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Human Behavior in the Social Environment: A Multidimensional Perspective, 7e

Chapter 8: Emerging and Young Adulthood

Ashford/LeCroy/Rankin, Human Behavior in the Social Environment: A Multidimensional Perspective, 7th Edition. © 2025 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

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Chapter Objectives (1 of 2)

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

Describe the key developmental themes present in emerging and young adulthood, including theories of adulthood and the concept of emerging adulthood.

Understand the key aspects of biophysical growth and development (brain development).

Describe the key themes in the psychological dimension for young adulthood (formal operational thought, communication, intimacy and independence, serious mental illness and depression).

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Chapter Objectives (2 of 2)

Describe the key themes in the social dimension for young adulthood (marriage, homophobia, parenthood, fertility, work, racism, gender, intimate partner violence, substance use).

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Developmental Themes

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Developmental Themes

Erikson: Turning outward and focusing on relationships with others; intimacy vs isolation.

Focus on intimacy that often leads to marriage, children, and the need to establish a stable career path.

Considered as preparation for adulthood.

Two most critical developmental tasks:

Economic independence.

Independent decision-making.

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Emerging Adulthood

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Emerging Adulthood

The period of transition is known as emerging adulthood:

Emphasizes change and exploration of possible life directions in love, work, and worldview

Intangible and psychological criteria:

Accepting responsibility for one’s actions

Making independent decisions

Becoming financially independent

Transition to adulthood is now a longer journey due to technology revolution, sexual revolution, women’s and youth movement.

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Theories of Adulthood

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Theories of Adulthood (1 of 3)

Erikson:

Young adults turn outward and focus on social and intimate relationships with others

Task of career consolidation

One in six young individuals is “disconnected youths”

Levinson’s eight stages of adult development:

Describes young adulthood (ages 17–33) as focusing on choices in love, occupation, friendship, values, and lifestyle

Identified the novice phase of development

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Theories of Adulthood (2 of 3)

Exhibit 8.2 Levinson’s Eight Stages of Adult Development

Ages 17–22: Leave adolescence; make preliminary choices for adult life. Ages 22–28: Initial choices in love, occupation, friendship, values, and lifestyle. Ages 28–33: Change in life structure, either a moderate change or, more often, a severe and stressful crisis. Ages 33–40: Establish a niche in society; progress on a timetable, both in family and in career accomplishments. Ages 40–45: Life structure comes into question; usually a time of crisis in the meaning, direction, and value of each person’s life; neglected parts of the self (talents, desires, aspirations) seek expression. Ages 45–50: Choices must be made and a new life structure formed; the person must commit to new tasks. Ages 50–55: Further questioning and modification of the life structure; men who did not have a crisis at age 40 are likely to have one now. Ages 55–60: Build a new life structure; can be a time of great fulfillment.

Source: Adapted by the authors from Levinson (1986). A conception of adult development. American Psychologist, 41, 3–13.

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Theories of Adulthood (3 of 3)

Jung:

Stages of development:

1st stage (birth to middle age): Integrating intrapsychic dynamics and conflicts with the external environment

2nd stage: Self-realization or consolidation

Emphasizes spirituality

Some developmentalists have argued that there is a difference between psychological maturity and the term adult.

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What Is Maturity?

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What Is Maturity?

Maturity is defined as the state of being fully grown.

Females tend to achieve maturity earlier than males.

Age of majority in law refers to the age at which a person is considered an adult.

Biological, psychological, and social factors contribute to our understanding of the terms adult and maturity.

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Biophysical Growth and Development

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Biophysical Growth and Development

Physical development represents both the peak of physical development and its slow decline as the body gets older.

The percentage of body weight composed of muscle decreases.

Women have a higher body fat percentage than men.

Basal metabolism rate decreases.

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Brain Development in Emerging and Early Adulthood

Stronger connections between the emotional and motor centers of their brains and the prefrontal cortex develop.

The prefrontal cortex maturity is crucial for personality, impulse control, and social behavior.

The brain undergoes considerable maturation.

Substance use alters brain structure, affecting cognitive functions.

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Reproductive System during Early Adulthood

An ideal time for a safe and healthy delivery of a baby:

Physical abilities are at their peak

Uterus is receptive to a pregnancy

Birth spacing:

Traditionally two-year spacing is identified as a healthy interval

Longer intervals are better for both infant and maternal survival and health

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Effect of Hormones on Women

Menstrual cycle.

Premenstrual syndrome:

Breast tenderness, a bloated feeling, irritability, and negative moods occurring just before the menstrual period

Premenstrual dysphoric disorder:

Depressed mood, anxiety, affective lability, persistent and marked anger, hypersomnia or insomnia, feeling overwhelmed or out of control, difficulty in concentrating

Can cause significant distress and functional impairment

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Biophysical Strengths, Hazards, and Risks

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Cancer

Cancer is the fourth-leading cause of death in this age group (behind accidents, suicide, and homicide).

