Need Writing Help 10/22/2023
HSE 303 CHAPTER 2
2 UNDERSTANDING THE ACTORS: Roles and Responsibilities of Disaster Participants
Disaster Response and Recovery: Strategies and Tactics for Resilience, Second Edition. David A. McEntire.
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2015 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Starting Point
Pretest to assess your knowledge on roles and responsibilities of disaster participants.
Determine where you need to concentrate your effort.
What You'll Learn in This Chapter
▴ Activities of local, state, and federal governments
▴ Roles of businesses and companies
▴ Responsibilities of the nonprofit sector
▴ Involvement of citizens in disasters
▴ How to work with different groups
After Studying This Chapter, You'll Be Able To
▴ Compare and contrast the roles of the public and private sectors.
▴ Examine the activities of the nonprofit sector.
▴ Differentiate between the duties of the local government after a disaster versus those of the state and federal government.
▴ Discuss how corporations and faith-based organizations can assist with emergency management functions.
▴ Analyze how citizens form emergent groups address disaster demands.
Goals and Outcomes
▴ Predict the responsibilities of the public, private, and nonprofit sectors.
▴ Evaluate the different services individuals and organizations may provide during postdisaster activities.
▴ Assess who can help you fulfill response and recovery operations.
▴ Analyze the challenges of coordination.
▴ Determine how groups and individuals interact during disasters.
INTRODUCTION
After Hurricane Andrew devastated Miami Dade County in 1992, one local emergency manager asked “Where's the cavalry on this one?” This so-called disaster “cavalry” includes many people and organizations. There are numerous individuals, groups, and agencies involved in response and recovery operations. By understanding these participants, you will be better able to use their knowledge, skills, and abilities after a disaster. Such actors include individuals and organizations from the public, private, and nonprofit sectors. The public sector is a segment of society that is made up of government offices, departments, and agencies. Indian tribes may also be considered a segment of the public sector, although there are some significant differences between federal and tribal governments. The private sector is the part of society that includes businesses and corporations. The nonprofit sector in our communities is comprised of humanitarian, charitable, religious, and voluntary organizations. Citizens also join in disaster response and recovery activities. A typology created by the Disaster Research Center (DRC) may help you comprehend the difference among the many organizations that are involved in postdisaster operations. Harnessing all of the participants involved in emergency management (EM) will help you to promote disaster resilience.
2.1 The Public Sector
As an emergency manager, you should be aware of the many participants involved in disaster response and recovery operations from the public sector. The public sector includes government entities at the local, state, and federal levels as well as tribal nations. No two government jurisdictions operate or are organized alike. However, city personnel, state agencies, federal officials, and tribal groups all form part of the public sector.
2.1.1 Local Government
Local governments are the first to react to disasters from the public sector. Local governments are city or county organizations that perform important public functions. These municipal governments employ emergency medical technicians (EMTs), firefighters, police officers, and emergency managers. Other departments and political leaders also play a role in response and recovery at the local level.
EMTs are paramedics who provide emergency medical care to the injured and transport disaster victims to hospitals. They often work as or with firefighters (but some may also be employed by private companies). Firefighters provide emergency medical care as well, but fire departments also extinguish fires and investigate their causes. Firefighters are also involved in responses to other types of disasters. They perform search and rescue operations after floods, for example. They may also clean up hazardous material spills when they occur. Police officers, or law enforcement personnel, join EMTs and firefighters as first responders. Whereas EMTs and firefighters deal with medical emergencies and fire suppression issues, the police provide traffic control after disasters and close off dangerous areas to the public. Police and other first responders are almost always sent to the scene of a disaster.
If local first responders are not able to cope effectively with the disaster demands, mutual aid agreements can be activated. Mutual aid is the sharing of personnel, equipment, and facilities. The activation of mutual aid occurs when local resources are inadequate to meet the needs of the disaster. This may include the sharing of resources by nearby local governments. However, in major disasters, regional, state, and federal governments may also share resources as well. Mutual aid is vital after major disasters. Cities may not be able to cope without the assistance of unaffected jurisdictions. Even affected states may require aid from other states and the federal government to cope with the impact of disasters.
Within local governments are emergency managers who help communities prevent and prepare for disasters. When a disaster occurs, they issue warnings, oversee evacuation, and communicate with the leaders that supervise first responders. They also assemble statistics on damages, share public information with citizens through the media, and work with those in charge of shelters. Emergency managers also acquire resources for organizations that need them. These professionals make sure that departments are working together to address response and recovery challenges. The public servants known as emergency managers also help determine response and recovery priorities. They gather information about expenses so funds can be tracked and payments can be made. Their contributions are crucial during postdisaster operations. Emergency managers are in many ways like the hub in a wheel that has spokes. They are central to the coordination of EM activities before, during, and after disasters.
A host of other departments likewise play vital roles after disasters, and knowledgeable EM personnel are keenly aware of this fact. Public Works reestablishes public utilities such as water. They also clean up disaster debris from public areas (e.g., government land, government offices, and parks). The Department of Transportation assists with evacuation and removes debris from roads. This department makes repairs to signal lights and reconstructs damaged roads and bridges. Parks and Recreation has the specific responsibility of caring for its own facilities. However, it is a great asset in disasters as it loans out personnel as well as equipment and trucks to other departments for debris removal or transportation assistance. Public Health is in charge of caring for victims who have been infected by disease outbreaks or a biological terrorist attack. Public Health may also be involved in the health concerns related to natural or technological disasters, and it interacts frequently with hospitals to track patient bed availability. Public Health also issues orders to isolate patients when diseases spread. If there is not a Mental Health Department in the city, Public Health also counsels those who have been affected emotionally by the disaster.
There are many others that are involved in disasters at the local level. The coroner is responsible for gathering, storing, and identifying bodies of the deceased. He or she also releases the deceased to families and funeral homes so burial or cremation may take place. The Engineering Department inspects buildings to determine if they are habitable or if they should be condemned. This department also promotes more stringent building codes before reconstruction can begin. The Chamber of Commerce works with businesses to identify the financial impact of the disaster. It helps companies resume normal activities by representing their interests during recovery. The Department of Housing tells tenants if homes and apartments can be occupied after a disaster. This entity also facilitates the building of new housing during recovery. Development and Redevelopment Agencies may work with the Engineering Department, the Chamber of Commerce, and the Housing Department to make recovery decisions, rebuild urban areas, and implement mitigation measures. As an example, the New Jersey Economic Development Authority has been heavily involved in guiding recovery after Hurricane Sandy.
