Reading and summarizing

Many writing situations, both academic and non-academic, require us as writers to persuade audiences on

a particular topic — that is, to develop an argument. When we refer to arguments, we don’t mean heated,

emotional sparring matches. Rather, we use argument to refer to the process of making a logical case for a

particular position, interpretation, or conclusion. Of course we all experience and participate in these

kinds of arguments around us every day as we decide where to eat dinner with friends, what classes to

take, or which movie to download or concert to see. We are immersed in these kinds of popular arguments

constantly through advertisements, marketing campaigns, social media posts, and texting with friends,

and so we are adept at critically thinking about arguments and persuasion in those contexts.

In academic settings, arguments are frequently more

developed and nuanced because the authors are arguing

for a particular interpretation or conclusion or action

based on the results of research. To make such an

argument effectively, academics must develop clear,

persuasive texts through which to present their research.

These arguments are built on claims — arguable assertions

— that are supported with evidence from research. The

unifying element of any academic argument is its primary

or central claim, and although most sustained arguments

make a series of claims, there is usually one central claim

that makes an argument a coherent whole. Our goal in this

chapter is to introduce you to some of the basic principles

of argumentation and to help you write clear central

claims and develop successful arguments, especially in

your academic writing.

C H A P T E R 4

Developing Arguments

Understanding Proofs and Appeals Aristotle, a rhetorician in ancient Greece, developed a method of analyzing arguments that can be useful

to us in our own reading and writing today. He explained that arguments are based on a set of proofs that

are used as evidence to support a claim. He identified two kinds of proofs: inartistic and artistic. Inartistic

proofs are based on factual evidence, such as statistics, raw data, or contracts. Artistic proofs, by contrast,

are created by the writer or speaker to support an argument. Many arguments contain a combination of

inartistic and artistic proofs, depending on what facts are available for support. Aristotle divided the

complex category of artistic proofs into three kinds of rhetorical appeals that speakers and writers can rely

on to develop artistic proofs in support of an argument:

Appeals to ethos are based on credibility or character. An example might be a brand of motor oil that is endorsed by a celebrity NASCAR driver. Another example could be a proposal for grant money to conduct a research study that discusses the grant writer’s experience in successfully completing similar research studies in the past. In both examples, the speaker’s or writer’s experiences (as a NASCAR driver or as an established researcher) are persuasive elements in the argument.

Appeals to logos are based on elements of logic and reason. An example might be an argument for change in an attendance policy that reveals a correlation between attendance and grades. The argument relies on logic and reason because it presents a relationship between attendance and grades and draws a connection to the policy, emphasizing how a change in the policy might affect grades.

Appeals to pathos are based on emotions. Emotion can be a powerful motivator to convince an audience to hear an argument. An example might include telling the story of a program that helps homeless teenagers complete high school by finding shelter, food, and social support that enables them to improve their living conditions. Perhaps the program is in need of financial assistance in order to continue helping homeless teens. A story that features one or two specific teens who have come through the program and successfully completed high school would be an example of an appeal to emotion.

These types of appeals are present in arguments in both academic and non-academic settings. Many

arguments, and o�en the most effective ones, include elements of more than one kind of appeal, using

several strategies to persuade an audience. Based on the example above about a program that helps

homeless teens, imagine that there is a campaign to solicit financial donations from the public to support

the program. Now consider how much more persuasive that campaign would be if other appeals were used

in addition to an emotional appeal. The campaign might develop an argument that includes raw data and

statistics (an inartistic proof ), the advice of civic leaders or sociological experts (ethos), the demonstration

of a positive cause-and-effect relationship of the program’s benefits in teens’ lives (logos), along with a story

of one teen, describing how she became homeless and how the program helped to get her back on her feet

(pathos). Understanding the structure of arguments, and knowing the potential ways you can develop your

own arguments to persuade an audience, will help you to write more effectively and persuasively.

INSIDE WORK Writing about Arguments

Choose a text to read that makes a claim. Consider something that interests you — perhaps an

advertisement, or even your college’s or university’s website. Write about the kinds of rhetorical appeals

you notice. Do you see evidence of ethos? Logos? Pathos? Is the argument drawing on statistics or raw data,

an inartistic proof? Why do you think the author(s) or designer(s) structured the argument in this way? To

answer this question, you’ll also need to consider the rhetorical context. Who is the author, and who is the

intended audience? What is the topic, and what is the purpose of the argument? In other words, what is the

ultimate goal of the argument?

