Discussion Responses Fall 2023 WK 1
HSE 304 CHAPTER 2
Chapter 2
Volunteer Demographics
Harriett C. Edwards, EdD
R. Dale Safrit, EdD
Kimberly Allen, PhD
North Carolina State University
This chapter explores the concept of volunteer demographics from three perspectives. First it describes volunteer demographics in the United States for 2010 as well as selected demographic trends since 1974. Then the chapter approaches volunteer demographics from the perspective of human development across the life span, with accompanying critical implications for volunteerism and volunteer resource management based on specific periods of human development. Finally, the chapter discusses volunteer demographics based on the contemporary theory of generational cohorts, again with accompanying critical implications for volunteerism and volunteer resource management based on specific generational cohorts.1
Volunteer Demographics: Considering Both the Forest and the Trees
According to the Merriam-Webster dictionary (2010), the noun “demographics” is defined as “(plural): the statistical characteristics of human populations (as age or income) used especially to identify markets; a market or segment of the population identified by demographics.” Thus, demographics describe a targeted population or subpopulation based on specific social or cultural characteristics, and are especially powerful in helping to market programs and services to that population or subpopulation. Thus, the term “volunteer demographics” refers to the use of identifiable social, cultural, or personal characteristics or traits to better understand volunteers as an overall, holistic targeted subpopulation of larger society. Such demographics are very useful to volunteer resource managers in targeting specific societal populations and subpopulations for purposes of recruiting new volunteers, better understanding current volunteers’ potential motivations for volunteering, and understanding potential barriers to individuals who may consider volunteering. Examples of typical demographics that can be used for such purposes include age, gender, race/ethnicity, marital status, familial makeup, employment status, highest level of education achieved, total household income, and others.
Ideally, a volunteer resource manager should consider each potential or current volunteer as the unique individual he or she is and identify specific volunteer opportunities and requisite training needs based on that individualization. In reality, however, this ideal approach is often not feasible or practical due to several factors, including (but not limited to) the large numbers of volunteers being supported and other demands on the volunteer resource manager's time. In this chapter, we focus first on selected volunteer demographics as of 2010 in the United States and some identified trends since 1974, based on empirical data collected by government sources. Then we discuss implications for recruiting new volunteers and better supporting current ones from two holistic conceptual approaches, both of which build on combinations of the specific types of demographics described earlier: volunteerism in the context of human development and in the context of generational cohorts.
Snapshot of Selected Volunteer Demographics in the United States
Discussing volunteer demographics over any extended period of time (i.e., multiple years) is somewhat of a challenge, largely due to the absence of consistent data collection by an ongoing research/demographics agency using consistent methodologies (e.g., asking the same questions year after year in the same manner). However, some national agencies have attempted to do so, using valid and reliable data analysis and extrapolation techniques to allow for such longitudinal perspectives.
In 2006, the Corporation for National and Community Service compared selected volunteer demographics between 1975 and 2005 using data collected by the U.S. Census Bureau using the Current Population Survey (CPS). The CPS used a consistent definition of “adult volunteer” as “someone age 16 and older who did work through an organization in the previous 12 months for which they were not paid” (p. 4). Thus, the CPS collected data only regarding formal volunteerism (i.e., volunteerism conducted under the auspices of a formal organization or agency) as compared to informal volunteerism (i.e., volunteerism performed by an individual without any connections to a formal organization or agency). The 2005 statistics utilized came from a pooled CPS data set that combined responses from the 2003, 2004, and 2005 surveys; consequently, data were modified so as to calculate the 2005 volunteer rate compared to those from previous reports.
Still, several interesting trends were identified based on the demographic comparisons from 1974 to 2005:
Volunteering rates for individuals ages 16 to 19 doubled between 1989 and 2005 to a rate that exceeded the 2005 national volunteer rate. The report authors attributed this enormous growth in volunteerism among teenagers to the growth of school-based service and service-learning programs and to young people's reactions to the events of September 11, 2001, in expressing an increased desire to serve their community.
There was a 30% increase in the rate of volunteering among midlife adults ages 45 to 64. Suggested reasons for this increase included higher levels of educational attainment and delays in marriage and childrearing.
The largest increase observed among a specific demographic group during this 30-year period was a 64% increase among Americans age 65 and over. Furthermore, the percentage of these older volunteers contributing 100 or more hours increased by 46%. These surprising statistics were attributed to generational attributes (to be discussed later in this chapter), connections between improved health and volunteerism, and improved education and disposable income levels.