Elected civic leaders are also logically involved in postdisaster operations (Figure 2-1). Mayors declare emergencies and disasters, which is necessary if outside assistance is to be sought and obtained. These politicians work closely with city managers, city council members, emergency managers, and public information officers (PIOs) to establish priorities after a disaster, mobilize personnel and resources, and keep the public up-to-date about ongoing response and recovery activities.
Although many cities operate as described earlier, it must be recognized that no two communities are organized exactly alike. Some cities may rely on private ambulance companies but may have a dedicated emergency manager. Others may have volunteer firefighters and no emergency manager. In different cities, government departments may be organized in other ways, and this would require that they have distinct disaster responsibilities. For instance, in some cases, EM is located in the fire department, police department, or public works. In other situations, the EM office is independent or reports directly to the city manager. At other times, the Building Department and Public Works may be combined. It is therefore imperative that you understand your city organization and that of nearby jurisdictions. This will be vital if you are to harness local public resources after disasters.
2.1.2 County and Regional Governments
County/parish governments and regional governments are also heavily involved in postdisaster operations. Counties or parishes may have EM offices, and their employees often work with city EM offices. County/parish EM offices are typically responsible for unincorporated areas also. They typically have additional resources that can be deployed when disasters prove to be too much for local governments. In this case, a county judge or commissioner (or parish president in the State of Louisiana) may also declare a disaster and work with state and federal governments to acquire disaster assistance. In fact, presidentially declared disasters (those requiring federal assistance) are always initiated at the county level instead of at the local or state level.
Those involved in EM at the county-level work perform a variety of disaster functions. The sheriff's office may help with traffic control or other law enforcement functions after disasters. The Geographic Information Systems Department helps to plot the location of resources when EM activities are undertaken. Public Health helps to provide health services after all types of disasters, and they are key players in the distribution of medicines to affected communities. The County Economic Development Department may play a vital role in recovery. These county entities work with other agencies at the municipal level and cover unincorporated areas to ensure disaster funds are distributed and spent according to federal policy and regulations.
Regional governments are networks of local and county governments that address collective problems in large metroplex areas (e.g., Dallas/Fort Worth and Los Angeles) and across numerous counties in rural areas. These organizations focus on daily concerns that affect multiple jurisdictions like transportation and environmental issues. However, regional governments also give attention to disasters and may be the conduit by which the federal government distributes grant monies for EM. The federal government prefers to award grants to regional governments to avoid duplication of effort and unnecessary expenses. In return, regional governments are expected to share their resources (e.g., hazardous material teams or swift water rescue boats) with local jurisdictions in need.
The North Central Texas Council of Governments (NCTCOG) is one example of a regional governmental organization. This particular association attempts to strengthen local governments by assisting them in cooperative efforts across the Dallas/Fort Worth region. In terms of EM, the NCTCOG has a department dedicated to regional disaster planning and coordination. The Emergency Preparedness Program provides leadership to improve collaboration across jurisdictions in this geographic area.
2.1.3 State Government
Many state agencies are involved in response and recovery operations. The state government is the political unit comprised of numerous cities, counties, regional governments, as well as bureaucratic agencies and politicians. This includes departments similar to those at the local and county levels, but it has some notable differences as well.
For instance, the State Emergency Management Agency is somewhat similar to the local EM office. It works with all other departments at the state level in addition to local, county, and federal EM organizations. The State Emergency Management Agency may be an independent entity, or it can be affiliated with the governor's office or even a state homeland security agency. In fact, since 9/11, EM and homeland security offices have undergone several organizational transformations. Sometimes, these agencies are co-located, while in other cases they are separate entities. At times, they may be referred to as the Emergency Management Agency, the Department of Homeland Security, or the Homeland Security Agency. The important point to remember is that EM is typically more concerned with all types of disaster issues, while homeland security is generally geared toward crime and terrorist activity.
Besides EM and homeland security, there are many other state agencies involved in disasters. As an example, the Department of Forestry is in charge of suppressing forest fires (Figure 2-2). It is like a city fire department, but it is much larger and typically operates in rural areas instead of cities. The Department of Forestry also has large ground crews as well as air support (e.g., helicopters and tankers). The Department of Public Safety or Highway Department acts much like the local police department by handling traffic control after disasters. In some states, like Texas, the state Department of Public Safety plays an important role in assessing and declaring disasters.
In addition to these agencies, many other state departments participate in response and recovery operations. The Department of Transportation facilitates large-scale evacuations and rebuilds freeways after disasters. The Health Department at the state level assists with public and mental health issues. The Housing Department addresses housing shortages made evident after disasters. The Environment Department protects the quality of natural resources such as soil and water if they are adversely affected by a hazard. The loss of crops and cattle is a priority of the state Agriculture Department. The state Department of Insurance and Department of Commerce may also become involved in disasters if there are conflicts regarding claim settlements or price gouging during recovery operations.
FOR EXAMPLE
Evacuation before Hurricane Rita
After witnessing several weaknesses in Louisiana's response after Hurricane Katrina, Texas wanted to avoid going through similar problems. The Texas Division of Emergency Management and Department of Public Safety worked closely with local law enforcement officials to evacuate Houston citizens prior to the arrival Hurricane Rita. When the northbound side of the freeway became jammed with thousands of motorists, the southbound lanes were reversed. This increased traffic flow but required the coordinated assistance of police, sheriffs, and others from the highway patrol. The state also had to provide gas for vehicles that ran out of fuel. The state worked with north Texas communities to receive evacuees and open shelters. The evacuation was not without problems as some elderly residents died due to the stress of evacuation. However, hundreds of thousands of people were successfully moved from harm's way.
