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Jackson looked at two key ecosystem-level properties, one being polyculture and the other being perennialism, which his research staff focused more on as years passed. Agriculture that uses perennials can protect a host of soil microorganisms and the interactions between them, which annual plowing disrupts. The Land Institute saw roots and what occurs in the soil as important, as shown by its logo. Their research assumed that what evolved did so because it developed a useful function in an ecosystem, and thus all aspects of an ecosystem can be worthy of study and preser- vation. In The Land Report through articles by himself and others, and perhaps more so through the photographs of Terry Evans, Jackson promoted an ethic of respect for the prairie (which had few champions when he began his work).

Mainstream agricultural research since World War II promoted reductionism in what it studied and valued, focusing on plants in relative isolation and on chemicals that could be applied to those plants. Little value was assigned to interactions between plants and soil, or to interactions among plants. Little value was assigned to farmers or to the knowledge that farmers developed. The knowledge developed by scientists was privileged, as was the goal of increasing production per acre, and the real- ization of this goal continually put more and more farm- ers out of work.

Jackson’s work developed in response to these trends. He valued systems, not just parts in isolation. So when he used nature as a model, it was originally on the ecosystem level. Even when he focused more exclusively on perenni- alism, he did so in part to preserve soil interactions. He sought to respect farmers by having the Land Institute develop a presence in Matfield Green (a small town near Salina), and he made the case for protecting rural commun- ities in his book Becoming Native to this Place (1994). Though farmers rarely contributed to his research, he hoped that farmers’ knowledge could eventually play a role in a future sustainable agriculture, with farmers breeding species appropriate to their particular places.

Along with focusing on the practicalities of agriculture, Jackson also sculpted an epistemology different from that of most research. He did not believe that laboratory experi- ments were an effective means of gaining knowledge about nature, since results in the field were so different from results in experiments. For Jackson, reductionist experi- mental knowledge was of questionable utility and validity. Along with his frequent collaborator Wendell Berry, Jack- son promoted a worldview cognizant of human ignorance, arguing that what humans do not know is much greater and more significant than what humans do know. He hoped that humans could find ways to benefit from natural processes, even if they did not understand how those proc- esses functioned. He sought an agriculture that, as he

phrased it, relied more on nature’s wisdom and design, and less on human cleverness.

S E E A L S O Agriculture; Berry, Wendell; Environmental Activism; Environmental Education; Environmental Philosophy: V. Contemporary Philosophy; Land Ethic; Regionalism; Shiva, Vandana; Sustainable Agriculture.

B I B L I O G R A P H Y

Filipiak, Jeffrey M. ‘‘Learning from the Land: Wendell Berry and Wes Jackson on Knowledge and Nature.’’ Ph.D. diss. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan.

Heat-Moon, William Least. 1991. PrairyErth (A Deep Map). Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Maps and Kansas petroglyphs drawn by the author.

Jackson, Wes. 1978. ‘‘Soil Loss and the Search for a Permanent Agriculture.’’ Land Report, no. 4, February.

Jackson, Wes. 1979. ‘‘Toward an Ecological Ethic.’’ In Man and the Environment, 3rd edition, ed. Wes Jackson, pp. 344–355. Dubuque, IA: William C. Brown.

Jackson, Wes. 1985. New Roots for Agriculture, new edition. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. First edition, 1980.

Jackson, Wes. 1987. Altars of Unhewn Stone: Science and the Earth. New York: North Point.

Jackson, Wes. 1994. Becoming Native to This Place. Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky.

Land Institute. Web site. Available from http:// www.landinstitute.org

Thompson, Paul B. 1994. The Spirit of the Soil: Agriculture and Environmental Ethics. London: Routledge.

Jeffrey M. Filipiak

JAINISM Jainism, which originated prior to 500 BCE in north- eastern India, supports key ideas and practices that accord well with environmental ethics. Its cosmology states that soul (jiva) is found even in plants and the elements, and its rules of behavior advocate avoiding harm to all beings. Its monastic and lay leaders have advocated personal and societal life patterns that protect life in its myriad forms.