In 2010, the Corporation for National and Community Service once again compiled a snapshot of volunteerism in the United States based on selected demographics. Of course, between the years of 2005 and 2010, the United States experienced a major economic crisis that had resulted in increased needs and demands for government and public sector programs, especially for more vulnerable populations. However, in response to this crisis, the Corporation concluded that during the previous year, 63.4 million Americans had volunteered in their communities (an additional 1.6 million compared to 2008), providing 8.1 billion hours of service with an estimated value of $169 billion. This was the largest single-year increase in the number of volunteers and the volunteer rate since 2003. The increase was largely driven by increased volunteer rates among women (especially ages 45 to 54), married individuals (especially married women), and employed individuals (especially those employed full time). The highest volunteer rates were observed among individuals with children under the age of 18 living at home and individuals with a high school diploma or college degree.
Of course, entire tomes could be written regarding demographic trends in volunteerism. This small section highlights just a few of the more interesting aspects of volunteerism observed among Americans during the past several decades. While such trend analysis is important to volunteer resource managers in placing a respective volunteer program into the larger social context, more important is the ability of a volunteer resource manager to understand specific opportunities and limitations for any individual to volunteer based on larger developmental and social characteristics. Therefore, the remainder of this chapter explores volunteerism based on two holistic premises: (1) stages of human development and (2) generational cohorts.
Volunteerism Across the Life Span: Understanding “Seasons of Service” in Human Development
Volunteering does not happen in a vacuum (Ellis, 2010), and so it stands to reason that major life events and social phenomena that impact society in general will also have an impact on volunteer activity. Volunteers make up practically every “season” of the human life cycle, from childhood, to the teen years, through early and middle adulthood, and well into the senior years. Depending on what life cycle stage volunteer currently are experiencing, they will have unique personal needs and developmental characteristics that must be recognized and respected in order to provide the most positive experience possible for both the individual volunteers and the sponsoring organization.
Although holistic human development can be more easily explored and understood by examining respective individual life “seasons,” the true nature of the human life span and the interconnectedness of the respective seasons must be approached not as separate, well-defined episodes but rather as an ongoing human drama wherein one scene blends seamlessly into the following one and each act flows into its successor. This is the paradox of exploring human development across the entire life span; we may study it by dissecting it into its component stages, but we may truly understand it only by combining the stages into the resulting whole. Fisher (1997) commented insightfully on this paradox:
[T]he journey from early infancy to senescence is an unfolding of unifying maturational and developmental processes. Viewed as a continuum, this journey appears to be seamless, with one moment flowing into the next. . . For purposes of a more focused study, the observational frame can be shifted, maturational levels can be designated, and these levels can then be viewed individually as a series of connected but somewhat discrete epochs—“the seasons of life.” (p. 173)
Historically, volunteer programs have been developed to address the needs of a single, targeted audience or group. The American Red Cross, one of the most well-known volunteer efforts to come out of the post–Civil war era (Ellis & Noyes, 1990), initially addressed male soldiers’ convalescent needs in a society at war. 4-H Youth Development was established originally in the first decades of the 20th century to address the needs of school-age boys and girls in rural agricultural settings (Reck, 1951). In 1974, the hospice movement was founded to provide caring support for terminally ill patients and their families (Ellis & Noyes, 1990).
However, contemporary volunteer organizations most often find themselves simultaneously addressing multiple needs of multiple client groups. This challenging reality of today's not-for-profit environment has encouraged (and even forced!) many volunteer-based organizations to find unique ways to connect the various client groups they serve so as to make best use of increasingly scarce material and human resources. Programs such as the Retired Senior Volunteer Program, Foster Grandparents, and Adopt-a-Grandparent build on the unique skills and abilities of individuals at specific stages of life and their interests to contribute time, energies, and talents to others without concern for financial gain. Such intergenerational programs connect individuals from distinctly unique life stages with each other in order to improve the quality of life for those in need, those uniquely challenged, and society as a whole. The resulting “seasons of service” also serve important functions in helping us better understand, appreciate, and value individuals experiencing life stages different from our own; an intergenerational program not only bridges a generation gap with meaningful interactions but also teaches children some positive aspects of being old (Chen, 1997).
Understanding human seasons of service and promoting volunteerism across the entire life span enable volunteer programs to meet increasing needs of unique client groups while optimizing existing material resources and capitalizing on a growing human resource base: senior volunteers. As Stevens (1998) stated: “The human resource of senior volunteers is alive and well and growing. . . Supporting their efforts through research-based practice directions can further their well-being” (p. 36).
