M3 Assignment 2 Submission
Perceptual and Motor Skills, 2012, 114, 3, 748-756. © Perceptual and Motor Skills 2012
DOI 10.2466/05.20.22.PMS.114.3.748-756 ISSN 0031-5125
Imagery Use of athletes In IndIvIdUal and team
sports that reqUIre open and Closed skIll1, 2
esen kIZIldag and m. û()ͦ.�7ͦ5<$.ͦ
Mersin University
Summary.—this study compared use of imagery in elite male and female ath- letes in open and closed and individual or team sports. a total of 151 elite turk-
ish athletes ages 15 to 29 years old (males’ M age = 20.7 yr., SD = 3.3; females’ M age = 20.0 yr., SD = 3.5) from open-team sports (n = 66), open-individual sports (n = 26), and closed-individual sports (n = 59) completed the sport Imagery ques- WLRQQDLUH��$� VLJQLÀFDQW� PXOWLYDULDWH� HͿHFW� RI� VSRUW� W\SH� ZDV� IRXQG�� 8QLYDULDWH� analyses indicated that male and female athletes in team open-skill sports and indi-
vidual closed-skill sports used more motivational general–mastery imagery than
did athletes in individual open-skill sports.
Imagery is a popular mental training technique used by athletes along
ZLWK�RWKHU�WHFKQLTXHV��VXFK�DV�VHOI�WDON��UHOD[DWLRQ��DQG�JRDO�VHWWLQJ��0RU- ris, spittle, & Watt, 2005). athletes use imagery in preparation for match-
HV��VNLOO�OHDUQLQJ�DQG�GHYHORSPHQW��FRSLQJ�ZLWK�LQMXULHV��VWUDWHJ\�GHYHO- opment, and enhancement for performance (feltz & landers, 1983; White
& hardy, 1998; morris, et al.���������,PDJHU\�LV�GHÀQHG�DV��´FUHDWLRQ�RU�UH� FUHDWLRQ�RI�DQ�H[SHULHQFH�JHQHUDWHG�IURP�PHPRULDO�LQIRUPDWLRQ��LQYROY- LQJ�TXDVL�VHQVRULDO��TXDVL�SHUFHSWXDO��DQG�TXDVL�DͿHFWLYH�FKDUDFWHULVWLFV�� ZKLFK�LV�XQGHU�WKH�YROLWLRQDO�FRQWURO�RI�WKH�LPDJHU��DQG�LW�PD\�RFFXU�LQ� WKH�DEVHQFH�RI�WKH�UHDO�VWLPXOXV�DQWHFHGHQWV�QRUPDOO\�DVVRFLDWHG�ZLWK�WKH� DFWXDO�H[SHULHQFHµ��0RUULV��et al., 2005, p. 19). While cognitive activities FDQ�QHYHU�UHSODFH�SK\VLFDO�SUDFWLFH��+LQVKDZ��������*URXLRV���������VRPH� mental tools (e.g., imagery) have been recognized as an important in im-
proving athletic performance (paivio, 1985; hall, 2001).
much research in the use of imagery in sport settings has utilized
paivo’s conceptualization (1985). according to pavio, imagery has cogni-
tive and motivational mechanisms, and these mechanisms operate on spe-
FLÀF�DQG�JHQHUDO�OHYHOV��7KH�6SRUW�,PDJHU\�4XHVWLRQQDLUH��GHYHORSHG�E\� +DOO��0DFN��3DLYLR��DQG�+DXVHQEODV���������ZDV�EDVHG�RQ�3DYLR·V�FRQFHS- tualization. this questionnaire measures the frequency of athletes’ use of
LPDJHU\�IXQFWLRQV��LQFOXGLQJ�FRJQLWLYH�VSHFLÀF��UHKHDUVDO�RI�VSHFLÀF�VSRUW� skills), cognitive general (rehearsal of game plan and strategies), motiva-
1$GGUHVV� FRUUHVSRQGHQFH� WR� 0�� ûHÀN� 7LU\DNL�� 6FKRRO� RI� 3K\VLFDO� (GXFDWLRQ� DQG� 6SRUWV�� 0HUVLQ�8QLYHUVLW\��&LIWOLNNR\�.DPSXVX��������0HUVLQ��7XUNH\�RU�H�PDLO��VHÀNW#KRWPDLO� com). 27KH�GDWD�IURP�WKLV�VWXG\�ZDV�SDUW�RI�PDVWHU·V�WKHVLV�E\�(VHQ�.L]LOGDJ�XQGHU�'U��0��ûHÀN� tiryaki’s supervision.