Making Claims As we mentioned earlier, the unifying element of any academic argument is its primary or central claim. In

American academic settings, the central claim is o�en (but not always) presented near the beginning of a

piece so that it can tie the elements of the argument together. A form of the central claim that you’re likely

familiar with is the thesis statement. Thesis statements, whether revealed in an argument’s introduction

or delayed and presented later in an argument (perhaps even in the conclusion), are central claims of

arguments that are typical of writing that is primarily focused on civic concerns, as well as writing in some

academic fields such as those in the humanities (see Chapter 7).

Imagine for a moment that you’ve been asked to write an argument taking a position on a current topic like

cell phone usage, and you must decide whether or not to support legislation to limit cell phone use while

driving. In this instance, the statement of your position is your claim. It might read something like this: “We

should support legislation to limit the use of cell phones while driving,” or “We should not support

legislation to limit the use of cell phones while driving.” Although there are many types of claims, the

statement “We should pass legislation to limit the use of cell phones” is a claim of proposal or policy,

indicating that the writer will propose some action or solution to a problem. We could also explore claims

of definition (“Cheerleading is a sport”) or claims of value (“Supporting a charity is a good thing to do”), just

to name a few.

Literary analysis, a genre commonly taught in high school English classes, usually presents a thesis

statement as part of the introduction. You may be familiar with a thesis statement that reads something

like this: “Suzanne Collins’s Hunger Games is a dystopian novel that critiques totalitarian regimes and empowers young women who are far too o�en marginalized and oppressed.” This thesis statement makes a

claim in support of a specific interpretation of the story. Regardless of the specific type of claim offered, the

argument that follows it provides evidence to demonstrate why an audience should find the claim

persuasive.

THESIS VERSUS HYPOTHESIS In an academic setting, thesis statements like those typical of arguments in the humanities are not the only

kind of unifying claim you might encounter. In fact, arguments in the natural and social sciences are o�en

organized around a statement of hypothesis, which is different from a thesis statement. Unlike a thesis

statement, which serves to convey a final position or conclusion on a topic or issue that a researcher has

arrived at based on study, a hypothesis is a proposed explanation or conclusion that is usually either

confirmed or denied on the basis of rigorous examination or experimentation later in a paper. This means

that hypothesis statements are, in a sense, still under consideration by a writer or researcher. A hypothesis

is a proposed answer to a research question. Thesis statements, in contrast, represent a writer or

researcher’s conclusion(s) a�er much consideration of the issue or topic.

Consider the following examples of a hypothesis and a thesis about the same topic:

Hypothesis Thesis

Decreased levels of sleep will lead to decreased levels of academic performance for college freshmen.

College freshmen should get at least seven hours of sleep per night because insufficient sleep has been linked to emotional instability and poor academic performance.

The hypothesis example above includes several elements that distinguish it from the thesis statement.

First, the hypothesis is written as a prediction, which indicates that the researcher will conduct a study to

test the claim. Additionally, it is written in the future tense, indicating that an experiment or study will

take place to prove or disprove the hypothesis. The thesis statement, however, makes a claim that indicates

it is already supported by evidence gathered by the researcher. A reader would expect to find persuasive

evidence from sources later in that essay.

We highlight this distinction in types of claims to underscore that there is no single formula for

constructing a good argument in all academic contexts. Instead, expectations for strong arguments are

bound up with the expectations of particular writing communities. If you write a lab report with the kind of

thesis statement that usually appears in a literary analysis, your work would likely convey the sense that

you’re a novice to the community of writers and researchers who expect a hypothesis statement instead of

a thesis statement. One of the goals of this text is to help you develop awareness of how the expectations

for good argumentation change from one academic context to the next.

Developing Reasons When writing an academic argument that requires a thesis statement, you can choose how detailed to

make that thesis statement. When we introduced thesis statements as a type of claim, we asked you to

consider two possible statements on the topic of cell phone use while driving: “We should/should not

support legislation to limit the use of cell phones while driving.” You can also refer to these two possible

forms as simple thesis statements because they reveal a writer’s central position on a topic but do not

include any reasoning as support for that position. When reasons are included as logical support, then you

can think about the thesis statement as a complex thesis statement:

Simple Thesis:

We should support legislation to limit the use of cell phones while driving.

Reasons: They are an unnecessary distraction.

They increase the incidence of accidents and deaths.

When you combine the simple statement of position or belief with the reasons that support it, then you

have a more complex, and fuller, thesis statement:

Complex Thesis:

We should support legislation to limit the use of cell phones because they are an unnecessary distraction for drivers and because they increase needless accidents and deaths on our roadways.

