Human resource management
Session 2 Human Resource strategies for the international manager: culture
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Dawn de Kock
Module Leader
Email: D.Dekock@westminster.ac.uk
Room C273 (Chiltern Building, 2nd floor)
Staff team
Recap From Last Week
HRM
Human Resource Management
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SHRM
Strategic Human Resource Management
02
ISHRM
International Strategic Human Resource Management
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Human Resource Management (HRM)
HRM is the development of policies, and management of processes and activities undertaken by a HR Department of an organisation.
The activities have evolved from what used to be called Personnel Management. It includes the management of recruitment and selection of employees, their training and development, the management of their performance and rewards, and finally the termination of their employment.
It also involves the management of employment relations, which may include dealing with employee representatives or their trade unions. It is usually studied in the context of one country and its legislation which affects the policies and practices.
Coursework Assignment orientation
Iceberg Model of Culture (Schneider and Barsoux, 2003)
Visible : behaviours, appearance, dress, language, traditions, food, music, architecture, gestures, greetings, devotional practices.
Invisible : beliefs, norms, expectations, perceptions, time and space orientation, assumptions, values, thought processes, attitudes, approach to family, motivations, modes of thinking, comfort with risk, difference between public and private, gender differences
Exploring the Coursework Briefing
Consider the type of skills needed for the new hires in the given scenario. Which of these would you class as global, which as local? Taking the example of communication skills, experience of working in a global environment would equip you with a certain set of communication skills. How many of these can you identify?
On the other hand, when getting to know an unfamiliar culture, you may need unexpected communication skills (aside from linguistic skills). What types of skills might fall into this category? You can include ‘intercultural skills’ in this category.
Hint: ‘Culture as an iceberg’ exercise on BB
Using a Referencing Tool
The ‘Watch Folder’ is a great feature in Mendeley!
“A set of basic assumptions – shared solutions to universal problems of external adaptation (how to survive) and internal integration (how to stay together) - which have evolved over time and are handed down from one generation to the next."
Schein, 2004
The concept of culture
Norms, values, rules, climate, symbols – Mead
relationship between employees and organisations
system of authority
general views of employees about company’s goals, purpose, and their role
Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner
organisational culture
Beliefs, attitudes and values
Beliefs and attitudes are conscious, values are unconscious
Values more difficult to change
Seen by looking at behaviour and attributing reasons (rightly or wrongly)
Seen by considering how we use language
perceptions
Wherever we are the world, what problems do we face? Scarcity of food, protection from harm etc (houses vs tents). Food and shelter are most basic.
How a community or village is organised comes down to questions of authority.
Self and other – individual vs group based.
Male and female rites of passage (boys and girls), dealing with the body and change.
How do we handle conflict? Fisticuffs, or do they leave the village and not come back for a week?
What’s interesting is that they started to put things into scales/dimensions – one thing at one end and another thing at the opposite end.
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You are helping a friend to give up smoking. At an intellectual level, your friend understand the benefits of giving up smoking.
She has tried many times to give up, and despite her determination has not yet succeeded.
How can you persuade her - change her belief - that she will be able to succeed in the future?
beliefs
Watch the first two minutes of the video clip on learning Vietnamese:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PUH2pnvuDKw
In particular, notice the different ways of addressing people. How does this differ from your own language? If you are Vietnamese, compare to English.
Culture expressed through language - vietnamese
Culture Expressed Through Language: Turkish
Study the vocabulary list (link below) in Turkish and English on the topic of ‘family members’. You will see that each language clearly has a word for mother, father, sister, brother etc. But what do you notice about differences between the two languages in the way that relationships are expressed?
http://turkishbasics.com/vocabulary/family-members.php
Culture expressed through language - turkish
‘The collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one group of people from another’(Hofstede, 2005)
‘every person carries within him or herself patterns of thinking, feeling and potential acting which were learned throughout their lifetime’. (Hofstede, 2005)
Culture is particular to one group, learned, passed through generations, includes values, helps predict behaviour – socialisation.