Athletes’ ImAgery Use 749
WLRQDO�VSHFLÀF��LPDJLQLQJ�WKH�DFKLHYHPHQW�RI�JRDOV���PRWLYDWional gener- al–arousal (general physiological and emotional arousal), and motivation-
DO�JHQHUDO²PDVWHU\��LPDJLQLQJ�EHLQJ�FRQÀGHQW��LQ�FRQWURO��DQG�IRFXVHG�� 0DQ\� VWXGLHV� KDYH� EHHQ� FRQGXFWHG� RQ� GLͿHUHQW� DVSHFWV� RI� LPDJ-
HU\��VKRZLQJ�WKH�FKDUDFWHULVWLFV�RI�DWKOHWHV·�LPDJHU\�XVH�DFURVV�GLͿHUHQW� VSRUWV��DV�ZHOO�DV�WKHLU�UHODWLRQVKLS�WR�FRQÀGHQFH��H[SHUWLVH��DQG�RSHQ�YHU- VXV�FORVHG�VSRUWV��)RU�H[DPSOH��1RUGLQ�DQG�&XPPLQJ��������FRPSDUHG� the imagery of dancers to that of aesthetic sport (artistic gymnastics, sport
DFUREDWLFV��ÀJXUH�VNDWLQJ��HWF���SHUIRUPHUV��DQG�WKH\�IRXQG�WKDW�WKH�DHV- thetic athletes engaged in less role imagery and movement quality imag-
ery than dancers. abma, fry, li, and relyea, (2002) focused on track and
ÀHOG�DWKOHWHV�ZLWK�KLJK�DQG�ORZ�FRQÀGHQFH�DQG�IRXQG�WKDW�WKRVH�ZLWK� KLJK�FRQÀGHQFH�XVHG�PRUH�LPDJHU\��$UYLQHQ�%DUURZ��:HLJDQG��7KRPDV�� hemmings, and Walley (2007) investigated imagery use by elite and nov-
ice athletes in open and closed sports.3�(OLWH�DWKOHWHV�XVHG�VLJQLÀFDQWO\� PRUH�FRJQLWLYH�VSHFLÀF�DQG�FRJQLWLYH�JHQHUDO�LPDJHU\�WKDQ�QRYLFH�DWK- OHWHV��DWKOHWHV� LQ�RSHQ�VNLOO�VSRUWV�XVHG�VLJQLÀFDQWO\�PRUH�PRWLYDWLRQDO� JHQHUDO²DURXVDO�LPDJHU\�WKDQ�DWKOHWHV�LQ�FORVHG�VNLOO�VSRUW��$UYLQHQ�%DU- URZ��:HLJDQG��+HPPLQJV��DQG�:DOOH\��������DOVR�IRFXVHG�RQ�WKH�XVH�RI� imagery at various competitive levels in skating. their results indicated
WKDW�VHQLRU�VNDWHUV�XVHG�PRUH�FRJQLWLYH�VSHFLÀF��PRWLYDWLRQDO�JHQHUDO² DURXVDO��DQG�PRWLYDWLRQDO�JHQHUDO²PDVWHU\�LPDJHU\�WKDQ�MXQLRU�VNDWHUV��
$�QXPEHU�RI�VWXGLHV�KDYH�VKRZQ�GLͿHUHQFHV�LQ�LPDJHU\�XVH�EHWZHHQ� PHQ�DQG�ZRPHQ��,VDDF�DQG�0DUNV��������DQG�*DPPDJH��+DOO��DQG�5RG- JHU��������IRXQG�WKDW�LPDJHU\�GLͿHUHQFHV�H[LVWHG�EDVHG�RQ�VH[�DQG�W\SH� RI�DFWLYLW\��:HLQEHUJ��%XWW��DQG�.QLJKW��������IRXQG�WKDW�PDOH�DWKOHWHV�UH- ported greater use of imagery, and salmon, hall, and haslam (1994) found
that men employed imagery more consistently.
