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Chapter 3 Perception, Attribution, and Learning

A discerning eye tells the story

Chapter 3 Study Questions

What is perception and why is it important?

What are the common perceptual distortions?

What is the link between perception, attribution, and social learning?

What is involved in learning by reinforcement?

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What is perception?

Perception

Process by which people select, organize, interpret, retrieve, and respond to information from the world around them.

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Perception serves as a screen or filter through which information passes before it has an effect on people. Because perceptions are influenced by many factors, different people may perceive the same situation quite differently. And since people behave according to their perceptions, the consequences of these differences can be great in terms of what happens next.

What is perception?

Schemas

Cognitive frameworks that represent organized knowledge developed through experience about a given concept or stimulus.

Script schemas

A knowledge of framework that describes the appropriate sequence of event in a given situation.

Self schema

Contains information about a person’s own appearance, behavior, and personality.

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Script schema - For example, an experienced manager would use a script schema to think about the appropriate steps involved in running a meeting.

Self schema - For instance, people with decisiveness schemas tend to perceive themselves in terms of that aspect, especially in circumstances calling for leadership.

Person schema - The terms “prototype” and “stereotype” are often used in this regard. They are abstract sets of features commonly

associated with members of a category, such as a “good teammate” being intelligent, dependable, and hard-working. Once formed, they are stored in long-term memory and retrieved only when needed for a comparison of how well a person matches the schema’s features.

What is perception?

Person schemas

Refer to the way individuals sort others into categories such as types of groups in terms of similar perceived features.

Person-in-situation schema

Combines schemas built around persons and events.

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Person schema - The terms “prototype” and “stereotype” are often used in this regard. They are abstract sets of features commonly associated with members of a category, such as a “good teammate” being intelligent, dependable, and hard-working. Once formed, they are stored in long-term memory and retrieved only when needed for a comparison of how well a person matches the schema’s features.

Person-in-situation schemas combine schemas built around persons (self and person schemas) and events (script schemas).

What is perception?

Impression Management

Systematic attempt to behave in ways that will create and maintain desired impressions in the eyes of others.

When well done, impression management can help us to advance in jobs and careers, form relationships with people we admire, and even create pathways to group memberships.

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The fact is that we already practice a lot of impression management as a matter of routine in everyday life. Impression management is taking place when we dress, talk, act, and surround ourselves with things that reinforce a desirable self-image and help to convey that same image to other persons.

One of the most powerful forces in impression management today might be the one least recognized—how we communicate our presence in the online world of social media.

What are the common perceptual distortions?

Stereotypes

Occur when we identify someone with a group or category, and then use the attributes perceived to be associated with the group or category to describe the individual.

Individual differences are obscured.

Managers may not accurately understand the needs, preferences, and abilities of others in the workplace.

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Although this makes things easier for us by reducing the need to deal with unique individual characteristics, it is an oversimplification. Because stereotypes obscure individual differences, we can easily end up missing the real individual.

What are the common perceptual distortions?

Halo effects

Occur when one attribute of a person or situation is used to develop an overall impression of the individual or situation.

Selective perception

The tendency to single out those of a situation, person, or object that for attention those aspects of a situation, person, or object that are consistent with one’s needs, values, or attitudes.

Projection

The assignment of one’s personal attributes to other individuals.

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Like stereotypes, distortions are more likely to occur in the organization stage of perception. Halo effects are common in our everyday lives. Also, halo effects are particularly important in the performance appraisal process because they can influence a manager’s evaluations of subordinates’ work performance.

What are the common perceptual distortions?

Contrast effects

The meaning or interpretation of something is arrived at by contrasting it with a recently occurring event or situation.

Self-fulfilling prophecy

The tendency to create or find in another situation or individual that which one expected to find in the first place.

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This form of perceptual distortion can occur, say, when a person gives a talk following a strong speaker or is interviewed for a job following a series of mediocre applicants. A contrast effect occurs when an individual’s characteristics are contrasted with those of others recently encountered who rank higher or lower on the same characteristics.

What is the link between perception and attribution?

Attribution

Process of developing explanations or assigning perceived causes for events. Can be classified as internal or external:

Internal causes – Believed to be under an individual’s control.

External causes – Seen as coming from outside a person.

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Attribution theory helps us understand how people perceive the causes of events, assess responsibility for outcomes, and evaluate the personal qualities of the people involved.

What is the link between perception and attribution?