Although constructing complex thesis statements allows you to combine your statement of position, or your

central claim, with the reasons you’ll use to defend that position, you may frequently encounter arguments

that do not provide the reasons as part of the thesis. That is, some writers, depending on their rhetorical

context, prefer to present a simple thesis and then reveal the reasons for their position throughout their

argument. Others choose to write a thesis that both establishes their position and provides the reasoning

for it early on. An advantage of providing a complex thesis statement is that it offers a road map to the

reader for the argument that you will develop.

INSIDE WORK Constructing Thesis Statements

Generate a list of six to eight current social issues that require you to take a position. Consider especially

issues that are important to your local community. Choose one or two to focus on for the other parts of this

activity.

Next, explore multiple positions. Consider competing positions you can take for each of the issues you

identified. Write out a simple thesis statement for those positions. Be careful not to limit your positions to

pros and cons, especially if you can think of alternative positions that might be reasonable for someone to

argue. O�en, there are multiple sides to an issue, and we miss the complexity of the issue if we only

acknowledge two sides. Then, list as many reasons as you can think of to support each of those positions. It

might be helpful to connect your simple statement of thesis to your reasons using the word because. This activity can help you to strengthen your argument by anticipating rebuttals or counterarguments. We’ll

take these issues up later in the chapter.

For example:

Claim: The U.S. Congress should enact legislation to prohibit animal testing for cosmetics

manufactured or sold in the United States.

Reasons:

because .

because .

because .

Alternate Claim: The U.S. Congress should not enact legislation to prohibit animal testing for

cosmetics manufactured or sold in the United States.

Reasons:

because .

because .

because .

Alternate Claim: The decision to prohibit animal testing for cosmetics manufactured or sold

in the United States should be made at the state level and not by the federal government.

Reasons:

because .

because .

because .

Finally, combine your simple thesis with your reasoning to construct a complex thesis for each potential

position. Write out your thesis statements.

Supporting Reasons with Evidence Reasons that support a claim are not particularly powerful unless there is evidence to back them up.

Evidence that supports an argument can take the form of any of the rhetorical appeals. Let’s look again at

the complex thesis from the previous section: “We should support legislation to limit the use of cell phones

because they are an unnecessary distraction for drivers and because they increase needless accidents and

deaths on our roadways.” In order to generate the reasons, the writer relied on what he already knew about

the dangers of cell phone use. Perhaps the writer had recently read a newspaper article that cited statistics

concerning the number of people injured or killed in accidents as a direct result of drivers using their

phones instead of paying attention to the roadways. Or perhaps the writer had read an academic study that

examined attention rates and variables affecting them in people using cell phones. Maybe the writer even

had some personal knowledge or experience to draw upon as evidence for her or his position. Strong,

persuasive arguments typically spend a great deal of time unpacking the logic that enables a writer to

generate reasons in support of a particular claim, and that evidence can take many forms.

Personal Experience You may have direct experience with a particular issue or topic that allows you to speak in support of a position on that topic. Your personal experience can be a rich resource for evidence.

Additionally, you may know others who can provide evidence based on their experiences with an issue.

Stories of personal experience o�en appeal to either ethos (drawing on the credibility of the writer’s

personal experience) or pathos (drawing on readers’ emotions for impact). Sometimes these stories appeal

to both ethos and pathos at the same time. Imagine the power of telling the story of someone you know

who has been needlessly injured in an accident because another driver was distracted by talking on the

phone.

Expert Testimony Establishing an individual as an expert on a topic and using that person’s words or ideas in support of your own position can be an effective way of bolstering your own ethos while supporting your

central claim. However, the use of expert testimony can be tricky, as you need to carefully establish what

makes the person you’re relying on for evidence an actual expert on the topic or issue at hand. You must

also consider your audience — whom would your audience consider to be an expert? How would you

determine the expert’s reputation within that community? The use of expert testimony is quite common in

academic argumentation. Researchers o�en summarize, paraphrase, or cite experts in their own

discipline, as well as from others, to support their reasoning. If you’ve ever taken a class in which your

instructor asked you to use reputable sources to support your argument, then you’ve probably relied on

expert testimony to support a claim or reason already. As evidence for our complex thesis, imagine the

effectiveness of citing experts who work for the National Transportation and Safety Board about their

experiences investigating accidents that resulted from inattentive driving due to cell phone use.

INSIDER’S VIEW Figuring out who the experts are

MORIAH McCRACKEN, WRITING STUDIES

“When you jump into a scholarly text, the conversation is so implicit. . . . For me, the biggest thing that can be kind of disconcerting is that you have to figure out, what are people even talking about? And then you have to figure out, who are the voices that are most popular? Who are the voices that people turn to when they’re trying to resolve this issue?”

Learn more about entering academic conversations.

