly assigned to experimental and control groups

Does meditating while pregnant help newborns’ sleeping and breathing patterns?

• Independent variable

• Experimental group (meditation)

• Control group (no meditation)

• Dependent variable

• Newborns’ breathing patterns

• Newborns’ sleeping patterns

Time Span of Research

• Cross-sectional approach: individuals of different ages are compared at one time

• Longitudinal approach: same individuals are studied over a period of time, usually several years or more

• Cohort effects: due to a person’s time of birth, era, or generation, rather than the person’s actual age

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Cohort Effect

Generation Historical Period Reason for Label

Millennials Individuals born in 1980 and later

First generation to come of age and enter emerging adulthood

(18 to 25 years of age) in the twenty-first century (the new millennium). Two main characteristics: (1) connection to technology, and (2) ethnic

diversity.

Generation X Individuals born between 1965 and 1980

Described as lacking an identity and savvy loners.

Baby Boomers Individuals born between 1946 and 1964

Label used because this generation represents the spike

in the number of babies born after World War II; the largest generation ever to enter late adulthood in the United States.

Silent Generation

Individuals born between 1928 and 1945

Children of the Great Depression and World War II; described as

conformists and civic minded.

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