Culture is . . .
Culture as response to basic problems facing societies/groups - how resolved:
relation to authority (hierarchy/power)
concept of self (gender identity, life goals)
ways of dealing with conflicts (group harmony/confrontation?)
communication styles (formality/informality/space)
how does culture develop?
(Inkeles and Levinson, 1969:449)
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If watch a new society being set up eg community on remote island televised, see these challenges facing group and how they are resolved:
Authority: who has power over whom? How much? Do we treat people differently in societies? On what basis?
Self: what does it mean to be a woman/man in a society? What life goals are prominent? What is allowed/not allowed? How important is education to a sense of self (Malala Yousefzai: Pakistani schoolgirl)
Conflict: how much is it accepted? How much is directness valued? (Japan versus Netherlands)
Communication : how do we address people? Formal or informal (tu/vous in French) and use of first names in power relationshjip?
Layers of Culture (Hofstede, 2005)
National level - Country
Regional and/or ethnic and/or religions and linguistic level
Gender level
Generational level
Social class level
Organisational level
Functional level
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complexity of our identities formed of different levels and social affinities.
One of questions we ask on the module: can we talk of a culture/nation as a whole? Is there a dominant norm?
Also other levels above that interact eg regional;/ethnic/religious
Gender roles in society/ generational eg ‘youth culture’ and preoccupations. Organisational cultures eg University of Oxford versus University of Westmisnter
Function: our educa\tion/training/job and career choices influend our identities.
Factors Contributing to Culture and Cultural Characteristics
History
Geography
Political system
Wealth
Social Structure/Stratification
Religion
Education
Language
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A countries history: you cannot understand the present unless you understand the past that shaped it eg wars/natural disasters
The Geography: Holland as part of Europe versus Britain’s island mentality?
Political system: choices made , democracies? Eg Conservative step to offer referendum to choose to take us out of Europe
Wealth: research shows poorer countries are more group oriented and collectivist/ richers ones are more individualistic
Class and social structures and privilege
Religion: how dominant in national cultures? Are several religions allowed? How much does it dictated day to day life
Education: what is taught? How much is it open to all? (debate currently in UK about Theresa May’s plan to increase grammar schools: do they promote privilege or reduce it?
Language: gives us concepts/to express our ideas eg ‘joie de vivre’ ‘bien dans sa peau’ – untranslateable.
Cross cultural management scholarship
In groups: What makes Cross cultural management scholarship critical?
Refer to the article ‘Understanding of culture’ by Terence Jackson. In particular, look at the last page (p269) and consider the following questions:
Why does Jackson think that ‘culture vs institutions’ is an artificial divide?
How is a ‘nation’ different from a ‘culture’?
In what sense are these terms ‘fictions’? (cf: Chinese ‘minguo’)
Activity: Comparing Cultures
What is your culture of origin, or the culture you are most at home in? We are going to compare our own cultures in small groups.
We will adopt two different approaches to this comparison.
Look at the questions on the four slides that follow. To compare your answers, can you give a score out of 10? Is this a good way to compare responses?
If you find it hard to give a score, or if you find yourself saying ‘it depends . . . . ‘, make a note of your responses. This includes any objections you have to the question itself!
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A countries history: you cannot understand the present unless you understand the past that shaped it eg wars/natural disasters
The Geography: Holland as part of Europe versus Britain’s island mentality?
Political system: choices made , democracies? Eg Conservative step to offer referendum to choose to take us out of Europe
Wealth: research shows poorer countries are more group oriented and collectivist/ richers ones are more individualistic
Class and social structures and privilege
Religion: how dominant in national cultures? Are several religions allowed? How much does it dictated day to day life
Education: what is taught? How much is it open to all? (debate currently in UK about Theresa May’s plan to increase grammar schools: do they promote privilege or reduce it?
Language: gives us concepts/to express our ideas eg ‘joie de vivre’ ‘bien dans sa peau’ – untranslateable.
Where Do You Stand? (1)
You are working on a project as part of a team.
It is 17:00 and you have finished your work for the day.