Breast cancer, lymphomas, melanoma, sarcomas, cervix/ovary, thyroid, testicular, colorectal, and brain/spinal cord tumors.

Self-examination is important for:

Breast cancer

Testicular cancer

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Health Disparities and Men of Color (1 of 3)

Men of color living in poverty have the worst health outcomes:

Higher rates of illness and mortality

Determinants:

Poverty

Race and racism

Cultural beliefs

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Health Disparities and Men of Color (2 of 3)

Critical Issues in Studying Health Disparities

Where people live, work, play, and worship are considered social determinants of health because they are conditions that impact health risks and outcomes.

According to CDC, to achieve health equity, social workers need to:

Address historical and contemporary injustices

Overcome economic, social, and other obstacles to health

Eliminate preventable health disparities

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Health Disparities and Men of Color (3 of 3)

Exhibit 8.4 Social Determinants of Health (Source: CDC, 2021)

1. Social and Community Context (including Discrimination and Racism)	Racism impacts stress, which impacts people from attaining their highest level of health.
2. Health Care Access and Use	Structural barriers like difficulty with transportation or getting time off work can make it hard to go to the doctor.
3. Neighbourhood and Physical Environment	Finding affordable and quality housing is particularly challenging for people of colour.
4. Workplace Conditions	Work-related health problems disproportionately impact people with social, economic, environmental disadvantage
5. Education	Residents of lower-income neighborhoods have less access to high-quality education.
6. Income and Wealth Gaps	Limited higher-paying job options with good benefits contribute to barriers to wealth accumulation & greater debt.

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Cognitive Development and Information Processing

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Formal Operational Thought

Formal operational thinking in adolescence is the last stage of cognitive development (Piaget).

Formal operational thought: Conceiving abstract concepts, systematic thinking, and step-by-step logic.

Adults utilize formal operational thinking more effectively due to:

Reduced egocentrism

Accessing past experiences

Education for problem-solving

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Development of Post-Formal Thought

Adolescent response:

Understanding of the ambiguity of the situation

Need to search for the correct answer

Adult response:

Does not search for a correct answer

Tolerance of the ambiguity

Combination of logic and feeling in understanding the situation

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Communication

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Styles of Communication (1 of 2)

Instrumental communication.

Expressive communication.

Exhibit 8.5 Communication Differences between Men and Women

Men	Language	Women
Show knowledge and skill	Rapport talk	Discuss similarities and differences
Talk about activities and events	Report talk	Discuss personal lives and feelings
Lecture	Conversations with others	Listen
Let’s solve it!	Problem talk	Provide understanding

Source: Adapted from Tannen (1991; 2011).

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Styles of Communication (2 of 2)

Communication Skills for Women

In mixed-gender discussions, men tend to dominate, requiring women to assertively join the conversation

Should use both nonverbal and spoken messages

Less comfortable than men in talking about themselves

Communication Skills for Men

Should evaluate their tendency to dominate

Some men need to be more conversational and good listeners

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Nonverbal Communication

Dimensions:

The like-dislike dimension

The potency dimension

The responsiveness dimension

Communication aspects differentiate happy and unhappy couples:

Openness in sharing information

Conflict resolution willingness

Sexual life quality

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Communicating with People Who are Deaf

People who are deaf represent a linguistic minority with American Sign Language (ASL).

Signing is not just gesticulation:

Has its own syntax and is well formed like other languages

Many cultural, educational, and service issues are specific to people who are deaf.

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Virtual Communication

Gen Zers are more comfortable communicating virtually than Generation Y.

Social media:

Communication, community-based input, interaction, and content sharing

The total time spent using digital media is increasing every year.

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Attitudes, Emotions, and Regulation

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Love (1 of 2)

Most prevalent emotions in young adulthood.

Characteristics of romantic love:

Sexual in origin and motivation

Spontaneous and voluntary—and not directly under one’s control

An emotion appropriate only between equals

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Love (2 of 2)

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Intimacy and Independence (1 of 2)

Maturity and growth are reflected in the ability to experience both intimacy and dependence.

In adolescence, young people are working to develop their identity.

Coté (2000) has referred to young adulthood as “arrested adulthood.”

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Intimacy and Independence (2 of 2)

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Isolation and Loneliness (1 of 2)

Loneliness, existential isolation, and alienation all result in feeling a degree of disconnection from others:

Existential isolation: Due to interpersonal causes

Alienation: Stems more from societal ones

Loneliness is a challenge in:

Romantic relationships

Friendship relationships

Family relationships

Community relationships

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Isolation and Loneliness (2 of 2)

Practice Guidelines: Reducing Loneliness:

Help individuals reduce anxiety and increase comfort

Teaching people social skills

Encourage the person to obtain additional social support

Make sure they have someone to check in on them

Help them increase the amount and quality of their sleep

Foster Intergenerational connection

Attachment styles are moderately stable over the life span

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Psychological Strengths, Hazards, and Risks

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Excellence in Performance Development as a Strength

The development of a career is an important adult task.