Much like the world of volunteerism, the field of human development organizes life stages, or seasons, to make meaning of growth patterns. The field recognizes that development has three domains or dimensions: physical, social/emotional, and cognitive (Berk, 2008) and that those domains are heavily influenced by many systems working together. Bronfenbrenner's (1986) ecological theory of development postulates that all systems work in tandem in child and human development, so it is important to consider developmental stages and systems of influence when organizing volunteers. Having a foundational knowledge of the three domains of development in all life cycles can help volunteer resource managers know how to best engage volunteers. The three domains of development are intimately intertwined to make up the whole person, and all three areas must be considered to promote healthy development and successful volunteerism at each life stage. The physical domain addresses physical growth and maturation in childhood and subsequent changes throughout adulthood, including gains and losses of motor abilities over the life span. The social/emotional domain relates to emergent relationships with peers, adults, and family as well as one's ability to have self-control and to cope with emotions. Last, the cognitive domain (thinking) involves changes in the mental processes involved in reasoning, perception, languages, learning, and thought.
Child and youth developmental stages have been well studied over the past century. Jean Piaget was one of the first theorists to highlight sequential developmental milestones of human growth and development (Berk, 2008). Piaget's developmental stages have been tested over time, and his theory is still thought of as the quintessential life stage theory (Crain, 2011). Many other theorists have expanded the understanding of child and family development in the three domains. Gesell's (1925) maturational theory helps us understand physical development; Erikson (1959), Ainsworth (1967), Bandura (1977), and Kohlberg (1981) contributed greatly to the social/emotional development. And, of course, Montessori (1954), Piaget and Inhelder (1969), and Vygotsky (1978) are the leading authorities on cognitive development.
Having an understanding of developmental stages is important for volunteer resource managers when determining the best fit for volunteers. Using human development terms, if there is a goodness of fit between the volunteer and the environment, there is a higher chance that the volunteer will do better and stay longer. If, for example, a 15 year-old youth comes to volunteer at a food bank, the volunteer resource manager could consider the physical abilities, social-emotional norms and the cognitive development of this volunteer before placing her in a specific position.
Life Stages
Exhibit 2.1 presents a summary of human developmental characteristics across the life span in the context of volunteer resource management. The next subsections describe in more detail specific life stages across the human development continuum with regard to unique attributes and characteristics related to physical, social-emotional, and cognitive development for that stage.
Infancy (0 to 2 Years)
Physical: Reflexes common, then graduates to more voluntary control; begins to crawl, then walk; early ability to make use of sensory information.
Social-emotional: Social from birth, attachment to caregiver(s); stranger anxiety; simple pretend play; family-centered environment; self-recognition; temperament is foundation for personality.
Cognitive: Sensory-motor period; coos, babble, then first words; recognizes symbols, objects, individuals; acquires object permanence.
Childhood (3 to 5 Years)
Physical: Good perceptual abilities; coordination develops and improves; brain growth.
Social-Emotional: Parent-child relationship is dominant; first exposure to schooling; social abilities improve but still egocentric; “pretend” takes off; simple understanding of right and wrong, gender-role understanding.
Cognitive: Preoperational stage; minimal use of memory strategies; language acquisition accelerates; thoughts are perception based with little use of logical skills.
Preadolescence (6 to 11 Years)
Physical: Improved motor skills and coordination; slow physical growth; white matter brain development which increases hormone production & improves emotion regulation.
Social-Emotional: Much social comparison among peers; increased involvement with same-sex peers; school influence increases; self-concept forming; enjoys organized games; personality traits become clear.
Cognitive: Limited to concrete mental thinking capacities; can think logically; mastery of words and language; memory improves, attention span developing.
Adolescence (12 to 19 Years)
Physical: Dramatic growth spurt; reaching sexual maturity; physical functioning accelerates.
Social-Emotional: Peak peer involvement; attain close friendships; dating begins; parent relations sometimes strained and more nearly equal; adjustment to sexual and self-identity; conventional moral reasoning; conflict of identity versus role confusion.
Cognitive: Can think both concretely and abstractly; able to understand hypothetical thought; gains in information processing.
Young Adulthood (20 to 39 Years)
Physical: Peak physical functioning with some gradual decline. Begin procreation.
Social-Emotional: Social networks expand along with romantic involvements; careers and families launched; career changes; high risk for psychological problems; increased confidence; family roles change; stable personality; conflict of intimacy versus isolation.
Cognitive: Develop area of expertise; excellent mental skill and growth in knowledge.