3ULRU�VWXGLHV�DOVR�KDYH�LQYHVWLJDWHG�WKH�UHODWLRQVKLS�EHWZHHQ�VSRUW� W\SHV�DQG�XVH�RI�LPDJHU\��)RU�H[DPSOH��WHDP�RSHQ�VNLOO�DWKOHWHV�DQG�LQ- dividual closed-skill athletes used more motivational general–mastery
imagery than individual open-skill athletes as found by short and short
(2005) in soccer players, and by gregg, hall, and hanton (2007) and abma,
et al���������ZLWK�WUDFN�DQG�ÀHOG�DWKOHWHV��LQGLYLGXDO�FORVHG�VNLOO�VSRUW��� munroe-Chandler, hall, fishburne, and shannon (2005) also found simi-
ODU�UHVXOWV�ZLWK�ZRPHQ�VRFFHU�SOD\HUV��WHDP�RSHQ�VNLOO�VSRUW���$UYLQHQ� %DUURZ��et al.��������ZLWK�VNDWHUV��LQGLYLGXDO�FORVHG�VNLOO�VSRUW���DQG�6KRUW�� 7HQXWH��DQG�)HOW]��������ZLWK�ZRPHQ�YROOH\EDOO��EDVNHWEDOO��KRFNH\��VRF- cer, and softball players (team open-skill sports). adegbesan (2009) also
found that soccer players (team open-skill sport) used more motivation-
3,I�WKH�HQYLURQPHQW�GRHV�QRW�FKDQJH�DQG�LV�SUHGLFWDEOH�ZKLOH�WKH�SHUIRUPHU�LV�H[HFXWLQJ�WKH� VNLOO��WKLV�VNLOO�LV�FODVVLÀHG�DV�FORVHG�VNLOO��,I�WKH�HQYLURQPHQW�LV�XQVWDEOH��XQSUHGLFWDEOH��DQG� FKDQJLQJ��WKH�VNLOO�FODVVLÀHG�DV�DQ�RSHQ�VNLOO�
(��.,=,/'$*� �0��6��7ͦ5<$.ͦ750
al general-mastery imagery than table tennis players (individual open-
VNLOO�VSRUW���%HDXFKDPS��%UD\��DQG�$OELQVRQ��������DQG�9DGRF]��+DOO��DQG� moritz (1997) found that athletes in closed-skill sports used more cogni-
WLYH�LPDJHU\�IXQFWLRQV�WKDQ�DWKOHWHV�LQ�RSHQ�VNLOO�VSRUWV��+RZHYHU��*UHJJ� and hall (2006) and munroe, hall, simms, and Weinberg (1998) did not
ÀQG�DQ\�GLͿHUHQFHV�LQ�LPDJHU\�XVH�EHWZHHQ�DWKOHWHV�LQ�WHDP�DQG�LQGLYLG- ual sports. given all these varied results, gregg and hall (2006) stated that
´DGGLWLRQDO�UHVHDUFK�LV�FHUWDLQO\�ZDUUDQWHG�RQ�ZKHWKHU�W\SH�RI�VSRUW�LQÁX- HQFHV�JHQHUDO�PRWLYDWLRQDO�LPDJHU\�DELOLWLHVµ��S��������
7KLV�LV�WKH�ÀUVW�VWXG\�H[DPLQLQJ�WKH�XVH�RI�LPDJHU\�E\�PDOH�DQG�IH- male athletes in (1) team open-skill sports, (2) individual open-skill sports,
and (3) individual closed-skill sports. Within these variables, given the
DERYH�SULRU�UHVXOWV�ZH�H[SHFWHG�WR�ÀQG�WKDW�PHQ�ZRXOG�XVH�PRUH�LPDJ- HU\�WKDQ�ZRPHQ��+\SRWKHVLV�����LPDJHU\�XVH�VKRXOG�YDU\�VLJQLÀFDQWO\� across the type of sport (hypothesis 2), athletes in team open-skill sports
VKRXOG�VKRZ�GLͿHUHQFHV�RQ�0RWLYDWLRQDO�*HQHUDO�0DVWHU\�LPDJHU\�IURP� those in individual open sports (hypothesis 3), and athletes in closed-skill
sports should use more cognitive imagery functions than those in open-
VNLOO�VSRUWV��+\SRWKHVLV�����2WKHU�UHODWLRQVKLSV�ZHUH�DOVR�WHVWHG� Method
Participants elite turkish athletes (87 male, 64 female) from both individual open-
skill (tennis n = 26, 17 male, 9 female) and individual closed-skill sports �WUDFN�DQG�ÀHOG�n� ��������PDOH�����IHPDOH��VZLPPLQJ�n = 25, 16 male, 9 female) and team open-skill sports (volleyball n = 39, 21 male, 18 female; basketball n = 27, 13 male, 14 female) voluntarily participated the study. $WKOHWHV�ZHUH����WR����\HDUV�ROG��M = 20.4, SD = 3.3), and the length of FRPSHWLWLYH�H[SHULHQFH�UDQJHG�IURP���WR����\HDUV��M = 8.9, SD = 3.2). for SUHVHQW�SXUSRVHV��DWKOHWHV�ZKR�UHSUHVHQWHG�7XUNH\�DW�LQWHUQDWLRQDO�FRP- SHWLWLRQV��(XURSHDQ�DQG�:RUOG�&KDPSLRQVKLSV�RU�2O\PSLF�JDPHV��ZHUH� considered elite athletes.