Psychological processes include resonance, passion, and grit.

Four stages:

Dream stage

Preparation stage

Obstacles stage

Revisiting the dream

Resonance performance model (RPM).

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Serious Mental Illness (1 of 2)

Schizophrenia:

Treated successfully with a full recovery

Partial recovery with a reasonably normal life

Little or no recovery with repeated hospitalizations

Risk factors: Genetics, childhood trauma, and regular cannabis use.

National Alliance In Mental Illness (NAMI) has become a powerful advocacy group.

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Serious Mental Illness (2 of 2)

Assessment Tools: Assessing Clients with Mental Illness

Physical health status; physical functioning

Ability to perform activities for daily living

Extent of bodily pain

Quality of sleep; quality of life

Level of energy and fatigue

Access to resources and opportunities

Fulfillment of life’s roles and tasks

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Depression and Anxiety in Young Adulthood

Growing number of college students are suffering from depression:

Anxiety has surpassed depression as the most common mental health diagnosis among them

During COVID-19 lockdown, young adults experienced the most psychological distress and intolerance to uncertainty.

Creating Opportunities for Personal Empowerment (COPE).

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Depression and Women (1 of 3)

Depression is leading mental health problem for women.

Factors:

Personal styles characterized as avoidant, passive, and pessimistic

Unhappy marriage

Physical and emotional abuse

Extreme poverty

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Depression and Women (2 of 3)

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Depression and Women (3 of 3)

Assessment Tools: Assessing Depression

Purpose of the assessment

History of present illness

Mental health or psychiatric history

General health history

Substance-abuse history

Developmental history

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Groups and Families

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Marriage

Most people still marry, despite more people who remain single or cohabit, but at older ages.

More people are single today because of higher divorce rates.

Four relationship issues:

Personality

Intrapersonal

Interpersonal

External

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Selecting a Partner

Phase I:

Opportunity, physical attraction, valued behaviors

Phase II:

Positive self-disclosure, rapport, sexuality, value concerns, salient homogeneity, similarity

Phase III:

Role compatibility, empathy

Phase IV:

The “right one” relationship, commitment escalates

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Empowering African American Families

To increase their effectiveness in working with African Americans

Recognize the client’s extended family, spirituality, religion, and the African American community

Work with the people who traditionally have the power in African American families

Black Emotional and Mental Health Collective (BEAM).

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Remaining or Becoming Single

Stereotyping, stigmatizing, and marginalizing of single people.

“Singles week”:

Celebrate unmarried and single people during September third week

Less social support as well as more social discrimination.

Require special adaptations.

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LGBTQ+ Relationships (1 of 2)

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LGBTQ+ Relationships (2 of 2)

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Homophobia

Irrationally negative attitude toward gay people.

Factors:

Authoritarian perspectives

Highly religious views

Being with others who share negative views toward gays

Not having had any personal contact with LGBTQ+ people

The Equality Act, 2021.

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Internalized Homophobia

Self-loathing.

Internalized homophobia scale.

Practice Guidelines: Working with Homophobia:

Discuss the patient’s early experience and the ways they adapted to or repressed their gay feelings

Challenge the client’s assumptions or beliefs about gender roles

Examine your own assumptions about gender roles

Be a role model

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Transition to Parenthood

Top stressors:

Finances, child behavior, couple time, parent-child communication, personal time, achievement guilt, spousal relations, family playtime, busy schedules, and shared responsibilities

The Perceived Stress Scale.

Preparing for the Transition to Parenthood

Children can be “bundles of stress”

Social support is critical

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LGBTQ+ Parents

Parenting is similar to that of heterosexual parents:

More than 90% of the children of LGBTQ+ couples are heterosexual (Golomobok & Tasker, 1996)

LGBTQ+ parents do experience less social support for their parenting:

Their children may experience stigma

Regardless of sexual orientation, not all couples are interested in having children.

A large number of couples choose not to have children.

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Choosing to Be Childfree

An increasing number of couples are childless; they just don’t want to have kids.

Fertility rates are at a record low.

Childfree people generally have a positive life satisfaction.

Stigma toward childfree adults still pervades.

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Infertility

10-20% couples are unable to become pregnant after a year of trying.

