Unit III Scholarly
BOOK REVIEWS
The Social Psychology of Interpersonal Discrimination BERNICE LOTTAND DENISE MALUSO Guilford Press, New York, 1995; (Hardcover), $30.00 ISBN 1-57230-021-3
Reviewed by Sherryl Browne Graves, Hunter College-CUNY
The Social Psychology of Interpersonal Discrimination provides a review of published re- search from social psychology, adds findings from original work of the contributors, and offers ideas that both practitioners and researchers can use. In particular for practitioners, the book offers insight about how various "cross-isms" affect both per- petrators and victims. Research from social psychology reminds the reader that neg- ative attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors can develop and be maintained as separate components. However, the research provides information about the ways in which these separate components combine to create ageism, classism, heterosexism, racism, and sexism. Contributors to this edited volume identify the similarities among the various types of interpersonal discrimination and "behaviors that limit and control the lives of those toward whom it is directed" (Lott & Maluso, 1995, p. 2). Moreover, there is a focused effort by the authors to document how cross-isms diverge from one another. Although the focus of the book is clearly on the exami- nation of interpersonal discrimination and the practice of individuals distancing themselves from persons in lower valued categories, the authors present discrimi- natory, institutional practices for each of the social categories under review. This pro- vides a context within which to understand how individuals react.
Lott's chapter on interpersonal sexist discrimination establishes how institution- al practices use men as the norm and women as the other, exaggerates the differ- ences of women from men, and supports distancing and alienation from women as natural. Against this backdrop Lott suggests that interpersonal sexist responses range from humor to, at the most extreme, murder. Moreover, there is evidence that dis- tancing behaviors are most likely to emerge in situations where there is little or no expectation of positive consequences for women. Original research conducted by Lott is instructive about how to measure sexism and the power of gender as a stim- ulus cue determining men's behavior. Lott's findings demonstrate that gender is a more influential cue for men than it is for women. This empirically based finding of the power of gender confirms women's experiences as objects of sexism. This chap- ter highlights and features the thoughtfulness and methodological sophistication of Lott's work and demonstrates how such strengths in a researcher provide clarity and understanding about complex and compelling real-life phenomena.
In the chapter on interpersonal racism, Maluso begins by examining the lack of congruence between research using self-report measures and research using archival
Cultural Diversity and Mental Health, Vol. 3, No. 1, 77-82 (1997) © 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. CCC 1077-341X/97/010077-06
T hi
s do
cu m
en t i
s co
py ri
gh te
d by
th e
A m
er ic
an P
sy ch
ol og
ic al
A ss
oc ia
tio n
or o
ne o
f i ts
a lli
ed p
ub lis
he rs
. T
hi s
ar tic
le is
in te
nd ed
s ol
el y
fo r t
he p
er so
na l u
se o
f t he
in di
vi du
al u
se r a
nd is
n ot
to b
e di
ss em
in at
ed b
ro ad
ly .
BOOK REVIEWS
or unobtrusive measures of interpersonal racism. This contradiction is important for the reader to understand in order to appreciate the difficulty of predicting racist be- havior when using self-report measures of racial attitudes or knowledge. This demon- strated lack of congruence, for example, may be helpful in understanding why ma- jority voters' attitudes toward African American candidates frequently do not match their voting booth behavior. Race is also an important variable in the interpersonal distancing process. Thus, results of studies based on contact theory and/or simula- tion and role-playing theory suggests the strength of distancing responses from African Americans by European Americans. In particular, a detailed review of this research reveals that African American women are the most excluded of the four race by gender groups. Maluso's research supports the idea that African Americans continue to be the target of the greatest distancing by Whites, regardless of Whites' self-report of feelings toward African Americans. Whites evidence high levels of in- terpersonal avoidance of African Americans in a variety of interpersonal interactions and settings. Maluso's research also demonstrates that non-White, non-Blacks are more likely to avoid African Americans in social interactions than they are to avoid other non-White targets. In sum, this chapter underscores the nature and strength of the variables that maintain racist behaviors. Indicators of large-scale efforts to change interpersonal distancing based on race are less clear.
In Fernald's chapter on interpersonal heterosexism there is an examination of the nature of avoidance and exclusion of lesbians and gays. The author makes clear why heterosexism is a more appropriate term than homophobia for the type of distanc- ing that occurs. Whereas homophobia suggests discrimination based on fear, het- erosexism more appropriately suggests that the avoidance of gays and lesbians is based on disgust and hostility. Fernald's review indicates that gender beliefs are im- portant correlates of antilesbian/antigay attitudes. In addition, other attitudes are important predictors. For example, ethical conservatism is directly related to anti- gay/antilesbian attitudes and seems to function as an intervening variable between religiosity and these attitudes. Fernald reminds the reader how important it is to un- derstand the privilege that heterosexuals derive from beliefs in the superiority of their sexual orientation. She also suggests that heterosexual privilege combines with a belief in male dominance and thereby strengthens the normative superiority of the heterosexual position. The review in this chapter again reminds the reader of the ways that institutional supports for heterosexual values, beliefs, and behaviors frame interpersonal distancing based on sexual orientation.