Measure the sport Imagery questionnaire (hall, et al.��������ZDV�XVHG�WR�DVVHVV�
the frequency of imagery use by the athletes. In the process of translation
RI�WKH�VFDOH��VL[�H[SHUWV�LQ�ERWK�ODQJXDJHV�PDGH�IRUZDUG�DQG�EDFNZDUG� WUDQVODWLRQ�DQG�WKH\�ZRUNHG�LQGHSHQGHQWO\�RI�HDFK�RWKHU�LQ�WKH�WZR�VWDJ- es (merenda, 2006). the original sport Imagery questionnaire consists of
ÀYH�VXEVFDOHV��DQG�HDFK�VXEVFDOH�KDV�VL[�LWHPV��7KHVH�LPDJHU\�VXEVFDOHV� ZHUH�&RJQLWLYH�*HQHUDO��&RJQLWLYH�6SHFLÀF��0RWLYDtional general–arous- al, motivational general–mastery, and motivationDO�6SHFLÀF��DOO�UDWHG�RQ� D���SRLQW�VFDOH�DQFKRUHG�E\����5DUHO\�QHYHU�DQG����$OZD\V��7KH�LQWHUQDO�
Athletes’ ImAgery Use 751
FRQVLVWHQFLHV�RI�WKH�RULJLQDO�VFDOH�HVWLPDWHV�RI�HDFK�VXEVFDOH�ZHUH�DERYH� .70 (hall, et al., 1998).
7KH� TXHVWLRQQDLUH·V� IDFWRU� VWUXFWXUH� ZDV� WHVWHG� ZLWK� FRQÀUPDWRU\� factor analysis (Cfa) using lIsrel 8.7 (Jöreskog & sörbom, 2004). the
Ȥ2/df�UDWLR��FRPSDUDWLYH�ÀW�LQGH[��&),���JRRGQHVV�RI�ÀW�LQGH[��*),���DQG� URRW�PHDQ�VTXDUH�HUURU�RI�DSSUR[LPDWLRQ��506($��ZHUH�FDOFXODWHG�WR�DV- VHVV�JRRGQHVV�RI�ÀW�RI�WKH�RYHUDOO�PRGHO��%HQWOHU��������.HOORZD\�������� lacobucci, 2010). the Ȥ2/df�UDWLR�YDOXH�IRU�WKLV�VWXG\�ZDV�������&),� ������� *),� �������DQG�506($� �������7KH�K\SRWKHVL]HG�ÀYH�IDFWRU�PRGHO�KDG�D� UHDVRQDEOH�ÀW�WR�WKH�GDWD��,Q�RWKHU�ZRUGV��WKH�UHVXOWV�RI�&)$�VXSSRUWHG� D�ÀYH�IDFWRU�PRGHO��&RJQLWLYH�*HQHUDO��&RJQLWLYH�6SHFLÀF��0RWLYDWLRQDO� general–arousal, motivational general–mastery, and motivational spe-
FLÀF��RI�LPDJHU\�XVH��3HUFHQW�RI�YDULDQFH�H[SODLQHG�E\�WKH�ÀYH�IDFWRUV�ZDV� DSSUR[LPDWHO\������7KH�LQWHUQDO�FRQVLVWHQF\��&URQEDFK·V�DOSKD��RI�WKH� 7XUNLVK�YHUVLRQ�RI�WKH�6,4�ZDV�FDOFXODWHG�DV�����IRU�&RJQLWLYH�VSHFLÀF������ for Cognitive general, .67 for motivational general–arousal, .70 for moti-
YDWLRQDO�*HQHUDO²0DVWHU\�DQG�����IRU�0RWLYDWLRQDO�6SHFLÀF��$FFRUGLQJ�WR� 1XQQDOO\·V��������FULWHULD��UHOLDELOLW\�FRHFLHQW���������IRXU�&URQEDFK·V�DO- SKD�YDOXHV��&RJQLWLYH�VSHFLÀF��&RJQLWLYH�JHQHUDO��0RWLYDWLRQDO�*HQHUDO² 0DVWHU\�DQG�0RWLYDWLRQDO�6SHFLÀF��DUH�DFFHSWDEOH�DQG�0RWLYDWLRQDO�*HQ- HUDO²$URXVDO�YDOXH�ZDV�EHORZ�WKLV�FULWHULRQ� Procedure