You are very tired and just want to get home!
But other members in your team are still working.
You consider staying back until they have finished.
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A countries history: you cannot understand the present unless you understand the past that shaped it eg wars/natural disasters
The Geography: Holland as part of Europe versus Britain’s island mentality?
Political system: choices made , democracies? Eg Conservative step to offer referendum to choose to take us out of Europe
Wealth: research shows poorer countries are more group oriented and collectivist/ richers ones are more individualistic
Class and social structures and privilege
Religion: how dominant in national cultures? Are several religions allowed? How much does it dictated day to day life
Education: what is taught? How much is it open to all? (debate currently in UK about Theresa May’s plan to increase grammar schools: do they promote privilege or reduce it?
Language: gives us concepts/to express our ideas eg ‘joie de vivre’ ‘bien dans sa peau’ – untranslateable.
Where Do You Stand? (2)
At work, your manager does something embarrassing (like slip on a banana skin!).
You find it funny and want to laugh.
Do you go ahead and laugh?
Do you stifle a laugh and look serious?
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A countries history: you cannot understand the present unless you understand the past that shaped it eg wars/natural disasters
The Geography: Holland as part of Europe versus Britain’s island mentality?
Political system: choices made , democracies? Eg Conservative step to offer referendum to choose to take us out of Europe
Wealth: research shows poorer countries are more group oriented and collectivist/ richers ones are more individualistic
Class and social structures and privilege
Religion: how dominant in national cultures? Are several religions allowed? How much does it dictated day to day life
Education: what is taught? How much is it open to all? (debate currently in UK about Theresa May’s plan to increase grammar schools: do they promote privilege or reduce it?
Language: gives us concepts/to express our ideas eg ‘joie de vivre’ ‘bien dans sa peau’ – untranslateable.
Where Do You Stand? (3)
You go for a job interview. It is a fairly informal interview, with just one manager.
Do you begin by doing most of the talking, offering to talk through your CV?
Or do you wait for the interviewer to take the initiative?
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A countries history: you cannot understand the present unless you understand the past that shaped it eg wars/natural disasters
The Geography: Holland as part of Europe versus Britain’s island mentality?
Political system: choices made , democracies? Eg Conservative step to offer referendum to choose to take us out of Europe
Wealth: research shows poorer countries are more group oriented and collectivist/ richers ones are more individualistic
Class and social structures and privilege
Religion: how dominant in national cultures? Are several religions allowed? How much does it dictated day to day life
Education: what is taught? How much is it open to all? (debate currently in UK about Theresa May’s plan to increase grammar schools: do they promote privilege or reduce it?
Language: gives us concepts/to express our ideas eg ‘joie de vivre’ ‘bien dans sa peau’ – untranslateable.
Where Do You Stand? (4)
You are assigned a project to work on. The theme is ‘Cognitive Diversity in the Workplace'.
There are no detailed instructions, for example what sort of data to collect, or the scope of the survey. On the contrary, you are advised that you can 'be creative' in your approach.
Does this feel like freedom?
Or do you feel uncomfortable with the open-endedness of the project?
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A countries history: you cannot understand the present unless you understand the past that shaped it eg wars/natural disasters
The Geography: Holland as part of Europe versus Britain’s island mentality?
Political system: choices made , democracies? Eg Conservative step to offer referendum to choose to take us out of Europe
Wealth: research shows poorer countries are more group oriented and collectivist/ richers ones are more individualistic
Class and social structures and privilege
Religion: how dominant in national cultures? Are several religions allowed? How much does it dictated day to day life
Education: what is taught? How much is it open to all? (debate currently in UK about Theresa May’s plan to increase grammar schools: do they promote privilege or reduce it?
Language: gives us concepts/to express our ideas eg ‘joie de vivre’ ‘bien dans sa peau’ – untranslateable.