Much like a mayor or county judge (or parish president in Louisiana), the governor declares emergencies and disasters on behalf of the state. If the state is overwhelmed by the impact, the governor may seek internal or external assistance. This may include calling up the National Guard, which is a reserve military unit operated under the direction of the governor in each state. This civilian force may assist law enforcement personnel, conduct search and rescue operations, remove debris, or provide other types of assistance as required. The governor may also request relief from other states or the federal government. If the resources within the state prove insufficient, the governor may seek help from other states. For example, Oklahoma turned to Iowa for help from the May 2013 tornados, knowing that Iowa had utilized many capabilities to aid Louisiana after Hurricane Katrina. Upon the governor's request, the Emergency Management Assistance Compact (EMAC) can also be activated. This is like a local mutual aid agreement, but it is for states instead. For instance, personnel, equipment, and commodities can be sent from EMAC members to a state that is in need. EMAC is operated under the National Association of Emergency Managers, an EM organization for governors and state EM agencies. However, when the resources of neighboring states or EMAC are insufficient, the governor may also request assistance of the federal government (Figure 2-3).
2.1.4 Federal Government
The federal government is the national political unit that is composed of many officials, departments, and agencies. The federal government includes political leaders who fulfill important disaster roles. For example, if state and local jurisdictions cannot cope with a large disaster, the president of the United States may declare a federal disaster and provide national resources to local and state governments. If this is the case, the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) and the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) also heavily involved.
DHS was created after the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks. It includes 22 federal agencies and over 188,000 employees. DHS is responsible for public security in the nation, and it is organized around the Directorate for National Protection and Programs, the Science and Technology Directorate, the Directorate for Management, and other units. The main goal of DHS is to prevent terrorist attacks on American soil. It therefore relies heavily upon agencies such as Immigration and Customs Enforcement, the Transportation Security Administration, and the U.S. Coast Guard.
If a disaster or terrorist attack occurs, FEMA is given responsibility to assist local and state governments. FEMA was created in the late 1970s by President Jimmy Carter to coordinate the EM activities of the government. FEMA has a national office in Washington, DC, but it also has 10 regional offices spared around the nation (Figure 2-4). FEMA also has many functional divisions to promote mitigation and planning issues as well as other groups that address response and recovery activities (e.g., FEMA Incident Management Advanced Teams (IMAT) get deployed immediately before or after a disaster to assess what further resources will be needed). Among other things, FEMA helps direct large-scale search and rescue operations, reimburse local government for certain emergency operations, facilitate debris removal, and provide people with funds for rebuilding. FEMA works with many partners involved in the National Response Framework and the National Recovery Framework.
The National Response Framework is a planning document that describes what the government will do in catastrophic disasters. It deals with immediate needs made evident by a disaster. The National Disaster Recovery Framework, in contrast, is a guide to enable effective long-term rebuilding in disaster-stricken areas. It provides disaster recovery managers with a flexible structure to restore affected communities. Some of the organizations involved in these plans take on primary responsibilities, while others perform support functions. Several of these departments and agencies are listed in Table 2-1.
There are many other agencies and individuals that deal with disasters and EM besides those listed in the National Response and National Recovery Frameworks. Some agencies explore the causes and consequences of disasters, while others concentrate on specific types of events. For instance, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) controls flight traffic before and after aviation accidents occur. The National Transportation and Safety Board (NTSB) investigates transportation accidents such as plane crashes. For example, in fall 2001, a plane crashed in a residential neighborhood in New York. The NTSB traveled to the scene and determined that the accident was caused by turbulence. The Occupational Safety and Health Agency (OSHA) also probes the reason for accidents, but they look closely at injuries that result from the workplace. Another organization, the Chemical Safety Board, determines the cause of industrial explosions that result from safety violations. The Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms (ATF) and Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) are additional federal agencies that are involved in investigation. After the bombing of the Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma in 1995, the ATF and FBI were on the scene to determine what happened and if it was an act of terrorism. The ATF and FBI also pursue and capture those who have violated laws relating to the possession of explosives and others who are considered suspected terrorists.
Other federal groups are involved in a myriad of activities including hazard detection and warning, fraud deterrence, and general oversight. The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) is one example. It helps predict volcanic eruptions and determine the location and magnitude of earthquakes. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency (NOAA) tracks hurricanes that form in the ocean and approach land. TheNational Weather Service (NWS) deals with warnings pertaining to thunderstorms, flooding, tornadoes, hail, and other forms of severe weather. The Office of the Inspector General (IG) ensures that federal agencies and disaster victims are not misusing disaster assistance funds.
Besides government agencies, congressional representatives and senators often become involved in postdisaster activities. They bring visibility to disasters and attempt to get additional resources for victims and affected jurisdictions. After 9/11, for example, New York Senators Hillary Clinton and Charles Schumer gave several interviews about the needs of New York City and what assistance was still needed. Congressional representatives also help communities and states resolve problems made evident during response and recovery operations. Since Hurricane Katrina, congressional leaders from Louisiana have been determining how to improve their state's response capabilities. They are also working on measures that would make New Orleans safer, such as strengthening the levees. Senators and House of Representatives may also pass ad hoc legislation after a disaster to provide additional funding for disasters. The large number of agencies and officials involved in disaster response and recovery operations indicates that the federal government is a major player in EM activities.
2.1.5 Tribal Government
In addition to local, state, and federal government entities, there are also tribal governments that are involved in EM. A tribal government is “an Indian or Alaska Native tribe … that the Secretary of the Interior acknowledges to exist as an Indian tribe pursuant to the Federally Recognized Indian Tribe List Act of 1994” (FEMA, 2012a). In the United States, there are 564 federally recognized tribes, and they have their own unique history, customs, language, and laws. Furthermore, each tribe has a unique relationship to the federal government. On the one hand, each Indian tribe is considered an independent nation. Indian tribes are, in essence, a separate country within the U.S. territory. On the other hand, the Indian tribe is somewhat like a state in that it may now receive funding from the federal government. In other words, federal EM assistance can now be given directly to Indian tribes and bypass the state in which it resides entirely. That being said, some tribal governments have more developed EM programs, while others do not. Those working in EM should make extra efforts to work with Indian tribes, based on the tribe's level of interest and needs.
FOR EXAMPLE
FEMA AmeriCorps Teams
In September 2013, heavy rains caused flooding over 2000 square miles in 17 Colorado counties. Over 15,000 homes were damaged and nearly 2000 homes were completely destroyed. To address the needs of disaster victims, FEMA deployed 30 AmeriCorps Teams (affiliated with the U.S. Corporation for National and Community Service). These teams, comprised of over 240 members, included recent college graduates who want to make a difference while also gaining additional experience and credentials. These energetic individuals performed a variety of tasks including assistance regarding evacuation sites, sheltering locations, mass care, and donation staging and distribution. They also mudded and gutted flooded homes, and moved over 1.2 million pounds of furniture. The involvement of AmeriCorps cuts federal disaster costs and helps thousands of victims in need (Figure 2-5).