7KH�FRDFKHV�ZHUH�FRQWDFWHG�WR�UHTXHVW�SHUPLVVLRQ�WR�FRQWDFW�WKHLU�UH- VSHFWLYH�LQGLYLGXDO�DQG�WHDP�DWKOHWHV�IRU�WKH�UHVHDUFK�SURMHFW��'XULQJ�WKH� regular season practice, at training facilities and national camp centers,
WKH�SULPDU\�UHVHDUFKHU�PHW�ZLWK�SDUWLFLSDQWV�ZKR�FRPSOHWHG�WKH�FRQVHQW� form and measured the imagery use of athletes. In such cases, coaches ap-
SOLHG�WKH�TXHVWLRQQDLUHV�WR�WKHLU�DWKOHWHV�DIWHU�WKH\�ZHUH�JLYHQ�LQVWUXFWLRQV� regarding the appropriate administration of the questionnaire.
Analysis 'LͿHUHQFHV�LQ�VFRUHV�RQ�WKH�ÀYH�LPDJHU\�XVH�VXEVFDOHV�ZHUH�H[DP-
LQHG�E\����PXOWLYDULDWH�DQDO\VLV�RI�YDULDQFH�����VH[��PDOH��IHPDOH��� (sport type: team open, individual open, individual closed). statistical sig-
QLÀFDQFH�ZDV�VHW�DW����� Results
7DEOH���VKRZV�WKH�GHVFULSWLYH�VWDWLVWLFV�IRU�WKH�HQWLUH�VDPSOH�E\�VH[� DQG�E\�VSRUW�W\SH��7KHUH�ZDV�QR�VWDWLVWLFDOO\�VLJQLÀFDQW�LQWHUDFWLRQ�EH- WZHHQ�VH[�DQG�VSRUW�W\SH��Ȝ = .90, F
8,284 = 1.83, p = .71; Ș2 = 0.05), nor a signif-
icant�PDLQ�HͿHFW�IRU�VH[��Ȝ = .97, F 4,142
= 1.01, p = .40; Ș2 = 0.03) for any of the ÀYH�LPDJHU\�VXEVFDOHV��7KLV�GLG�QRW�VXSSRUW�WKH�ÀUVW�K\SRWKHVLV�EDVHG�RQ� SULRU�ÀQGLQJV�LQ�WKH�OLWHUDWXUH�
(��.,=,/'$*� �0��6��7ͦ5<$.ͦ752
7KHUH� ZDV� D� VLJQLÀFDQW� PXOWLYDULDWH� HͿHFW� IRU� VSRUW� W\SH� �Ȝ = .86, F
8,284 = 2.90, p = .004; Ș2 = 0.08), supporting the second hypothesis. at the
XQLYDULDWH�OHYHO��D�VLJQLÀFDQW�HͿHFW�ZDV�IRXQG�IRU�0RWLYDWLRQDO�*HQHUDO² mastery imagery (F
2,145 = 8.38, p < . 001; Ș2� ��������6FKHͿp�post hoc analysis
ZDV�DSSOLHG�WR�LGHQWLI\�GLͿHUHQFHV�LQ�WKH�XVH�RI�LPDJHU\�DPRQJ�WKH�WKUHH� sport types; male team open-skill athletes and individual closed-skill ath-
letes had higher scores on motivational general–mastery imagery than
individual open-skill athletes ( p = .001 and .003, respectively), support- LQJ�WKH�WKLUG�K\SRWKHVLV��7KHUH�ZHUH�QR�VWDWLVWLFDOO\�VLJQLÀFDQW�GLͿHUHQF- HV��KRZHYHU��RQ�0RWLYDWLRQDO�*HQHUDO²$URXVDO��0RWLYDWLRQDO�6SHFLÀF��DQG� &RJQLWLYH�6SHFLÀF²*HQHUDO�LPDJHU\��WKXV�WKH�IRXUWK�K\SRWKHVLV�ZDV�QRW� supported.