The oldest extant Jain text, the Acaranga Sutra (ca. 300 BCE), proclaims that ‘‘a wise person should not act sinfully towards the earth, nor cause others to act so, nor allow others to act so’’ (1:1.3; anon. 1968, p. 5), that one ‘‘should not kill, nor cause others to kill, nor consent to the killing of others’’ (1:3.2; anon. 1968, p. 31), and that ‘‘all breath- ing, existing, living, sentient beings should not be slain, nor treated with violence, nor abused, nor tormented, nor driven away. This is the pure, unchangeable, eternal law’’ (1:4.1; anon. 1968, p. 36). These passages outline the fundamental rule to be obeyed by all Jains: the observance of nonviolence (ahimsa). This exhortation extends not merely to behavior toward other humans but, as noted,

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also to behavior toward the earth itself, toward the elements (water, fire, and air), and toward plants and animals. This earliest text outlines several techniques for avoiding violence to living beings, including not wearing clothing produced in ways that unduly harm mobile living beings, such as fur or silk garments; not consuming meat, fish, or eggs; and not moving about excessively during the rainy season (this last practice helps one to avoid stepping on the many insects that proliferate when it rains).

Jains remember twenty-four great religious leaders, of whom the most recent was Mahavira Vardhamana. Early Jain textual and archaeological materials indicate that Mahavira Vardhamana most likely lived in the fifth century BCE and taught a fivefold discipline of non- violence, truthfulness, not stealing, sexual restraint, and nonpossession. He was preceded by Parsvanath, a Tir- thankar (enlightened ascetic) who lived around 800 BCE. Later texts extol these twenty-four great teachers’ accom- plishments, especially the Adipurana of Jinasena (ninth century), which tells detailed stories about Rsibha, the first Tirthankar, and his son Bharata, the first world ruler. Like his successors, this first teacher, as an expres- sion of his deep commitment to nonviolence, eventually renounced all clothing and entered death in old age by refusing food.

Jain literature and philosophy parallels that of the other two great ancient traditions: Brahmanic Hinduism and Buddhism. All three traditions concern themselves with making sense of the human condition. For Hindu- ism, adherence to one’s dharma (duty), observance of ritual, and prayerful reflection and meditation constitute the good life. Buddhists seek to understand the root causes of human suffering and to follow an eightfold path of ethical behavior and meditation. Jainism empha- sizes the role of ethics in advancing along a fourteenfold path toward total liberation. All three traditions include detailed assessments of karma, particularly in the Sam- khya texts of Hinduism, the Abhidharma texts of Bud- dhism, and the extensive commentaries on Umasvati’s Tattvartha Sutra (ca. 400) in Jainism, along with the Karmagranthas, the Pancasamgraha, and the Karmap- rakrti. These texts make clear that action (karma) taken in the present will leave a residue or seed (samskara, vasana, bija) that will bear fruit (phala) at some future time. Consequently, ethics must be assiduously observed to assure a propitious outcome to human endeavors.

Jain philosophy accords particularly well with thinking about the state of the material world. According to Jainism, as poetically expressed by Mahavira and encapsulated in the aphorisms of Umasvati, life forms pervade the universe. From time without beginning, masses of living entities, known as jivas, have operated reciprocally with matter (dra- vya, karma) through movement (dharma) in time (kala).

The Acaranga Sutra warns that life is to be found even in the particles of the earth itself, and that to avoid accruing harmful karma that will ripen inauspiciously, monks and nuns must shun any abuse to living creatures, including plants and the soil itself. Water must be strained to avoid ingesting small bugs, and food must be eaten before sunset so as to avoid inadvertently harming anything. In some traditions, various unusual observances can be found for protecting the status of one’s karma. For instance, in the Sthanakvasi Svetambara branch of Jainism, monks and nuns generally wear a mouth covering (muhpatti) to avoid harm to the air and the beings living in the air through breathing or speaking too forcefully. The covering also prevents one from inhaling bugs. Even laypeople wear the muhpatti on special occasions, such as during temple visits, during par- ticular holidays, or just to increase one’s awareness while at home. All Jains espouse vegetarianism. Although they acknowledge that harm is done by taking the lives of plants, this is seen as necessary for survival. Periodic fasting is universally observed by all Jains, the most notable being the fast of Parysan, which occurs a few weeks before the fall equinox. Fasting ensures that no life forms have been injured or killed to support one’s own life.