Statistical Data and Research Findings Statistics frequently serve as support in both popular and academic argumentation. Readers tend to like numbers, partly because they seem so absolute and scientific.

However, it is important, as with all evidence, to evaluate statistical data for bias. Consider where statistics

come from and how they are produced, if you plan to use them in support of an argument. Additionally,

and perhaps most important, consider how those statistics were interpreted in the context of the original

research reported. What were the study’s conclusions? Imagine the effectiveness of citing recently

produced statistics (rates of accidents) on the highways in your state from materials provided by your

state’s Department of Transportation.

Writers also o�en present the findings, or conclusions, of a research study as support for their reasons and

claims. These findings may sometimes appear as qualitative, rather than just statistical, results or

outcomes.

When selecting the types and amounts of evidence to use in support of your reasons, be sure to study your

rhetorical context and pay particular attention to the expectations of your intended audience. Some

audiences, especially academic ones, are less likely to be convinced if you only provide evidence that

draws on their emotions. Other audiences may be completely turned off by an argument that relies only on

statistical data for support.

Hear criminologist Michelle Richter comment on types of research in her field.

So far, we’ve discussed several types of evidence that are typically used in

the construction of arguments — personal experience, expert testimony,

statistical data and research findings. Collecting the data you need to

make a strong argument can seem like a daunting task at times. It’s

important to keep in mind, though, that the amount of evidence you

provide and the types of data your argument requires will depend

entirely on the kind of argument you are constructing, as well as on the

potential audience you want to persuade. Therefore, it’s essential that

you analyze and understand your audience’s expectations when selecting

support for your argument. Above all, select support that your audience

will find credible, reliable, and relevant to your argument.

INSIDE WORK Analyzing Audience Expectations

Choose any one of the complex thesis statements you constructed in the “Inside Work” activity

Constructing Thesis Statements. Then identify two potential target audiences for your arguments.

Freewrite for five to ten minutes in response to the following questions about these audiences’ likely

expectations for evidence.

What does each audience already know about your topic? That is, what aspects of it can you assume they already have knowledge about?

What does each audience need to know? What information do you need to make sure to include?

What does each audience value in relation to your topic? What kinds of information will motivate them, interest them, or persuade them? How do you know?

What sources of information about your topic might your audiences find reliable, and what sources would they question? Why?

Understanding Assumptions Any time you stake a claim and provide a reason, or provide evidence to support a reason, you are

assuming something about your audience’s beliefs and values, and it is important to examine your own

assumptions very carefully as you construct arguments. Though assumptions are o�en unstated, they

function to link together the ideas of two claims.

Let’s consider a version of the claim and reason we’ve been looking at throughout this section to examine

the role of assumptions: “We should support legislation to limit the use of cell phones while driving because

they increase needless accidents and deaths on our roadways.” In this instance, the claim and the reason

appear logically connected, but let’s identify the implied assumptions that the reader must accept in order

to be persuaded by the argument:

Claim: We should support legislation to limit the use of cell phones while driving.

Reason: They increase needless accidents and deaths on our highways.

Implied Assumptions:

We should do whatever we can to limit accidents and deaths.

Legislation can reduce accidents and deaths.

Many audiences would agree with these implied assumptions. As a result, it would likely be unnecessary to

make the assumptions explicit or provide support for them. However, you can probably imagine an

instance when a given audience would argue that legislating people’s behavior does not affect how people

actually behave. To such an audience, passing laws to regulate the use of cell phones while driving might

seem ineffective. As a result, the audience might actually challenge the assumption(s) upon which your

argument rests, and you may need to provide evidence to support the implied assumption that “legislation

can reduce accidents and deaths.”

A writer who is concerned that an audience may attack his argument by pointing to problematic

assumptions might choose to explicitly state the assumption and provide support for it. In this instance, he

might consider whether precedents exist (e.g., the effect of implementing seat belt laws, or statistical data

from other states that have passed cell phone use laws) that could support his assumption that “legislation

can reduce accidents and deaths.”

INSIDE WORK Considering Assumptions and Audience

In the previous activity, you considered the most appropriate kinds of evidence for supporting thesis

statements for differing audiences. This time, we ask you to identify the assumptions in your arguments

and to consider whether or not those assumptions would require backing or additional support for varying

audiences.

Begin by identifying the assumption(s) for each of your thesis statements. Then consider whether or not

those assumptions need backing as the intended audience for your argument changes to the following:

a friend or relative

a state legislator

an opinion column editor

a professional academic in a field related to your topic

Anticipating Counterarguments Initially, it may strike you as odd to think of counterarguments as a strategy to consider when constructing

an argument. However, anticipating counterarguments — the objections of those who might disagree with

you — may actually strengthen your argument by forcing you to consider competing chains of reasoning

and evidence. In fact, many writers actually choose to present counterarguments, or rebuttals of their own

arguments, as part of the design of their arguments.