$GGLWLRQDO� DQDO\VHV� LQGLFDWHG� WKDW� VLPLODU� UHVXOWV� ZHUH� IRXQG� IRU� female athletes. that is, female team open-skill athletes and individual
closed-skill athletes had higher scores on motivational general–mastery
imagery than individual open-skill athletes ( p = .001 and .003, respective- O\���1R�VWDWLVWLFDOO\�VLJQLÀFDQW�HͿHFWV�ZHUH�IRXQG�IRU�0RWLYDWLRQDO�*HQ- HUDO²$URXVDO��0RWLYDWLRQDO�6SHFLÀF��&RJQLWLYH�6SHFLÀF��DQG�JHQHUDO�LP- agery.
discussion 7KH�PDLQ�SXUSRVH�RI�WKLV�VWXG\�ZDV�WR�FRPSDUH�WKH�LPDJHU\�XVH�RI�
elite male and female athletes in open versus closed and individual versus
team sports and test several prior results from the literature.
Contrary to prior results, multivariate analysis indicated that there
ZDV�QR�VLJQLÀFDQW�GLͿHUHQFH�EHWZHHQ�7XUNLVK�PDOH�DQG�IHPDOH�DWKOHWHV� LQ�VHOI�UHSRUWHG�WKH�XVH�RI�LPDJHU\��7KLV�UXQV�VRPHZKDW�FRXQWHU�WR�WKH�
tABle 1 MeAns And stAndARd deviAtions foR teAM And individuAl spoRts Athletes’ thAt
RequiRe open- And closed-skill scoRes foR spoRt iMAgeRy questionnAiRe
subscale team open-skill sports
Individual open-skill sports
Individual Closed-skill sports
male female male female male female
M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD
&RJQLWLYH�6SHFLÀF 5.19 1.20 5.59 1.08 5.13 1.09 4.80 1.42 5.23 1.06 5.40 0.85 Cognitive general 5.11 0.86 5.38 1.00 4.91 0.74 5.08 0.81 4.86 0.98 5.21 0.73
motivation general–mastery 5.87 0.93 5.96 0.91 5.15 0.93 4.92 1.41 5.78 0.85 5.92 0.78
motivational general–arousal 4.30 1.46 4.73 1.24 4.83 1.12 4.94 1.29 4.49 1.21 5.04 0.95
motivational 6SHFLÀF 4.58 1.66 5.96 1.18 5.12 1.10 4.22 1.71 4.77 1.51 5.15 1.20
Athletes’ ImAgery Use 753
GLVFXVVLRQ�LQ�WKH�OLWHUDWXUH�RI�WKH�H[LVWHQFH�RI�GLͿHUHQFHV�EHWZHHQ�ZRP- en and men in sport participation, participation level, and type of sport.