Jains have developed a scrupulous regimen for decid- ing what livelihoods are most conducive to the observ- ance of nonviolence. As early as the Acaranga Sutra, lists were developed prohibiting Jains from participating in specific occupations that kill or injure animals (Acaranga Sutra 1:1.6; anon. 1968, p. 12). Consequently, Jains will not participate in butchery, livestock rearing, or agricul- tural practices that abuse animals. This concern results in the shunning of perhaps less obvious forms of violence as well: ‘‘dealing in charcoal, selling timber, driving oxcarts, dealing in ivory, manufacturing or selling alcohol, deal- ing in poisons or weapons, burning fields, draining water, breeding destructive animals’’ (Jaini 1979, p. 172). Six professions are approved: government, writing, farming, education, commerce, and crafts. The most preferred occupation for Jains is commerce. By some estimates, Jains constitute the single wealthiest group within India today—a result in large part of generations of conscious choice of profession.

Jains have developed a profound ethical awareness and conscience in their worldview, which sees life forms as passing through a cycle of birth after birth and regards every human being as having spent time as an almost unimaginable array of other life forms, including animals and bacteria (referred to by Jains as nigoda). Knowing that they were once sheep or goats or cows, they take special care to protect all animals. Even kindling fire becomes problematic for observant Jains, on account of the physical pain created by the friction of generating a flame. Jain monks and nuns never light or extinguish lamps or cook food. Lay Jains often avoid overusing

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electricity, with some families eschewing air conditioning not for lack of wealth but out of concern not to steal from other life forms for the sake of one’s own physical comfort.

Jains adhere to nonviolence to purify their own souls. Jainism does not escape anthropocentrism and in fact lauds human birth as a necessary prerequisite for the liberation of the soul. The ultimate goal, omniscience (kevala), exists beyond the concerns of birth, life, death, and rebirth. Jainism does not advocate love of nature in the sense that it might be practiced in New England, but preaches self-restraint and caution around nature. If one harms a being, that harm will return to hurt oneself. Jain literature, such as the story of Yashodhara, does not celebrate the beauty of plants and animals, but rather serves as a cautionary tale, warning its reader not to succumb to the violence and lust that runs rampant in nature (Chapple 2006, pp. 241–249).

Various Jains in the past several decades have taken leadership roles in calling attention to problems of pollu- tion and environmental degradation. In 1949 Acarya Tulsi, a confidant and adviser to Mahatma Gandhi, pro- mulgated a list of twelve vows, starting with a vow not to commit violence in any form, and ending with ‘‘I will do my best to avoid contributing to pollution’’ (Kumar and Prakash 1997, p. 71). L. M. Singhvi, a member of Parlia- ment who also served on India’s Supreme Court, pub- lished The Jain Declaration on Nature, which lists the core teachings (nonviolence, interdependence, the doctrine of manifold aspects, equanimity, and compassion) that con- stitute the foundation for a Jain ecological ethics. He reiterates that in Jain cosmology, life pervades the world, appearing as ‘‘earth-bodies, water-bodies, fire-bodies, air- bodies, vegetable-bodies, and mobile bodies ranging from bacteria, insects, worms, birds and larger animals to human beings, infernal beings, and celestial beings.’’ Singhvi asserts that by applying the five traditional vows and practicing kindness to animals, vegetarianism, avoid- ance of waste, and charity, one can find ‘‘a viable route plan for humanity’s common pilgrimage for holistic envi- ronmental protection, peace, and harmony’’ (Chapple 2002, p. 222).