FOR EXAMPLE
Tribal Governments and Federal Aid
The Sandy Recovery Improvement Act of 2013 (SRIA) amended the Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act, as amended, 42 U.S.C. § 5121 et seq., (Stafford Act) so federally recognized Indian tribal governments (tribal governments) have the option to request a presidential emergency or major disaster declaration independently of a state. A chief executive of a federally recognized tribal government may request that the president declare an emergency or major disaster for the tribal government or consider it as part of a state's declaration request.
SELF-CHECK
• What are the different sectors that are involved in disaster response and recovery?
• What does the local government do when disaster strikes?
• How can the state help the emergency manager deal with disaster?
• Why is the federal government a major player in recovery operations?
• What are the major agencies involved in the National Response Framework and the National Recovery Framework?
• What makes tribal government unique from federal and state governments?
2.2 The Private Sector
As an emergency manager, you should understand that businesses will be involved in response and recovery operations. The first priority of any business is to seek profit through commerce of various types. However, companies also play important and varied roles after disasters (McEntire et al., 2003). On many occasions, those in the private sector will operate independently in disasters, taking care of their own needs and interests. However, at other times, the private sector will help the community to deal with the disaster and may be a vital asset for those working in EM. The responsibilities of the private sector are broad and range from emergency medical care to reporting and the settlement of insurance claims.
2.2.1 Emergency and Long-Term Medical Care
Providing emergency medical care is one of the first things the private sector will do after a disaster. As mentioned earlier, paramedics from both the public and private sectors will be dispatched to the scene. These paramedics, or EMTs, will assist those injured in the accident or disaster by providing basic first aid and other necessary medical procedures. This may include applying bandages to stop bleeding, treating shock, and setting broken bones. Postdisaster activities could also include giving intravenous fluids and medicines. After or while the patient is being stabilized, paramedics will transport the individual to the hospital by ambulance or helicopter. When several victims are involved in an event, many paramedics and transportation units will arrive. Field hospitals may be set up to care for anticipated mass casualties. At the hospital, the injured will receive more advanced assessments and treatments. This may include X-rays, surgery, and care for burns. The hospital will continue care and rehabilitation until the victim has recovered. If a patient dies, the private sector will become involved in mortuary services such as body cremation or preparation for burial and memorial services for the deceased.
2.2.2 Sheltering and Housing
Businesses also shelter individuals who evacuate from hazards such as hurricanes. For example, hotels provide shelter for those who leave the coast when a hurricane approaches. This could amount to thousands or hundreds of thousands of people moving inland to higher and safer ground. Hotels may also house emergency workers when they arrive from outside jurisdictions to assist the affected community. The private sector also shelters other people who lose their apartment or home in disasters. Manufacturers may produce and supply tents or mobile homes for temporary or semipermanent accommodations. This is especially important when disasters create serious housing shortages.
2.2.3 Media Reporting
The private sector informs the public about hazards and disasters. For example, it is the meteorologists and news anchors from radio and television stations that convey weather warnings from the NWS and relay information from the Emergency Alert System. When a disaster occurs, radio, TV, or other media outlets also report damages, deaths, and injuries. The media shares information about government response and recovery efforts and tells the public where to go for shelter and assistance. The media can be an important asset to you as an emergency manager. However, you will have to work closely with media personnel to ensure your message is heard and relayed correctly.
2.2.4 Volunteers and Donations
Companies support disaster response and recovery activities in a number of other ways. Businesses send volunteers and donations to those in need. This may include cooks and waiters from restaurants to distribute food. It may include sending construction personnel to tarp destroyed roofs. Heavy equipment operators may likewise be dispatched to assist with debris removal. Companies also give supplies to communities and individuals in need. For example, some beverage businesses deliver bottled water to hard hit areas. The private sector may also give or loan cell phones, flashlights, work boots, hard hats, gloves, generators, computers, vehicles, or anything else to first responders and EM officials. The private sector is a useful partner in disasters because of their impressive resources and logistical capabilities. Walmart was a major participant in the response to Hurricane Katrina. It could mobilize resources that the federal government did not possess.
2.2.5 Insurance Settlements
Because disasters result in the loss of life and property, insurance companies send teams of adjusters to the affected areas to settle claims (Figure 2-6). Local personnel will begin the claims process immediately. In the days and weeks that follow, other personnel will arrive to support the particular disaster operation in question. The services of insurance agencies are needed for several reasons. People are injured and they may acquire large medical bills. The breadwinner in a family may have died, and future income for the spouse and children may be jeopardized. Cars and homes are often destroyed, and other forms of personal property may be lost or rendered unusable. For this reason, State Farm, Allstate, and other insurance providers reimburse expenses, replace losses, and help disaster victims begin their path to recovery.
2.2.6 Utility Restoration and Community Reconstruction
Major windstorms, earthquakes, and other hazards often impact utilities, homes, and other buildings. Phone and electrical poles may be downed in a disaster. Water and gas lines can be severed. Hundreds or millions of people may be left with limited or no services. Utility companies will therefore put their own employees to work or contract with others (even competitors) to get lines restored quickly. For example, Duke Power (based in North Carolina) sent workers to help Entergy (a New Orleans' utility provider) restore service in the affected areas after Hurricane Katrina. In many cases, these employees will work long hours and around the clock in shifts to reestablish utilities. Without their assistance, it would be impossible to respond successfully or resume routine activities. Electricity, for example, is required for emergency lighting, shelter operations, and the sharing of public information. Power is also essential to rebuild homes, businesses, and government facilities, and this construction could not occur without the private sector. The help of concrete companies, framers, plumbers, and electricians are needed to rebuild communities after disasters. In addition, the private sector also rebuilds roads, bridges, and other critical infrastructure. Utilities and construction companies play a vital role in economic development following a disaster, and cooperation across these organizations and with the government is a must.