Middle Adulthood (40 to 64 Years)
Physical: Physical declines may begin; need for glasses and hearing aids; female menopause; male climacteric.
Social-Emotional: Career stabilizes; children leave home; responsibility for older and younger generations in family increases; work, relationships, and family dominate; psychological struggles between generativity and stagnation; midlife struggles possible; personality traits remain consistent.
Cognitive: Postformal thought process; gain in most areas, loss in some cognitive abilities; uses logic and intuition.
Older Adulthood (65+ YEARS)
Physical: Physical abilities decline; slower; less strength.
Social-Emotional: Hold great value in social relationships; maybe dealing with intergenerational issues; typically have more free time.
Cognitive: Wide variation of cognitive abilities; some may be near the peak of intelligence while others have slower learning, memory lapses, and declines in cognition; mental abilities capable enough for daily routines.
Connecting Human Development to Volunteerism
Building on a basic understanding of human development, volunteer resource managers may develop and sustain stronger seasons of service through volunteer programs. Such seasons should be targeted toward and built around the unique capabilities, interests, and needs of a focused volunteer corps (e.g., children, teens, older adults, etc.).
At this point, we must acknowledge and affirm the major emphasis in today's not-for-profit sector on building bridges between such focused seasons of service in order to promote intergenerational understanding through volunteering. Wilson, Allen, Strahan, and Ethier (2008) emphasized the importance of providing a positive context for teens as well as the benefits of volunteering to teens. Chen (1997) described an intergenerational program designed to address the fact that “today's children and older people have limited opportunities for meaningful interaction in a country increasingly segregated by age and marked by long distance grandparents and grandchildren” (p. 48). Putnam (2000) defined this idea as “social capital. . . connections among individuals—social networks and the norms of reciprocity and trustworthiness that arise from them” (p. 19). Again, by recognizing and respecting the needs and interests of the respective seasons we are attempting to connect, the resulting volunteer efforts will not only be more appropriate for participants but also more meaningful. Some focused considerations for volunteer efforts for each season of service, as well as a few examples of possible volunteer activities, are described next.
Infancy (0 to 2 Years)
Most individuals would agree that infants are not conscious of volunteering and have no choice whether to volunteer or not volunteer. For infants, being a part of volunteering is to be a part of their parent's volunteering/community socialization. Volunteer opportunities do provide infants with an early exposure to service and can serve as a foundation for developing the belief that helping others is important. Infants who “volunteer” with their parents should be engaged in activities that are short term and may include accompanying parents while they help at a local place of worship or help a neighbor with yard work.
Childhood (3 to 5 Years)
Childhood is the time for children to begin to develop their sense of connection to the world, and it is a wonderful time to get them engaged in the practice of volunteering. Three-to-five-year-olds can assist family members and other adults in short-term volunteer activities that actively engage them in hands-on activities. Such activities should encourage an individual child's creativity and be cooperatively focused rather than competitive with an opportunity for everyone to succeed. Children require close supervision, and activities should emphasize safety. Volunteer activities for this age group may include helping a family member plant flowers at a local nursing home or for an elderly neighbor, raking leaves for a neighbor, or pulling weeds in a community garden.
Preadolescence (6 to 11 Years)
Similar to the childhood group, engaging young school-agers in volunteer activities can begin to build a life of service. Preadolescent youth may be most willing to volunteer when the opportunities are cooperatively focused and allow youth to be actively engaged in the activity. Activities should be very structured and organized with an emphasis on having fun. Youth in this category may respond most positively if they are involved in same-gender groups with adequate guidance from an older teen or adult. Volunteer activities may include contributing to a canned food drive at their school, helping serve a meal at a local family homeless shelter, raking leaves for a neighbor, or playing with other children at a local family homeless shelter.
Adolescence (12 to 19 Years)
Teens are more willing to actively engage in mixed-gender groups and seek greater responsibility/decision making in what volunteer projects to conduct. Volunteer opportunities can enhance teens’ career exploration, provide an opportunity to learn about themselves, and be part of a strong college application or job resume. Activities may include delivering food to a family in need, serving as a tutor for a younger child at school or in the neighborhood, planning and conducting a community cleanup day, or organizing a voter registration drive. Peer-to-peer mentoring and mediation programs are also especially appropriate and effective for teen volunteers.
Adulthood
Black and Jirovic (1999) presented an excellent discussion of similarities and differences among adult volunteers at various ages. Safrit and Merrill (1998) explored volunteer activities among (adult) Generation X and Baby Boomer generations. Other authors have discussed differences in volunteering between older and younger adults (Fisher, Mueller, & Cooper, 1991; Lee & Burden, 1991; O'Reilly & Caro, 1994). However, we suggest three distinct seasons of service among adults, each with unique assets and opportunities regarding volunteer efforts.