0DQ\�WKHRULHV��VXFK�DV�VRFLDO�FRJQLWLYH�FDUHHU�WKHRU\��H�J���/HQW��%URZQ�� � +DFNHWW��������VRFLDO�LGHQWLW\�WKHRU\��H�J���7DMIHO� �7XUQHU���������DQG�RU- ganizational support theory (e.g., eisenberg, huntington, hutchison, &
6RZD���������KDYH�EHHQ�HPSOR\HG�WR�H[DPLQH�ZRPHQ·V�SDUWLFLSDWLRQ�LQ� VSRUWV��$V�QRWHG�LQ�WKH�,QWURGXFWLRQ��SULRU�VWXGLHV�KDYH�IRXQG�GLͿHUHQF- HV�LQ�LPDJHU\�XVH�EHWZHHQ�PHQ�DQG�ZRPHQ��EDVHG�RQ�VH[�DQG�W\SH�RI�DF- tivity (Isaac & marks, 1994; salmon, hall, & haslam, 1994; gammage, et al., 2000; Weinberg, et al.���������+RZHYHU��LQ�FRQWUDVW�WKH�SUHVHQW�VWXG\� IRXQG�QR�VLJQLÀFDQW�GLͿHUHQFHV�EHWZHHQ�WKH�DPRXQW�RI�LPDJHU\�XVH�LQ� IHPDOH�DQG�PDOH�DWKOHWHV��$OWKRXJK�LQFRQVLVWHQW�ZLWK�WKH�DERYH�VWXGLHV�� WKHVH�ÀQGLQJV�DOVR�VXSSRUWHG�RWKHU�VWXGLHV�VKRZLQJ�WKH�RSSRVLWH��&XP- PLQJ��+DOO��+DUZRRG�� �*DPPDJH��������*UHJJ� �+DOO��������1RUGLQ�� Cumming,vincent, & mcgrory, 2006). one reason for this set of inconsis-
WHQW�UHVXOWV�PD\�EH�WKDW�WKHUH�ZDV�VHOI�VHOHFWLRQ�RI�VSRUW�W\SH�DPRQJ�WKH� present participants. In a recent study of gender stereotypes in sport set-
tings (lauriola, Zelli, Calcaterra, Cherubini, & spinelli, 2004) some sports,
VXFK�DV�YROOH\EDOO��WHQQLV��WUDFN�DQG�ÀHOG��DQG�VZLPPLQJ��ZHUH�FRQVLGHUHG� ´JHQGHU�QHXWUDOµ�VSRUWV��RWKHUV�WHQG�WR�EH�PDOH��RU�IHPDOH�GRPLQDWHG��$Q- RWKHU�IDFWRU�WKDW�LV�FUXFLDO�WR�XQGHUVWDQGLQJ�IHPDOH�SDUWLFLSDWLRQ�ZRXOG� EH�WKH�FKDQJLQJ�GHÀQLWLRQ�RI�IHPLQLQLW\��7KH�XQGHUVWDQGLQJ�RI�IHPLQLQLW\� at macro (the society at large) and micro (in sports) levels has evolved as
ZRPHQ�FKDOOHQJH�WUDGLWLRQDO�JHQGHU�VWHUHRW\SHV� 7KH�VHFRQG�SXUSRVH�RI�WKLV�VWXG\�ZDV�WR�DVVHVV�WKH�LPDJHU\�XVH�RI�
DWKOHWHV�VHSDUDWHO\�IRU�PHQ�DQG�ZRPHQ�LQ�WHDP�RSHQ�VNLOO�DQG�LQGLYLGXDO� FORVHG��RU�RSHQ�VNLOO�VSRUWV��,Q�DFFRUG�ZLWK�*UHJJ�DQG�+DOO·V��������LQVLV- WHQFH�IRU�DGGLWLRQDO�UHVHDUFK�RQ�ZKHWKHU�W\SH�RI�VSRUW�LQÁXHQFHV�JHQHUDO� PRWLYDWLRQDO�LPDJHU\�DELOLWLHV��S��������LQ�WKH�SUHVHQW�VDPSOH��D�VLJQLÀ- FDQW�PXOWLYDULDWH�HͿHFW�ZDV�IRXQG�IRU�VSRUW�W\SH�IRU�0RWLYDWLRQDO�*HQHU- al–mastery imagery. athletes use motivational general–mastery imagery
WR�LPDJLQH�IHHOLQJ�FRQÀGHQW��IRU�HͿHFWLYH�FRSLQJ��IRFXVLQJ��EHLQJ�LQ�FRQ- trol, and mental toughness (hall, et al����������+HUH��ERWK�ZRPHQ�DQG�PHQ� team open-skill athletes and individual closed-skill athletes used more
motivational general–mastery imagery than individual open-skill ath-