Why would anyone do this? Consider for a moment that your argument is like a debate. If you are able to

adopt your opponent’s position and then explain why that position is wrong, or why her reasoning is

flawed, or in what ways her evidence is insufficient to support her own claim, then you support your own

position. This is what it means to offer a rebuttal to potential counterarguments. Of course, when you

provide rebuttals, you must have appropriate evidence to justify dismissing part or all of the

counterargument. By anticipating and responding to counterarguments, you also strengthen your own

ethos as a writer on the topic. Engaging counterarguments demonstrates that you have considered

multiple positions and are knowledgeable about your subject.

INSIDER’S VIEW Figuring out the “right” side

MIKE BROTHERTON, ASTRONOMY

“In science, we’re really worried about which side is right, and you discuss both sides only to the extent of figuring out which one’s right. It’s not one opinion versus another. It’s one set of ideas supported by a certain set of observations against another set of ideas supported, or not supported, by the same set of observations, and trying to figure out which one is a better explanation for how things work.”

Hear more about writing to solve problems.

You can also address possible counterarguments by actually conceding to an opposing position on a

particular point or in a limited instance. Now, you’re probably wondering: Why would anyone do this?

Doesn’t this mean losing your argument? Not necessarily. O�en, such a concession reveals that you’re

developing a more complex argument and moving past the pro/con positions that can limit productive

debate.

Imagine that you’re debating an opponent on a highly controversial issue like free college tuition. You’re

arguing that tuition should be free, and your opponent makes the point that free tuition could have the

effect of lowering the quality of education an institution is able to offer. You might choose to concede this

possibility, but counter it by explaining how varying tuition costs among different kinds of universities

contribute to socioeconomic stratification. Though you acknowledge the validity of your opponent’s

concerns, you are able to make a case that the social damage caused by the current system makes that risk

acceptable. That is, you could qualify your position by acknowledging your opponent’s concerns and

explaining why you feel that your argument is still valid. In this case, your opponents’ points are used to

adjust or to qualify your own position, but this doesn’t negate your argument. Your position may appear

even stronger precisely because you’ve acknowledged the opponent’s points and refined the scope of your

argument as a result.

INSIDE WORK Dealing with Counterarguments

Throughout this section, you’ve been working with a series of claims that you constructed. You’ve linked

those claims to reasons as support, and you’ve considered the kinds of evidence most appropriate for your

theses in light of particular audiences. You’ve also considered the likely acceptability of your assumptions,

according to various potential audiences. This time, consider possible counterarguments for your thesis

statements.

Who might argue against you?

What might their arguments be?

What will their arguments be based on?

How might you use a counterargument to actually support your own claim?

Brainstorm a list of instances in which you might want to concede a point or two as a means of

strengthening your own position.

Analyzing Arguments One way to understand the process of developing a persuasive argument is to study how others structure

theirs. If you’ll recall, in Chapter 3 we discussed how visual texts, like verbal ones, construct rhetorical

situations. In the same way, visual texts may also seek to persuade an audience, and they may use many of

the techniques explored throughout this chapter.

The following papers present arguments about visual texts. In the first, Jack Solomon, a professional writer,

explores how advertisements reflect what he sees as contradictory impulses in the American character. In

the second, Timothy Holtzhauser, a student writer, examines the argument strategies employed in a 1943

ad for American war bonds. As you engage with their arguments, keep in mind that each writer is both

making an argument and analyzing an argument simultaneously, so you’ll want to consider their texts from

both perspectives. Also keep in mind that their arguments are supported by evidence found in their own

research. We’ll explore how to conduct research in more detail in Chapter 5.

Insider Example Professional Analysis of an Advertisement

In the following passage from “Masters of Desire: The Culture of American Advertising,” Jack Solomon uses semiotics — a method for studying and interpreting cultural signs and symbols — to analyze the arguments made in two advertisements. As you read Solomon’s argument, try to identify which elements of argument discussed in this chapter he uses in his analysis.

Excerpt from “Masters of Desire: The Culture of American Advertising”

JACK SOLOMON

The American dream . . . has two faces: the one communally egalitarian and the

other competitively elitist. This contradiction is no accident; it is fundamental to

the structure of American society. Even as America’s great myth of equality

celebrates the virtues of mom, apple pie, and the girl or boy next door, it also lures

us to achieve social distinction, to rise above the crowd and bask alone in the

glory. This land