Young Adulthood (20 to 39 Years)
Young adults have limited time available and seek quality volunteer opportunities. Volunteer activities that connect volunteerism to work and family would be very desirable. For parents with school-age children, volunteering can serve two purposes: (1) fostering an ethic of service in their children, and (2) giving them more time to be with their children in a meaningful activity. Adults in this category can work with minimal direction and may look at the volunteer activities as a way to expand their skills, meet others, and connect to personal causes/values. Opportunities may include offering to conduct an after-school program to involve kids from the neighborhood, providing leadership to a group of friends to raise money for the local humane society, or encouraging their local place of employment to adopt a school classroom or participate in a local Habitat for Humanity project. Episodic volunteer tasks that can be performed at home or accomplished on one's own time, or started and completed in a short time, may also be desirable.
Middle Adulthood (40 to 64 Years)
Organizations should continue to recognize the need for individuals during middle adulthood to balance work and family as volunteer opportunities are developed and shared. For middle and older adult volunteers, a volunteer resource manager should consider professional skill levels and translate them into potential leadership positions. Activities that provide an opportunity for individuals in middle adulthood may include serving on a community board or committee, volunteering with a local youth club or organization, or serving Thanksgiving dinner (with their families) at a local homeless or senior center.
Older Adulthood (65 and Older)
Adults who are 65 and older often have more disposable time and income and may be looking for ways to fill voids in their lives. In addition, these adults are likely to bring wisdom and a breadth and depth of knowledge that can utilized as well as strong connections to the community. Volunteer opportunities for this age group must consider potential physical and health limitations. Volunteer positions may include fundraising, serving as a literacy tutor at the local school or family shelter, or serving as a community advocate for a local senior citizen concern or issue.
Volunteerism and Generational Cohorts
The study of generational cohorts has become more relevant recently as those eligible for retirement continue to work more years than they perhaps had expected and are joined in the workplace by those just entering (Kehl, 2010). This leads to an environment in which there may be individuals ranging in age from their early 20s to their late 70s who are interacting in close proximity in work or volunteer contexts. This observation alone is not so staggering until we begin to think about the myriad differences in life experiences during that 50-year time span and how such differences impact the individuals volunteering in the organization. For example, people who did not have access to telephones until they were well into adulthood may be interacting with younger volunteers who cannot remember a time without constant cell phone access. By acknowledging the respective generational cohorts represented simultaneously in volunteer organizations, volunteer resource managers can work to alleviate potential challenges and also take advantage of identified strengths of the various generational cohorts.
Understanding Generational Cohorts
Fundamental to applying a generational context to volunteer participation is an understanding of the various recognized generational cohorts and some of their general characteristics. Currently, as many as five distinct generational cohorts are recognized from which volunteers may be interacting in any single volunteer program (Corporation for National and Community Service, 2006). This creates a definite need for volunteer resource managers to be adept at incorporating a multitude of individuals from very different generational perspectives into programs if all of the volunteers are to be appropriately and satisfactorily engaged.
The Greatest Generation (Born Prior to 1926)
The early lives of the Greatest Generation were strongly impacted by the two world wars and the Great Depression (Kehl, 2010). They lived with parents who taught them to be frugal, to save for the future, to be responsible stewards of their possessions, and to work together for the common good. Their work centered on a strong work ethic and a chain-of-command, hierarchical approach to management. As employees, these individuals went to work for a company as young people, fully expecting to retire from that same company. Their framework of identity was very local with limited options or interest in mobility and relocation. Televisions, airplanes, and personal computers are all new inventions to these individuals who grew up without access to these and other technologies; even telephones were not common during their childhood. These individuals respect authority and value experience, expecting the same from others.
Traditionals (or Silent Generation) (Born Between 1926 and 1945)
Traditionals or members of the Silent Generation were strongly impacted by World Wars I and II as well as the Korean conflict (Zemke, Raines, & Filipczak, 2000). The Great Depression, the New Deal, and wartime rationing were also realities for these individuals. In the workplace, Traditionals do not appreciate complaints or whining and expect those who come with complaints to also offer solutions. They typically have a strong work ethic and like to learn new skills as needed to complete assigned tasks successfully. Traditionals tend to be loyal, to respect authority, and to value experience when seeking out leaders (Calhoun & Strasser, 2005).