Attribution Errors:

Fundamental Attribution Error – overestimates internal factors and underestimates external factors as influences on someone’s behavior.

Self-serving Bias – underestimates internal factors and overestimates external factors as influences on someone’s behavior.

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What is involved in learning by reinforcement?

Reinforcement

The administration of a consequence as a result of a behavior.

Proper management of reinforcement can change the direction, level, and persistence of an individual’s behavior.

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What is involved in learning by reinforcement?

Classical conditioning

A form of learning through association that involves the manipulation of stimuli to influence behavior.

Stimulus

Something that incites action and draws forth a response.

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The Russian psychologist, Pavlov, “taught” dogs to salivate at the sound of a bell by ringing the bell when feeding the dogs. The sight of the food naturally caused the dogs to salivate. Eventually, the dogs “learned” to associate the bell ringing with the presentation of meat and to salivate at the ringing of the bell alone. Such learning through association is so common in organizations that it is often ignored until it causes considerable confusion.

What is involved in learning by reinforcement?

Operant conditioning

The process of controlling behavior by manipulating its consequences.

Considered ‘learning by reinforcement’.

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You may think of operant conditioning as learning by reinforcement. In a work setting the goal is to use reinforcement principles to systematically reinforce desirable behavior and discourage undesirable behavior.

What is involved in learning by reinforcement?

Law of effect

Behavior that results in a pleasant outcome is likely to be repeated while behavior that results in an unpleasant outcome is not likely to be repeated.

Extrinsic rewards

Positively valued work outcomes that are given to the individual by some other person.

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The implications of this law are rather straightforward. If you want more of a behavior, you must make the consequences for the individual positive.

Extrinsic rewards become external reinforces or environmental consequences that can substantially influence a person’s work behaviors through the law of effect

What is involved in learning by reinforcement?

Positive reinforcement

Administration of positive consequences that tend to increase the likelihood of repeating the desirable behavior in similar settings.

Law of contingent reinforcement – states a reward should be given when the desired behavior occurs.

Law of immediate reinforcement – states a reward should be given as soon as possible after the desired behavior occurs.

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The law of contingent reinforcement – Example: a supervisor’s praise should be contingent on the worker’s doing something identifiably well, such as giving a constructive suggestion in a meeting. Also, the reward must be given as soon as possible after the desired behavior. This is known as the law of immediate reinforcement. Example: If the supervisor waits for the annual performance review to praise a worker for providing constructive comments, the law of immediate reinforcement would be violated.

What is involved in learning by reinforcement?

Shaping

Creation of a new behavior by the positive reinforcement of successive approximations to it.

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Managers can shape behavior by systematically reinforcing each successive step that moves an individual closer to the desired response. When used appropriately, this can be a powerful management tool to increase positive organizational outcomes.

What is involved in learning by reinforcement?

Continuous reinforcement

Administering a reward each time the desired behavior occurs.

Intermittent reinforcement

Rewards behavior only periodically.

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In general, continuous reinforcement draws forth a desired behavior more quickly than does intermittent reinforcement. But it is costly in the consumption of rewards, and the behavior is more easily extinguished when reinforcement is no longer present. Behavior acquired under intermittent reinforcement is more resistant to extinction and lasts longer upon the discontinuance of reinforcement. This is why shaping typically begins with a continuous reinforcement schedule and then gradually shifts to an intermittent one.

Figure 3.4 Alternative ways to schedule positive reinforcement

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Figure 3.4

As shown in the figure, intermittent reinforcement can be given according to fixed or variable schedules. Variable schedules typically result in more consistent patterns of desired behavior than do fixed reinforcement schedules. Fixed- interval schedules provide rewards at the first appearance of a behavior after a given time has elapsed. Fixed-ratio schedules result in a reward each time a certain number of the behaviors have occurred. A variable-interval schedule rewards behavior at random times, while a variable-ratio schedule rewards behavior after a random number of occurrences.

What is involved in learning by reinforcement?

Negative reinforcement

Uses withdrawal of negative consequences to increase the likelihood of repeating the desirable behavior.

Also known as avoidance learning.

Punishment

The administration of negative consequences or the withdrawal of positive consequences to reduce the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.

Extinction

The withdrawal of the reinforcing consequences in order to weaken undesirable behavior.

Reinforcement Pros and Cons

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The term negative reinforcement comes from this withdrawal of the negative consequences. The strategy is also sometimes called avoidance because its intent is for the person to avoid the negative consequence by performing the desired behavior.