2.2.7 Business Continuity
As can be seen, companies help others affected by disasters. But corporations also take care of themselves because disasters often affect and disrupt business activities. For instance, a manufacturing plant can be destroyed by an industrial explosion. A bank cannot issue loans if computer records are lost due to a power outage. A construction company cannot function if its employees cannot be contacted and told where to report for work. For this reason, business continuity plans are developed in the private sector. Continuity plans identify ways to reestablish facilities and ensure business transactions can continue when a disaster strikes. Exxon/Mobil, Raytheon, Marriott, Target, and many others have business continuity programs that can be activated in time of disaster. Some of the employees in this area are known as business continuity specialists or risk managers.
2.2.8 Transportation
Another role of businesses is transportation. Companies evacuate individuals before or after disasters. The private sector operates or contracts out taxis, shuttle vans, busses, trains, boats, and airplanes. These can all be used to move people to safer areas. Transportation companies may also be directly involved in an accident or crash. Such emergencies could result from adverse weather conditions, mechanical failure, or human error on land/rail, at sea, or in the air. If this is the case, employees from the affected company may be sent to the area to assist passengers and provide information to victims' families. Employees will also have to clean up wreckage, prevent or settle lawsuits, and answer questions from the media. At times, transportation accidents may result in the emission of hazardous materials. This will require remediation efforts to clean up the environment according to
FOR EXAMPLE
The Role of Businesses after 9/11
Corporations were integral to the response to 9/11. After two planes were intentionally flown into the World Trade Center, businesses facilitated the evacuation of the Twin Towers. They donated offices supplies for the make shift emergency operations center on pier 92 after building number seven was gutted by fire. Companies donated software to help emergency managers track personnel and resources. The private sector helped control the perimeter around ground zero with fences. Medical care was performed by private hospitals. The local and national media informed the public of the events and how to seek assistance. As recovery proceeded, many companies worked to restore phone, electric, and gas utilities. Others helped to clean up dust in buildings, remove debris, relocate those who had lost office space, and submit payments for life insurance policies. It is doubtful that response and recovery operations could have taken place as quickly as they did in New York City without the heavy involvement of the private sector.
DOT or EPA regulations. Specialized employees from the private sector are needed to follow such guidelines to prevent the company being fined.
2.2.9 Vending of Goods and Services
Some companies will make a great deal of money from disasters. Sandbags, personal protective equipment, fences, portable sanitation units, and heavy equipment are all needed during response and recovery operations. If available, businesses are willing to assist with these resources—especially true when a fee can be charged. Corporations also seek profits in other ways. There are companies that sell computer programs to communities so they can manage the disaster effectively. Some sell software that is utilized to manage first responders and other resources. Engineering firms also play a role after a disaster as they inspect damages to buildings to determine if they are safe for future habitation. Other companies remove debris after disasters. If a road or rail accident or disaster involves hazardous materials, firms like Cura Emergency Services and Hulcher Services Inc. may remove contaminated soil, complete required state and federal paperwork, or repair railways. When water or fire affects a building and its contents, companies like BMS Catastrophe sends employees to the site to pump out unhealthy air, remove mold and soot, and restore vital documents and waterlogged computer equipment. As can be seen, businesses are therefore vital partners in disaster response and recovery operations.
SELF-CHECK
• Why are businesses involved in disaster response and recovery?
• How can the private sector help with emergency medical care?
• Who can help you manage public relations?
• Could insurance companies provide statistics on homes damaged in disasters and property loss?
• Why would it be necessary to work with utility companies involved in recovery?
• What else can corporations do to help you promote resilience after disasters?
2.3 The Nonprofit Sector
Many nonprofit organizations are involved in disaster response and recovery activities. Nonprofit organizations are charitable agencies that are prohibited by law from gaining financially for their humanitarian services to individuals and communities. While there are many nonprofit organizations that do not have a relation to EM, there are others that become heavily involved in disasters when they occur. A well-known example is the American Red Cross, but there are a host of other religious and community groups.
2.3.1 The Red Cross
The American Red Cross is a national member of the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) and the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRCRCS). These organizations were created because of the caring leadership of Henry Dunant. As a young man from Switzerland, Dunant recognized the need to assist those wounded during an 1859 battle in Solferino, Italy. Thousands of soldiers were injured in the conflict between the Austrian Army and the Franco-Sardinian Alliance. Most lay helpless and dying in the battlefield. Dunant organized a relief effort among citizens to provide medical care to the military personnel in need. He also advocated that prisoners on both sides be treated with respect and dignity. These principles were ratified in 1863 by many European governments in Geneva, Switzerland (now the headquarters of the Red Cross movement). Today, the ICRC is based on several principles:
▴ Humanity. The Red Cross has a desire to help those in need.
▴ Impartiality. The assistance it gives will be provided without discrimination.
▴ Neutrality. No preference will be shown toward either side involved in hostility.
▴ Independence. Each society acts autonomously according to the laws of each nation.
▴ Voluntary service. Volunteers and charitable service motivate actions, not profit.
▴ Unity. There can be only one Red Cross organization in any particular country.
▴ Universality. All Red Cross societies are equal; none is more important than the other.
The Red Cross does not only deal with conflict-related events, however. Dunant himself thought that anyone in need of medical assistance should be given care, regardless of the cause. From its founding, the Red Cross has been involved in disaster relief activities.
As the Red Cross was being established abroad, Clara Barton (a nurse in the United States) was caring for the soldiers injured in the Civil War (Figure 2-7). She heard about the International Red Cross movement and traveled to Europe to learn more about the fledgling organization. She returned home and in 1881 established the American Association of Red Cross Societies. The American Red Cross—as it is known today—serves Dunant's and Barton's dual aims.
The American Red Cross was mandated by Congress to address citizen needs in time of disaster. The Red Cross has chapters and branches around the United States to prepare communities for disasters and give assistance after disasters strike. Their services, which are provided by both a small cadre of employees and a large number of volunteers, can be broken down into six areas:
1. Disaster health services. Provide first aid, fill prescriptions, and collect and distribute blood for those in need.
2. Mental health services. Support the emotional needs of disaster victims through counseling sessions and foster psychological recovery.
Disaster welfare inquiry. Receive calls from loved ones who are worried about their loved ones, take steps to contact such individuals, and relay information back to the concerned family members.
4. Family services. Determine and meet the immediate and long-term needs of people including clothing, furniture, temporary housing, and even tools for work.
5. Mass care. Feed and establish shelters for emergency workers and the public.
6. Other services. Facilitate and support damage assessment, communications, volunteer management, logistics, interagency liaison, and public affairs.