Baby Boomers (Born Between 1946 and 1964)
The Baby Boomer generation is named because of the population explosion that followed World War II (Kehl, 2010). Authors more recently have divided this group into an early cohort (1946–1955) and a late cohort (1954–1965) (Kehl, 2010; Kiger, 2010). The later cohort is referred to as Generation Jones in deference to the concept of “jonesing,” or desiring more, which is often the mantra of the Baby Boom cohort (Kiger, 2010). Describing the generational cohort of Baby Boomers includes acknowledging that the Vietnam War, Woodstock, free love, self-expression, open drug use, and civil rights unrest were all components of their formative years (Thau & Heflin, 1997). These individuals like being on teams, are not necessarily interested in the status quo, and place great emphasis on personal fulfillment. They have worked at multiple jobs at a variety of work sites and are interested in a career path but see that path as developing across multiple arenas. These are individuals who have been workaholics and who have worked hard to be ensure that their children have more than they personally had (Kalita, 2008). The later cohort of Generation Jones really seems to combine some Baby Boom qualities with those of later generational cohorts. These individuals remember gas rationing, Vietnam veterans returning home, televisions in homes, the Kennedy and King assassinations, and the first walk on the Moon. Their early school years were the first in a desegregated system, so their views of diversity and fair treatment may be different from those of the early Boomers. These individuals tend to value technology as a convenience rather than a necessity and tend to be more reliant on phones, voice mail, and other technologies than early Boomers (McNamara, 2010).
Generation X (Born Between 1965 and 1982)
Members of Generation X have always had access to television, radio, and other entertainment media (Kehl, 2010). Divorce became more common and more accepted during this time period, so more Generation Xers grew up in single-parent homes (Raines, 1997). From an early age, these individuals became more independent and self-reliant as they came home from school and managed their own time until parents or other caregivers returned (Merrill, 2003). More than in any previous generation, these individuals have higher levels of education and are more motivated by achievement and instant gratification (Muchnick, 1996). They have a relatively short attention span (having come of age in an environment saturated by visual media) and possess a cautious worldview. Unlike previous generations, this cohort also seeks a work and family balance (McKee & McKee, 2008).
Generation Y (or Millennials) (Born Between 1983 and 2000)
The Generation Y cohort was strongly impacted by the Challenger explosion and the tragic events of September 11, 2001, and for them school violence is the norm (Kehl, 2010). For their entire lives, television news has been available and broadcast 24/7, creating an immediacy of information access and a global view that previously had not existed. These individuals thrive on technology and are masters at multitasking (McKee & McKee, 2008). They expect to have fun at work and will in fact leave a position if they do not enjoy doing it. They require flexible hours, like working on teams, and expect to be able to dress casually in a work environment (Kehl, 2010).
Generation Z or the Internet Generation (born after 2000)
It remains to be seen how the Generation Z cohort will develop (Kehl, 2010). Children today they have never known a time when their country was not at war, have had access to technology from the time of their birth, and have been born into a global recession. It will be interesting to watch as this generation contends with the challenges of social media and public presence of personal information. These individuals have been posted to YouTube and other social sites by their parents and grandparents in ways that previous generations cannot even imagine, so it is a given that technology will play a major determining role in their lives.
Connecting Generational Cohorts to Volunteerism
While much of the work currently available about generational cohorts is derived from observation and anecdotal evidence, the generalizations provide a basis from which to build theoretical approaches to better manage volunteer programs and to support volunteer involvement across the entire generational spectrum. Indeed, many volunteer resource managers must bridge the divide that exists between themselves and their specific generational cohort and other generational cohorts in order to operate volunteer programs on a daily basis. In everything from how volunteer resource managers post available positions to recruit volunteers, to how they communicate with volunteers, from designing volunteer role descriptions to recognizing outstanding volunteer service, every aspect of a volunteer program is impacted by the reality that such a diverse generational array of potential volunteers exists. Developing strategies for working with each cohort can contribute significantly to successful program implementation (see Exhibit 2.2).
Involving members of the Greatest Generation and Traditionals most likely will include activities that are not as physically demanding as those of younger volunteer cohorts. These are also among the most experienced volunteers and probably will enjoy such tasks as working with advisory committees, assisting with specialized projects (e.g., tax preparation, disaster preparedness, etc.), and educational coaching or tutoring. Volunteers in this generational cohort may also be seeking social connections, so providing group activities or supporting group outings could be a valuable tool in volunteer job satisfaction. These volunteers also may find themselves living a great distance from grandchildren and may be interested in working with children of ages similar to those of their grandchildren in an effort to stay connected to that age group. These volunteers usually are retired and may have time available during the traditional workday when others who are still in the workforce do not.