OHWHV��7KHVH�UHVXOWV�DUH�VLPLODU�WR�6KRUW�DQG�6KRUW��������ZLWK�VRFFHU�SOD\- ers (team open-skill sport); gregg, hall, and hanton (2007) and abma et al.��������ZLWK�WUDFN�DQG�ÀHOG�DWKOHWHV��LQGLYLGXDO�FORVHG�VNLOO�VSRUW���0XQ- roe-Chandler, et al.� �������ZLWK�ZRPHQ�VRFFHU�SOD\HUV��WHDP�RSHQ�VNLOO� VSRUW���$UYLQHQ�%DUURZ��et al.��������ZLWK�VNDWHUV��LQGLYLGXDO�FORVHG�VNLOO� sport); and short, et al.��������ZLWK�ZRPHQ�YROOH\EDOO��EDVNHWEDOO��KRFNH\�� soccer, and softball players (team open-skill sport). the results of hall,
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et al.’s study (1998) supported the present research in the sense that ath- letes in team sports reported using more motivational general–mastery
LPDJHU\�WKDQ�DWKOHWHV�LQ�LQGLYLGXDO�VSRUWV��%HDXFKDPS��et al. (2002) and vadocz, et al. (1997) found that athletes in closed skill sports used more FRJQLWLYH�LPDJHU\�IXQFWLRQV�WKDQ�DWKOHWHV�LQ�RSHQ�VNLOO�VSRUWV��+RZHYHU�� gregg and hall (2006) and munroe, et al.��������GLG�QRW�ÀQG�DQ\�GLͿHUHQF- HV�LQ�LPDJHU\�XVH�EHWZHHQ�DWKOHWHV�LQ�WHDP�DQG�LQGLYLGXDO�VSRUWV��
,W�LV�LPSRUWDQW��KRZHYHU��WR�QRWH�WKDW�WKHVH�IRUPHU�VWXGLHV�GLG�QRW�HP- SOR\�WKH�VDPH�FODVVLÀFDWLRQ�DV�WKH�FXUUHQW�VWXG\��VSRUW�GLVFLSOLQHV�ZHUH� categorized as either team or individual sports and open- or closed-skill
sports (e.g., Weinberg, et al.��������*UHJJ� �+DOO��������$UYLQHQ�%DUURZ��et al.���������7KH�FXUUHQW�VWXG\�XVHG�ERWK�FODVVLÀFDWLRQ�V\VWHPV��0RUH�VSHFLI- ic data could be gathered about imagery use if researchers employ gen-
WLOH·V��������WZR�GLPHQVLRQDO�FODVVLÀFDWLRQ��UHJXODWRU\�FRQGLWLRQV�LQWHUWUL- DO�YDULDELOLW\�ð�ERG\�RULHQWDWLRQ�REMHFW�PDQLSXODWLRQ��LQVWHDG�RI�KHU�PRUH� SRSXODU�RQH�GLPHQVLRQDO�FODVVLÀFDWLRQ��ZKLFK�FDWHJRUL]H�VSRUW�VNLOOV�WKDW� UHTXLUH�RSHQ²FORVHG��ÀQH²JURVV��RU�FRQWLQXRXV²GLVFUHWH�VNLOOV��,Q�DGGLWLRQ�� LW�ZLOO�EH�LPSRUWDQW�WR�LQFOXGH�PRUH�VSRUW�W\SHV�LQ�IXWXUH�VWXGLHV�IRU�EHWWHU� generalization of results.
It is clear that there may be patterns of imagery use across types of
VSRUWV��EXW�WKDW�WKHUH�DUH�PDQ\�LQWHUDFWLRQV�DV�ZHOO�DV�D�JUHDW�GHDO�RI�YDUL- DELOW\��:KLOH�WKH�FXUUHQW�UHVHDUFK�VXSSRUWV�VRPH�SULRU�ÀQGLQJV��WKH�UHOD- WLRQVKLSV�EHWZHHQ�LPDJHU\�XVH�DQG�WKH�W\SH�RI�VSRUW��W\SH�RI�VNLOO��RSHQ� or closed), and other factors require much closer investigation to identify
the patterns. It may also be that there is such a large amount of individu-
DO�YDULDWLRQ�DPRQJ�DWKOHWHV�WKDW�LW�RYHUZKHOPV�ODUJHU�SDWWHUQV�DFURVV�WKH� sports.
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Accepted May 5, 2012.
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