For these reasons, the American Red Cross is an important part of EM in this country.
2.3.2 Faith-Based Organizations
Faith-based organizations perform some of the same functions as other nonprofits, but they are associated with religious organizations. One of the most notable is the Salvation Army. This religious movement was founded in England by William Booth in 1852 and was initially called the Hallelujah or Volunteer Army. The goal of the Salvation Army is to preach Christianity and care for the poor and needy. In 1879, this organization gained a foothold in the United States and established its headquarters in Alexandria, Virginia.
FOR EXAMPLE
The Red Cross Responds to the Paso Robles Earthquake
A 6.5 magnitude earthquake struck the city of Paso Robles in central California on December 22, 2003. The Red Cross quickly mobilized to assess damages in residential areas. At least 10 teams of inspectors were sent into neighborhoods to determine the extent of destruction on homes and personal property. Their findings were shared with the local government that facilitated a federal disaster declaration. Without the Red Cross, the needs of victims would not be well known or quickly addressed.
Today, the Salvation Army is divided into four geographic areas around the country. It has developed memorandums of understanding to assist local and state governments when disaster strikes. Its 63,000 employees and thousands of volunteers take care of immediate and long-term needs of disaster victims. This includes the provision of physical, material, emotional, or spiritual necessities. Like the Red Cross, the Salvation Army provides food, water, and sheltering. These organizations are different in other respects however. The Salvation Army has religious motivations, whereas the Red Cross does not.
There are a number of other faith-based groups that participate in response and recovery efforts. They include the Baptist Men, Catholic Relief Services, Lutheran World Relief, Latter-Day Saint Charities, and the United Methodist Committee on Relief. Other groups that help after disasters include Muslim and Asian faith-based organizations. These agencies care for the physical needs of disaster victims and provide spiritual and mental health counseling. There are hundreds of similar organizations around the world that respond to disasters in developing nations.
2.3.3 Community Groups
Many community groups are involved in disasters and provide relief to those who have been negatively impacted. Such groups include the United Way, the Rotary Club, Goodwill Industries, and Boy and Girl Scout chapters, among others. These organizations donate food, water, clothing, and other necessities of life. They share financial resources and construction supplies with disaster victims and communities. In some cases, these community groups may provide translation services for those that have questions about relief programs or cannot read instructions regarding aid applications in English. Community groups also cover medical expenses that result from disasters. In addition, these groups attend to the long-term needs of victims including crisis counseling, physical therapy, transportation, and housing. Some groups address the needs of animals that have been adversely affected by disasters. Others may be interested in preserving artwork in museums affected by disasters. Thus, the involvement of community groups is broad and far-reaching. While such organizations are certainly helpful in disasters, they may inadvertently complicate response and recovery activities for others. For instance, volunteer groups may start rebuilding neighborhoods before new codes can be passed and enforced.
Coordination within and among community groups can be enhanced by the National Volunteer Organizations Active in Disasters (NVOAD). This organization brings such agencies together to promote various types of assistance after disasters. National VOAD consists of 110 member organizations across the United States that act according to core principles of cooperation, communication, coordination, and collaboration. Members are led by a board of directors, which oversees conferences, task forces, and other disaster functions.
SELF-CHECK
• What are nonprofit organizations?
• Who are the most prominent nonprofit organizations that are involved in disasters and what do they do?
• What is a faith-based organization and how do they relate to disasters?
• What are the community groups in your community that could help with response and recovery operations?
• How could the NVOAD assist with coordination?
2.4 Citizen and Emergent Groups
Citizens are involved in a variety of postdisaster activities ranging from volunteering to the contribution of donations. They perform vital services after disasters and may be fairly organized or more spontaneous in nature. As an emergency manager, you must be aware that citizens will be some of the first people to respond to disasters when they occur.
Some citizens are members of Community Emergency Response Teams (CERTs). A CERT is a group of concerned citizens that receive some basic training about disasters from local governments (Figure 2-8). This enables them to care for their neighbors and coworkers after a disaster and buy time until formal assistance arrives. CERTs are different than certain types of nonprofit organizations in that they have no paid employees. They also have a greater interest in disaster issues than many other community groups.
CERTs first appeared in California in 1985. At this time, it was recognized that first responders would not be able to satisfy all of the needs of survivors who were affected by major earthquakes. Public officials realized that damaged roads, the large numbers of people impacted, and a shortage of trained professionals would prohibit or limit needed care for disaster victims. There was consequently a desire to educate citizens to be self-sufficient for at least 72 hours. The CERT program was created to provide this training to citizens.
Since this time, CERTs have been established around the nation by publicizing training opportunities and accepting applications from interested volunteers. CERTs are often created in areas that deserve special attention. This might include a neighborhood that is located far away from city resources, an elderly community that has unique medical needs, and a community college or university that has a transient population. Participants accepted into the program then undergo training that usually consists of several to 4-hour classes over a 7 or 8-week period. Classes address types of disasters to be expected, basic preparedness measures, fire suppression techniques, search and rescue operations, disaster medicine, and disaster psychology. There is now more attention on terrorism and what to do about it in light of the 9/11 attacks.
The training of CERT teams is funded by government grants. This funding may also help CERT members obtain basic equipment such as hard hats, gloves, and other supplies that might be useful in time of a disaster. Because of this federal support, there are now hundreds of CERT programs in most states throughout the nation. The value of CERTs is increasingly recognized by those involved in EM since they may be able to help victims in need and ease the burden on official first responders.
Citizens are also involved in disasters in other ways. After virtually all emergencies and disasters, citizens create and participate in emergent groups. Emergent groups are individuals who work together to perform common goals but do not yet have a formalized organization (Stallings and Quarantelli, 1985, p. 84). Put differently, an emergent group is a collection of people that unite for the sole purpose of addressing disaster needs. The people that make up emergent groups become involved in activities they have never performed before or do not participate in frequently. Emergent organizations are typically disbanded once the emergency situation is resolved. In some cases, however, the emergent organization is formalized and becomes a permanent part of the organizational landscape.