Baby Boomers may be very interested in leadership development or in utilizing professional skills as they participate in volunteer activities. These individuals are looking for opportunities to challenge themselves as they use their skills to solve problems, improve the world around them, and generally make a difference. They are not interested in work that is not challenging (Fixler, Eichbert, & Lorenz, 2008). Volunteer positions for Baby Boomers might include serving as volunteer middle managers to lead teams of volunteers working on specific projects, updating or revising volunteer program policies or guidelines, or creating a new initiative to increase fundraising success in the coming year. Boomers expect a lot of themselves and of their peer volunteers, so they generally will have high standards for any activity they undertake.
Members of Generation Jones are interested in many of the same types of opportunities that interest Baby Boomers. However, these later Boomers still may be building resumes and so may be more interested in leadership roles and titles, such as chair of an advisory committee or key leader for an initiative. Many of these volunteers may have school-age children due to the trend toward later marriage and child bearing, so their volunteer work could focus more on activities that involve their children or their children's favorite activities (McNamara, 2010). Many youth development organizations (e.g., 4-H, Boy/Girl Scouts, Y-Guides/Princesses, etc.) are led by Generation Jones volunteers as they support their children's participation. Many of these organizations offer professional or personal development programs for these adults to gain proficiencies to better serve their communities while also recognizing them for this additional achievement. One example is serving as a master volunteer in a subject matter area or as a trained facilitator, which elevates these volunteers into leadership roles among their peers.
Generation Xers are more motivated by opportunities that are project or time specific. Many individuals in this cohort are getting married, starting families, and building professional careers. Their volunteer interests are often tied to career building. Typically, members of this cohort seek episodic volunteer opportunities that do not require ongoing participation and that require shorter time commitments (Merrill, 2004). These individuals often are most comfortable connecting through virtual volunteer networks through which a small cadre of paid and volunteer staff manage an online system for volunteers to connect for days of service or short-term (i.e., episodic) project work. These virtual networks allow individuals to connect with others who have similar interests, explore a variety of volunteer activities without committing to long-term participation, and contribute to the community in a meaningful way. As these individuals begin to start families, their volunteer interests often turn to activities that can be opportunities for the entire family to work together. Combining their enjoyment of episodic projects with their interest in family might make these individuals ideal candidates for community improvement events, fundraising for organizations that support activities in which they or their children are interested, and assignments that can be completed remotely.
Volunteer activities for Millennials might include asking them to utilize their technology and/or social media savvy to support the volunteer organization. These tasks allow for creativity, acknowledge the volunteers’ skills and interests in technology, and also provide a necessary service for the organization. These volunteers are also an ideal age to be mentors, tutors, or coaches for younger youth. Often, direct service activities help provide social networks and give these volunteers opportunities to develop additional communication skills (McKee & McKee, 2008). In many communities, members of this cohort are required to participate in community service or service learning activities as a component of their formal educational program of study, whether middle school, high school, or college. It will be important for volunteer resource managers to think carefully about supervision, age-appropriateness of activities, and potential transportation challenges with this generational cohort.
Finally, as children today, Generation Z volunteers may be found in some volunteer organizations. As such, the first overwhelming consideration must be safety and age-appropriateness, but it is important to note that fostering an ethic of service at an early age contributes to developing a sense of responsibility and duty that leads to a lifetime of engaged service (Golombek, 2006). These youngest volunteers are old enough to visit elderly persons in a retirement center, to help gather summer harvests from small community gardens, and to participate in simple fundraising walks, festivals, or events. Finding appropriate volunteer activities for this age group can be challenging but can also be well worth the investment as they often return as older youth and adults to continue to serve others through volunteer activity.
Summary: Considering the Big Picture
Human development involves a complex, interconnected series of physical, cognitive, and affective components spanning the time between birth and death. When collapsed into generational cohorts based on year of birth, the interconnectedness of human development becomes even more apparent. Together, in various combinations, sequences, and contexts, they form a larger stage on which the theater of volunteerism is enacted. Regardless of the volunteer's stage of life and/or generational cohort, a volunteer resource manager must balance the needs and abilities of the individual volunteer with the task at hand. Understanding seasons of the human life cycle as well as the strengths and desires of the unique generational cohorts will better prepare volunteer resource managers to put the right actors on stage at the best time of the overall production. Thus, a volunteer resource manager can better understand the whole by examining its component parts yet can best appreciate the parts by reflecting on the synergistic whole. Still, the volunteer resource manager as director must keep in mind certain overall stage directions that will move the drama along while engaging the cast and benefiting the audience. Some specific strategies to consider include:
Educate each volunteer about the others with whom they will be working to increase awareness and lead to greater acceptance among and between respective generational cohorts and stages of life. Conduct joint trainings that allow individuals to share and discuss strengths and weaknesses, values and stressors, with each other so they begin to communicate across generational lines and understand individuals in other life stages.