The traditional worldview developed by the Jain com- munity over the course of several centuries could not directly anticipate the environmental crises of the twenty- first century. It does, however, provide conceptual resources that might be marshaled and applied to specific problems as they arise. The complexity of environmental issues requires approaching each situation from a variety of perspectives. The Jain philosophy of many-sidedness (anekanta) can be instructive in this regard. John Cort has pointed out that one of the Jain environmental initiatives in India, planting trees to reforest the mountain that houses the renowned

Satrunjaya temple complex, has prevented shepherds from grazing their sheep on lands once accessible in common (Chapple 2002, p. 89). Environmental justice, though perhaps enhanced by vegetarianism and kindness to ani- mals and monastic communities that leave a negligible footprint on the earth’s resources, requires a level of social and economic analysis broader than the simple observance of a moral code. Interpreting and applying the principles and practices of Jainism to the environmental problems of the early twenty-first century presents new challenges to this ancient faith.

Jains are well poised to make strategic business deci- sions to help protect the environment. In India they are well known for their ownership of major newspapers, steel companies, mining concerns, and insurance compa- nies. As knowledge comes to light regarding the poten- tially devastating effects that global climate change will have on India, Jains hold positions of leadership and can provide an important voice for change. As the Himalayan glaciers continue to melt, some have estimated that by 2050 the Ganges River will go dry for a few months each year. Jain industrialists and jurists may support legislation that can slow the progress of global climate change. Relief agencies will need continued support from Jains as flood- ing and heat spikes create a need for emergency food and shelter. Jain engineering firms might also help design and implement water-catchment systems to compensate for lost river water. Jains are well positioned and hopefully will respond to the challenges posed by climate change.

S E E A L S O Animal Ethics; Asian Philosophy; Buddhism; Environmental Justice; Global Climate Change; Hinduism; India and South Asia; Pollution; Vegetarianism.

B I B L I O G R A P H Y

Akalan . ka. 1999. Biology of Jaina Treatise on Reals. Varanasi,

India: Parsvanatha Vidyapitha.

Anonymous. 1968 (1884). Jaina Sutras, Vol. 1: Akaranga Sutra, Kalpa Sutra, trans. Hermann Jacobi. New York: Dover.

Babb, Lawrence A. 1996. Absent Lord: Ascetics and Kings in a Jain Ritual Culture.Berkeley: University of California Press.

Chapple, Christopher. 1993. Nonviolence to Animals, Earth, and Self in Asian Traditions. Albany: State University of New York Press.

Chapple, Christopher, ed. 2002. Jainism and Ecology: Nonviolence in the Web of Life. Cambridge, MA: Center for the Study of World Religions, Harvard Divinity School.

Chapple, Christopher. 2006. ‘‘Inherent Value without Nostalgia: Animals and the Jaina Tradition.’’ In A Communion of Subjects: Animals in Religion, Science, and Ethics, ed. Paul Waldau and Kimberley Patton, pp. 241–249. New York: Columbia University Press.

Dundas, Paul. 2002. The Jains, 2nd edition. London: Routledge.

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Gandhi, S. L., ed. 1987. Anuvrat Movement: A Constructive Endeavour towards a Nonviolence Multicultural Society. Rajasmand, India: Anuvrat Vishva Bharati.

Glasenapp, Helmuth von. 1942. Doctrine of Karma in Jain Philosophy, trans. G. Barry Gifford. Bombay, India: Bai Vijibai Jivanlal Panalal Charity Fund.

Jaini, Padmanabh S. 1979. The Jaina Path of Purification. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Kumar, Muni Prashat, and Muni Lok Prakash. 1997. ‘‘Lokesh.’’ Anuvibha Reporter 3, no. 1 (October–December).

Sāntisūri. 1950. Santisurisvaraji’s Jiva vicara Prakaranam, trans. Jayant P. Thaker. Madras, India: Sri Jaina Siddhanta Society.

Tobias, Michael. 1991. Life Force: The World of Jainism. Berkeley, CA: Asian Humanities Press.