Causes:

Male abnormalities (40%):

Low sperm count, abnormal sperm morphology, and reduced sperm motility

Female problems (40%):

Irregular ovulation, hostile cervical mucus, blocked fallopian tubes, and uterine issues like fibroids or adhesions, hindering fertilization and implantation

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Miscarriage

The fetal loss is the loss of a real baby.

Men and women grieve a fetal loss in different ways:

Fathers report less intense grieving and for shorter periods than their partners

Thus, mothers may believe that their partner is unfeeling and not adequately mourning the loss

Fathers may conclude that their partner is dwelling on their grief instead of getting on with life

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Communities and Support Systems

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Communities and Support Systems (1 of 2)

Work Life

A significant part of the person’s self-identity

Balance among career, leisure, and family lives is a challenge

Employment loss, is associated with poorer mental health

Women and Work

Some jobs are considered “male,” and some as “female”

The percent of women in the U.S. labor force is 57.5%

Women more likely to leave the workforce for more childcare duties

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Communities and Support Systems (2 of 2)

Housing

Young adults face challenges in affording their first homes

Lack of affordability and rising home prices

Volunteerism and Social Services

Estimated one in four Americans are volunteers

Economic realities also shape the choices of volunteers

Volunteerism is evolving into a market-based concept

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Multicultural, Gender, and Spiritual Considerations

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Multicultural, Gender, and Spiritual Considerations

Exhibit 8.16 Challenges Confronting People of Color

Ethnic or Racial Group	Unique Challenges Confronting Adults
Native Americans/Alaska Natives	Poor academic attainments. Extremely high unemployment rates. Stereotypes promoted by TV and movies.
African Americans	Dialect differences have challenged them. Poor academic progress and lack of social progress. The stereotype of the “violent Black.”
Asian Americans	The “model minority” stereotype. Schism between younger and older generations.
Hispanic Americans	Poor academic progress and lack of social progress. Improvement in middle-paying and high-paying jobs.

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Blending Religions

Millennials are more likely to come from households with diverse religious identities.

Integrating parents' differing religious beliefs into a cohesive family plan can be challenging.

Children are more likely to identify with their mother’s religion as their own.

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Gender Roles

In young adulthood, women confront two role expectations:

The marriage mandate

The motherhood mandate

“Intelligent-housewife syndrome.”

Women who stay at home have greater psychological adjustment problems

Homemakers may feel less happy due to social isolation and low societal status

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Social Strengths, Hazards, and Risks

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Social Strengths, Hazards, and Risks (1 of 6)

Need more education to get a job that will support a family.

The cost of living is higher: Rent/utilities are now 50% of earnings vs. 25%-35% 30 years ago.

Welfare Reform

Welfare reform has lifted millions, but still not enough

Social Workers in Managed Care Systems

Social workers can play many vital roles as interdisciplinary team members working in community clinics

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Social Strengths, Hazards, and Risks (2 of 6)

Families and Children with Disabilities

Demanding and often leave the mother stressed, socially isolated, and exhausted

The higher divorce rate among couples

Divorce

50% of marriages (higher in 2nd time)

Why? No longer same economic constraints, less stigma

1-2 years of stress, anger, and depression after divorce

Need to redefine identity and relations to partner

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Social Strengths, Hazards, and Risks (3 of 6)

Intimate Partner Violence

Reasons: stress, conflicts, and maladaptive coping

Women are more often victims of violence

Sexual Harassment

Defined as unwelcome sexually oriented behavior

Workplace sexual harassment

Quid pro quo harassment

Sexual harassment spans beyond intercourse, encompassing various unsolicited and unwelcome behaviors

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Social Strengths, Hazards, and Risks (4 of 6)

Rape and Sexual Assault

Direct effect on the quality of all women’s lives

Acquaintance rape

Date rape

Rape Trauma Syndrome

Clusters of symptoms:

Disorganization phase

Controlled reaction

Reorganization phase

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Social Strengths, Hazards, and Risks (5 of 6)

Sexually Transmitted Diseases

Illnesses that are transmitted through sexual contact

Approximately 20 sexually transmitted diseases

Higher among women

Alcohol, tobacco, and other drugs

Closely associated with violence, aggression, and rape

Alcohol use among college students

Young adults make up the highest percentage of binge alcohol drinkers

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Social Strengths, Hazards, and Risks (6 of 6)

Developmental Guidelines for Assessment in Young Adulthood

Developmental Milestones	Developmental Issues (not problems)
Emerging adulthood Vocational and career development Independent living Economic independence	Increased sexual activity Fertility difficulties Adjustment to marriage Divorce and new family arrangements
Strengths and Landmarks of Development	Development Observations Requiring Attention
Development of expertise Improved mental functioning Development of adult intimacy Development of mentorships Establishment of religious practices	Premenstrual syndrome Early health problems Isolation and loneliness Sexually transmitted diseases Sexual harassment and rape

Case study 1

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