An examination of the role of classism in American society is the responsibility of the chapter by Bullock. This chapter is especially important considering the per- ceived lack of class consciousness in this society. Bullock's review of research suggests that Americans understand poverty as either the result of personal responsibility or the result of societal forces. Bullock reports some interesting findings that relate the type of television programs watched by research participants with their endorse- ments of the cause of poverty. Interpersonal distancing studies indicate that poor people in this society experience humiliation, embarrassment, condescension, and lack of help from the nonpoor. Largely, this is a result of the attribution by the non- poor that poverty is the fault of the individual. This attribution benefits the nonpoor and privileges them in a variety of ways. In particular, the nonpoor feel empowered to confront and criticize the poor openly and directly. Bullock makes a point to ex- plore in a more detailed fashion the institutional climate that supports classism. This exploration will be particularly useful for those who fail to appreciate the extent to
78
T hi
s do
cu m
en t i
s co
py ri
gh te
d by
th e
A m
er ic
an P
sy ch
ol og
ic al
A ss
oc ia
tio n
or o
ne o
f i ts
a lli
ed p
ub lis
he rs
. T
hi s
ar tic
le is
in te
nd ed
s ol
el y
fo r t
he p
er so
na l u
se o
f t he
in di
vi du
al u
se r a
nd is
n ot
to b
e di
ss em
in at
ed b
ro ad
ly .
BOOK REVIEWS
which class functions as a powerful determinant of behavior within the mythical "classless" American society.
America's infatuation with youth and abhorrence with the aging process is the subject of a chapter by Pasupathi, Carstesen, and Tsai. According to the research re- view in this chapter on ageism, negative attitudes and behaviors toward older peo- ple are especially prevalent in medical and other elder-serving institutions. Inter- personal distancing is manifest, for example, in the use of baby talk with the elderly and in the overstimulation of dependency needs in the elderly. This is particularly prevalent within institutional settings for older adults. Even in community-based set- tings there is evidence that relationships and intergenerational communication with older adults discourage independence and encourage dependence in older people. The research reflects that among the elderly discriminatory behavior represents a generalized failure to think and treat older adults as thoughtful, intelligent, experi- enced, and independent people. Rather, ageism seems to accelerate feelings of di- minished capacity among older people.
The final chapter in Lott and Maluso's book examines the possible interplay among multiple status variables. Although it is convenient for social psychologists and others to study various social characteristics in isolation, in reality, individuals possess multiple status characteristics. In particular, the authors test the hypothesis of multiplejeopardy advantage (MJA), which suggests that combined status variables related in either an additive or an interactive manner. In a review of research from 1982-1990, there was little evidence of a recognition of the importance of studying the impact of multiple characteristics on the life experiences of individuals. Howev- er, more recent research suggests that the nature of MJA discrimination varies as a function of the number of status dimensions found in an individual and by the types of behavior or outcomes studied.
Lott and Maluso's edited volume provides a collection of well-written, well- researched, and provocative research reviews. The range of status characteristics studied and the variety of methodological approaches employed in the original re- search reported by Lott and her colleagues is impressive, offering the reader insights into the complex nature of interpersonal distancing and discrimination. The au- thors strongly demonstrate the areas that need additional research from both the perspectives of single status variables and multiple status variables. Lott and col- leagues highlight how cross-isms affect lower status objects and higher status perpe- trators. The chapters contextualize interpersonal behavior within the policies and practices of institutional discrimination. The findings of this book show how mem- bership in different status-based groups influences the life experiences of diverse in- dividuals. The Social Psychology of Interpersonal Discrimination provides excellent back- ground material on the role of diversity in our society and about the role of social psychology in helping increase knowledge and understanding about how discrimi- nation functions on the interpersonal level.
79
T hi
s do
cu m
en t i
s co
py ri
gh te
d by
th e
A m
er ic
an P
sy ch
ol og
ic al
A ss
oc ia
tio n
or o
ne o
f i ts
a lli
ed p
ub lis
he rs
. T
hi s
ar tic
le is
in te
nd ed
s ol
el y
fo r t
he p
er so
na l u
se o
f t he
in di
vi du
al u
se r a
nd is
n ot
to b
e di
ss em
in at
ed b
ro ad
ly .