Umāsvāti. 1994. That Which Is: Tattvartha Sutra, trans. Nathmal Tatia. San Francisco: HarperCollins.

Waldau, Paul, and Kimberley Patton, eds. 2006. A Communion of Subjects: Animals in Religion, Science, and Ethics. New York: Columbia University Press.

Christopher Key Chapple

JAMIESON, DALE 1947–

Dale Jamieson was born in Sioux City, Iowa, on October 21, 1947, and received a doctorate in philosophy from the University of North Carolina in 1976. He is currently a professor of environmental studies and philosophy, an affiliated professor of law, and the director of environ- mental studies at New York University. He is the author of Morality’s Progress (2002) and Ethics and the Environ- ment: An Introduction (2008), the editor of A Companion to Environmental Philosophy (2001) and Singer and His Critics (1999), and the coeditor of Reflecting on Nature (1994) with Lori Gruen and Readings in Animal Cognition (1996) with Marc Bekoff.

Jamieson approaches environmental philosophy from a perspective that is ‘‘philosophically naturalist, morally consequentialist, and metaethically constructi- vist’’ (Jamieson 2002, p. vii). His contributions to the discipline have been so broad and deep as to defy easy summary, but the following aims to give a sense of some of the most prominent work.

First, Jamieson has published extensively on the ethics of the treatment and study of nonhuman animals, espe- cially on cognitive ethology, animal cognition, and animal experimentation. In general, he defends an animal welfare approach that is based on a utilitarian ethic that places substantial value on individual liberty for both humans and animals. Perhaps his most famous essay in this area is ‘‘Against Zoos’’ (1986), which has been widely antholo- gized. In it he argues for two claims: Although there is

something to be said for the usual defenses of zoos—for example, that they educate people about animals and assist in preserving endangered species—these defenses provide reasons for different types of zoos, and these reasons are in tension with each other; and, despite their positive aspects, all things considered zoos ought to be abolished because they deny liberty to individual animals, cause significant suffering in other respects, and ‘‘teach us a false . . . [and also ‘dangerous’] . . . sense of our place in the world’’ (Jamieson 1986, p. 175).

Second, Jamieson has written a number of influen- tial articles that critically examine, and reject, key envi- ronmental concepts such as ecosystem health and sustainability. In general, he believes that people should be wary of attempts to articulate environmental concerns through the invention of new quasi-scientific terms because ‘‘the environmental problems we face are not fundamentally scientific problems . . . but [problems] in our institutions of governance, our systems of value, and our ways of knowing’’ (Jamieson 2002, p. 224). Instead, they should seek positive visions of ways to relate to animals and nature that have been absent from the West- ern tradition to this point.

Third, Jamieson has worked to undermine a number of important schisms in environmental philosophy, such as those between animal advocates and environmentalists (Jamieson 1998), between metaphysical realists and sub- jectivists (Jamieson 2003), and between those concerned with environmental justice between humans and those concerned with the human relationship to nature (Jamie- son 1994).

Finally, Jamieson has been a pioneer of work on the ethical aspects of climate change. His many articles on the topic include the early paper ‘‘Ethics, Public Policy and Global Warming’’ (1992), which assails contempo- rary economics as a useful paradigm for understanding climate change; ‘‘Adaptation, Mitigation, and Justice’’ (2005), which argues that both adaptation and mitiga- tion need to be addressed in a serious climate policy; ‘‘Ethics and Intentional Climate Change’’ (1996), which explores the moral constraints that should be imposed on any attempt to ‘‘geoengineer’’ the climate; and ‘‘When Utilitarians Should Be Virtue Theorists’’ (2007), which argues that, in order to confront the looming environ- mental crisis, utilitarians should embrace an uncom- promising set of green virtues.

In addition to his substantial research effort, Jamie- son has made major contributions to the development of the field. He coedited an early reader on the topic (Gruen and Jamieson 1994) and helped the discipline come of age with his monumental A Companion to Environmental Philosophy (2001). More generally, Jamieson has spent many decades acting as an effective bridge between

Jamieson, Dale

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