FOR EXAMPLE
Public Response to the Loma Prieta Earthquake
On October 17, 1989, a massive earthquake shook the cities of Santa Cruz and San Francisco. The earthquake was a 7.1 on the Richter scale. Research by O'Brien and Mileti (1992) revealed that roughly 65% of citizens in these communities took part in disaster response activities. Nearly 200,000 people donated water and food to victims. 71,000 people supported the victims' emotional needs. Another 31,500 took part in search and rescue operations. Citizens also cared for the wounded, cleared debris, and sheltered those in need. The major lesson from this disaster is that people living in affected or nearby locations are resources that can and will be utilized to address urgent disaster needs.
Scholars have long recognized the role of emergent groups in disasters. Samuel Prince, a doctoral student at Columbia University, examined an explosion that occurred when a French munitioner ran into a Belgian relief ship during World War I in a harbor in Halifax, Canada. His dissertation is the forerunner of modern disaster sociology. It illustrated that strangers, friends, relatives, neighbors, and even the victims themselves interact to care for the injured, gather the dead, and fulfill other important postdisaster functions.
Since the time of Prince's dissertation, emergent groups and the behavior they exhibit have been studied extensively. Their unique features and activities have been characterized in a variety of ways (see Drabek and McEntire, 2003, p. 98):
▴ Therapeutic community. Citizens come together to promote healing and rehabilitation.
▴ Synthetic community. People working together to resolve major challenges.
▴ Mass assault. A massive response that can be overwhelming.
▴ Altruistic community. Selfless acts to help and assist others.
▴ Utopian community. Harmonious relations that may exist only right after a disaster.
▴ Emergence. The appearance of new organizations in time of crisis.
▴ Emergent behavior. The pursuit of tasks that are new and unfamiliar.
Research also reveals that emergent groups are most likely to appear when there have been insufficient steps for preparedness, when disasters are especially severe, when there is a perception of dire need, and when people place blame for what has happened. Culture, socioeconomic status, and other factors may also determine the formation and purpose of groups. Such determinants may include religion, gender, and race and ethnicity.
Once formed, emergent groups may become involved in search and rescue operations, damage assessment, shelter provision, emotional support for victims, and other relief activities. As a result, these spontaneous organizations are beneficial for disaster response and recovery. They are always the first to arrive at the scene, even before official “first” responders. Emergent groups organize themselves quickly to address the needs made evident by disaster. Emergent groups possess diverse skills and have a deep commitment to the cause. They also provide an impressive number of volunteers that can be harnessed in times of disaster.
These groups are not without potential drawbacks however. Citizens may have no formal disaster training. They may unintentionally injure those people they are trying to help (e.g., by making mistakes when providing basic first aid). Emergent groups may also get in the way of professional responders as they go about their duties. Emergent responders may even create unique challenges for emergency managers. For example, after Hurricane Andrew, there were so many donations in terms of food and supplies that it was difficult for organizations to distribute the aid efficiently. Successful response and recovery operations require the harnessing of emergent groups while simultaneously minimizing their negative impact.
SELF-CHECK
• What is a CERT?
• How could CERTs help you as an emergency manager?
• What are emergent groups and why do they form after a disaster?
• Are emergent groups beneficial or detrimental? Explain your reasoning.
• How is a “mass assault” different than an “altruistic community?”
• What can be done to utilize emergent groups effectively?
2.5 Working with Different Groups and the Whole Community
As an emergency management official, you must be aware how each of the agencies, individuals, and groups interacts during disasters. The people involved in disasters can be viewed holistically by means of the well-known disaster organizational typology (Dynes, 1970) (see Figure 2-9). This model was developed by scholars from the famous DRC at Ohio State University (now located at the University of Delaware). For this reason, it is called the DRC typology. Its purpose is to help scholars and practitioners comprehend the unique characteristics of organizations that become involved in disasters.
The DRC typology was developed by Russell Dynes and E.L. Quarantelli after they interviewed hundreds of people and practitioners who observed disasters or were involved in EM (Dynes, 1970; Quarantelli, 1966). They categorized these reports based on two dimensions and produced a fourfold typology of organizational involvement in disasters. The two dimensions of the model are tasks and structures.
Tasks refer to the activities of the organization. This may include functions that are routine (common to the organization) or nonroutine (unfamiliar to the organization). Structures refer to the organization's relationships and longevity. The organizational structure may be old (implying that it existed before the disaster) or new (implying that it was created after the disaster). Each type of organization has unique characteristics. For instance:
▴ Established organizations are groups that perform routine tasks with existing structures. A fire department falls under this category. It was present before the disaster and it fulfills fire suppression functions on a daily basis.
▴ Expanding organizations are groups that perform routine tasks with new structures. The Red Cross falls under this category. Its diverse workers from around the country are sent to a disaster site, but they complete their normal responsibilities.
▴ Extending organizations are groups that perform nonroutine tasks with existing structures. A possible example of the type of organization is a church. The pastor and congregation take new duties but were familiar with one another prior to the disaster.
▴ Emergent organizations are groups that perform nonroutine tasks with new structures. Citizens who were strangers prior to a disaster fall into this category if they are completing search and rescue activities for those injured in an earthquake.
The DRC typology should be considered as a useful tool by those involved in response and recovery operations. This model reveals that there are obviously many groups that participate in EM activities and they have distinct backgrounds, different goals, unique experiences, and varying lengths of existence. This complexity hinders coordination and often creates conflicts or problems. For instance, a fire department and police department may have an existing interagency rivalry (due to budgetary competition within a city), which may adversely affect cooperation in a disaster. Or nonprofit organizations may not wish to work with other humanitarian agencies in order to better highlight their individual accomplishments in a disaster.
However, it should be noted that the DRC typology has implications beyond descriptions of values and operational priorities. As an example, established organizations will most likely be aware of each other (e.g., fire department officials will know peers in the police department). This familiarity may better promote collaboration. Nevertheless, and in contrast, people in the expanding organizations and emergent groups may have never interacted before, and this limits the communication that could occur across people and agencies. Furthermore, an established organization most likely needs to follow strict laws and policies when it is performing the functions it has been assigned, and this fact may cause those affiliated with the organization to avoid interaction or have conflicting relations with emergent groups. For instance, an official search and rescue team may not want to have ordinary citizens involved in this activity due to liability concerns. Alternatively, those working in an existing business may know one another, but they may lack any expertise in disaster issues. This situation could cause others involved in EM to view them with suspicion or question their capabilities.