Do not make too many stereotypic assumptions about the cohorts and life stages. There are Traditionals who are excellent with all sorts of technology, and there are Millennials who prefer to disconnect from technology from time to time. There are older adults who would like to lead a group rock climbing, and there are college students who prefer indoor, sedentary assignments. Remember, as discussed earlier in the chapter, each volunteer is an individual.
There is no single answer to communication challenges (Scheid, 2010). This fact translates into the need for a volunteer resource manager to communicate in a variety of ways, offering an array of opportunities for individuals to select the processes that work best for them. Involving volunteers in the design of communication strategies can help create a more effective system that reaches its maximum potential.
Do not be afraid to give Gen X and Millennial volunteers opportunities to utilize social media to gain visibility for the organization. Kanter and Fine (2010) remind us that even when publicity is negative in nature, if people are discussing the organization, we have an opportunity to engage them in the conversation to correct any misunderstandings and to share our messages. The idea of putting messages out for public response without really knowing what that response might be may cause angst among Jones, Boomer, or Veteran cohort volunteers or staff. With Gen X and Millennials, it is viewed as a way to start a conversation that may lead to an even better position for the organization in the long run. Volunteer resource managers must overcome both a fear of the technology and of the inexperience of younger volunteers.
Evaluate the necessity of policies and procedures such as dress codes and standardized work schedules. In some situations, guidelines must be followed from a policy, risk management, or higher-level protocol. In many instances, however, volunteer resource managers require certain behaviors because things have always been done that way. With many Millennial and Gen X volunteers, flexibility and creativity (and casual dress codes) make their volunteer assignment more interesting and fun. That can result in higher retention rates and increased volunteer hours.
Remember that volunteers who feel valued and who are given meaningful work are more likely to continue volunteering, regardless of their generational cohort or stage of life. The volunteer resource manager's challenge is to spend adequate time in the screening and placement of volunteers to ensure that unique skills are recognized and each volunteer is given an appropriate assignment.
To the extent possible, create a volunteer work environment that allows for choice and that supports the volunteers as individuals. Limit bureaucracy, tighten the chain of command, and give volunteers as much autonomy as the system, within reason, allows. Again, this strategy cuts across generational lines and stages of human development
Adopt a personal volunteer resource management style that fosters individual achievement and communicates respect for the competence of volunteers. Effective volunteer resource management is about connecting individuals and their unique capacities to accomplish the tasks for which they have been recruited, not about their age, stage of human development, or generational cohort. The volunteer resource manager is the role model from whom others in the organization who engage volunteers will take their cues to establish volunteer positions in their departments or units. Lead by showing by example that volunteers are trusted to excel.
The true challenge facing volunteer resource managers is pulling together all aspects and cohorts of human society, from the very youngest to the most senior citizens, in order to build on their unique abilities and insights in addressing the challenges facing our citizens and communities (Safrit & Merrill, 1999). Putnam (2000) concluded that Americans must move beyond social, political, and professional individual identities to connect with people who are different from ourselves; we would add stage of life and generational identity to further his call for strengthening America through volunteerism.
This seemingly overwhelming task is not unlike the heritage American art of quilting. As “quilters,” volunteer resource managers must piece together intricate individual “quilt blocks” composed of unique designs, colors, and textures that comprise individual seasons of service and generational cohorts within the overall human experience. However, while each individual quilt block is, in itself, a significant and valued work of art, the true challenge to the quilter is deciding how to lay out the overall quilt, building on the opportunity for each block to highlight and reflect the beauty of the blocks around it. Thus, the true beauty in the final, resulting quilt lies within the synergy of the combined individual blocks. As quilters, we, too, must design beautiful, individual seasons of service, each of which contributes to and connects with the larger tapestry of life.
Notes
1. This chapter is based on an earlier work coauthored by R. Dale Safrit in 2001 with Scott D. Scheer and Jeffrey E. King of The Ohio State University. Certain sections have been duplicated verbatim with written permission of The International Journal of Volunteer Administration.