Knowing these sorts of interorganizational dynamics can help you better recognize potential problems in response and recovery operations and take measures to overcome them. With improved understanding of other organizations, you will be able to harmonize the interaction among them based on their unique skills and abilities in disasters. And this is a major principle in EM. In fact, FEMA's “Whole Community” concept acknowledges that a “government-centric approach to emergency management” is not sufficient to deal with a catastrophic disaster. All available resources must be collectively utilized at each level of government as well as within and across communities to prepare for and react to such an incident. Improved response and recovery operations will likely occur when all individuals and agencies fulfill individual roles and work collaboratively on responsibilities that span distinct organizational domains.
SELF-CHECK
• What is the DRC typology?
• What are tasks?
• What are structures?
• What is the difference between an established organization and an extending organization?
• Can you give an example of an expanding organization?
• How can the DRC typology assist you in knowing what to expect when a disaster occurs?
• What is the whole community?
SUMMARY
In order to promote disaster resilience, you must be aware of each of the participants in response and recovery operations. Local government departments and agencies are the first public organizations to respond to disaster. If needed, state and federal governments provide additional disaster assistance. Services, donations, and volunteers are made available by corporations and nonprofit organizations. Citizens—whether part of CERTs or emergent groups—also give of their time and energy to help victims affected by disasters. Awareness of the DRC typology can illustrate unique features of the organizations involved in disasters. It is imperative that you comprehend what types of conflicts may arise as multiple organizations react to disasters. It is imperative that you also understand who in the “whole community” can help you fill your role as an emergency manager when disasters occur.
KEY TERMS
American Red Cross
A national member of the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) and a member of the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRCRCS).
Community Emergency Response Team (CERT)
A group of concerned citizens that receive some basic disaster training.
Emergency Management Assistance Compact (EMAC)
Similar to a local mutual aid agreement but it is for states.
Emergent organizations
Groups of individuals who work together to perform common goals but do not have a formalized organization (Stallings and Quarantelli, 1985, p. 84).
Established organizations
Groups that perform routine tasks with existing structures.
Expanding organizations
Groups that perform routine tasks with new structures.
Extending organizations
Groups that perform nonroutine tasks with existing structures.
Faith-based organizations
Nonprofit groups that perform some of the same functions as other nonprofits, but they are associated with religious organizations.
Federal Emergency Management Agency
Agency created in the late 1970s by President Jimmy Carter to help coordinate the activities of the government.
Federal government
The national political unit that is composed of many agencies and officials.
Local governments
City or county organizations that perform important public functions.
Mutual aid
The sharing of personnel, equipment, and facilities. This occurs when local resources are inadequate to meet the needs of the disaster.
National Guard
A reserve military unit operated under the direction of the governor.
National Disaster Recovery Framework)
A guide to enable effective recovery in disaster-stricken areas. It provides disaster recovery managers with a flexible structure to restore affected communities.
National Response Framework
A document that describes what the government and whole communities will do in catastrophic disasters.
National Volunteer Organizations Active in Disasters (NVOAD)
An organization that brings agencies together to promote various types of assistance after disasters.
Nonprofit sector
The division of society that is comprised of humanitarian, charitable religious, and voluntary organizations.
Private sector
A part of society that includes businesses and corporations.
Public sector
The segment of society that is made up of government offices, departments, and agencies.
State government
The political unit comprised of numerous cities and counties and includes bureaucratic agencies and politicians.
Tribal government
“An Indian or Alaska Native tribe … that the Secretary of the Interior acknowledges to exist as an Indian tribe pursuant to the Federally Recognized Indian Tribe List Act of 1994.”
Whole community
The idea that a “government-centric approach to emergency management” is not sufficient to face a catastrophic disaster. All available resources must be collectively utilized at each level of government to prepare for and respond to such an incident.
Applying This Chapter
1. The National Weather Service predicts the arrival of severe weather in Chicago, Illinois. Your mayor is questioning who would be involved in response activities should a disaster occur. What are some of the participating organizations from the public, private, and nonprofit sectors?
2. An earthquake has damaged many of the homes and much of the infrastructure in Anaheim, California. What businesses from the private sector would logically be involved in the response to this disaster? How could you work with them to facilitate recovery?
3. A tornado has struck your community in the Midwest portion of the United States and left many people homeless. As a result, you have had to open up a shelter at a local church. Who could assist you with feeding and mass care issues?
4. You serve as a volunteer emergency manager in a small, rural community in Montana. Your town has been adversely affected by a major winter snowstorm—one that has shattered all of the prior records. Roads are impassible and you are worried about the elderly individuals in your jurisdiction. Could the state government assist you? Could faith-based organizations help? How would you call up their services?
5. Major events such as the Indian Ocean Tsunami generate impressive amounts of volunteerism. What do we call this type of behavior? Is this type of citizen involvement good or bad? How could you deal with it effectively?
YOU TRY IT
What Is a Local Emergency Manager?
Consider the position of an emergency manager. Write a one- or two-page paper that addresses the following questions: Where could it be located in the local government? Could it fall under the city manager's office? Fire department? Police department? What would the local emergency manager be in charge of? Who would he or she work with? What would he or she do on a daily basis? How would this change when a disaster occurs?
The Need for Mutual Aid
A major fire has broken out at an industrial complex in a major metropolitan area near Los Angeles. Local firefighting resources are stretched thin and crews are beginning to tire. What could you do to get more personnel to the scene? What is the name we give to the sharing of such resources among neighboring jurisdictions or states? Why is this necessary?
How Can a Business Help You?
Suppose a major hurricane swept over your community in Florida. The strong winds and storm surge downed power lines, deposited 2 feet of sand on roads, scattered boats blocks from the coast, and damages thousands of homes. Who could you contact in the private sector to help you resolve these problems created by the disaster?
Have You Participated in or Witnessed an Emergent Group?
If a disaster has affected your city or state recently, did you participate in or see citizens respond? What did you or the others do? Did you or others perform a valuable role? What would have happened if you and others were not involved in that function? How important are citizens when a disaster strikes? Do you see any mistakes made or problems result from emergency groups?
Consider How Organizations Interact
A terrorist attack has just occurred in a busy downtown area in Denver, Colorado. The police have cordoned off the area for safety. The Red Cross would like to provide snacks for firefighters, and business men and women would like to return to their buildings to retrieve their belongings. Spontaneous volunteers are arriving in the hundreds to donate blood and help remove debris. Are there any potential conflicts among these organizations? Can they be resolved? If so, how?