Hofstede’s Research (1980, 2001)
Hofstede surveyed 116,000 employees in 50 countries
All were employed by IBM
Findings widely used in intercultural management
Hofstede
Power distance – the distance between individuals at different levels of the hierarchy
Uncertainty avoidance – more or less need to avoid uncertainty about the future
Individualism vs collectivism – relations between individuals
Masculinity (achievement in terms of recognition/wealth) vs femininity (human contacts)– division of roles/values
Hofstede
High PDI means hierarchical, lower PDI more democratic
Uncertainty avoidance (UAI) – threatened by ambiguous situations if high
Individualism (IDV) – high means interest in self respect and personal achievement; low means an interest in face saving and harmony
Hofstede found high relationship between high PDI and collectivism
Masculinity (MAS) – values e.g. assertiveness, money, self; high in Japan, Austria; low in most Scandinavian countries, ie ‘feminine’
A Contrasting View of Authority
France:
Society based on pyramidal hierarchy held together by tight rules and unity of command
Germany:
Personal command largely unnecessary as rules settle everything
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What do you think?
Cross-cultural Comparisons
Now, look up your country profiles on the Hofstede website:
https://www.hofstede-insights.com/country-comparison
If your country is not represented, is there an option for a country that would be considered culturally close?
How does this compare with the ratings you came up within your group?
A cross-cultural comparison of this kind represents an ‘etic’ approach . . . .
The Chinese Value Survey
Conducted by Bond (Canadian and Chinese colleagues)
Shared many Hofstede ideas but based questions on Confucius (traditional Chinese values)
Translated and administered to students in 23 countries
Four dimensions match Hofstede (PDI, IDV, UAI and MAS) plus Confucian Work Dynamism
Long-term/Short-term Orientation
High Confucian work dynamism/Long-term oriented
Concern with future, value thrift and persistence
Low Confucian work dynamism/Short-term oriented
Oriented toward past and present, respect for personal tradition, social obligations and saving face.
Fang’s (2003) Critique of STO/LTO
For the Chinese, the values at the two ends of long-term orientation are not contrasting or opposing values, but rather closely interrelated with one another.
For example, the Chinese are long-term and future-oriented in certain settings and situations.
But there has been considerable research showing that Chinese culture is past-oriented. ‘Past experience, if not forgotten, is a guide for the future’
Fang’s (2003) Critique of STO/LTO
Chinese values: wenzhong (‘personal steadiness and stability’); yaomianzi (‘protecting your face’); zunjingchuantong (‘respect for tradition’); and li shangwanglai (‘reciprocation of greetings, favors and gifts’).
From a linguistic point of view, these Chinese phrases sound more positive than negative, or at least neutral. Whether these values are positive or negative cannot be judged at face value; it all depends on the specific contexts and situations in which they are used.
Fang’s (2003) Critique of STO/LTO
Two major objections:
The list of 40 ‘fundamental and basic values for Chinese people’ reveals that a number of core Chinese values are not included, such as Guanxi, Yin Yang, and Wu Wei.
Confucian dynamism (long-term orientation) divides interrelated values into two opposing poles. Values labeled as ‘short-term oriented’ or ‘negative’ may not necessarily be so, and values labeled as ‘long-term oriented’ or ‘positive’ may not necessarily be so either.
Fang’s (2003) Critique of STO/LTO
Moreover, there is redundancy among the 40 Chinese values in the Chinese Value Survey (CVS). Some values either mean essentially the same thing or are highly interrelated. This leads to the fact that the two ‘opposite’ ends of Confucian dynamism (long-term orientation) are actually not opposed to each
Given the flaws inherent in its conceptualisation, Hofstede’s fifth dimension’s viability is questioned, and its relevance for cross cultural research and practice has been found and will remain very limited.
Comparing Cultures
The Nordic countries consist of Finland, Norway, Sweden and Denmark.
Compare these countries using the Hofstede cultural comparison tool:
https://www.hofstede-insights.com/product/compare-countries/
Are there significant differences between these countries?
Hint: compare Finland and Singapore by way of comparison!
Comparing Cultures
Based on the above, you might expect that each country had a similar approach to dealing with Covid-19. Now, read the following article:
https://nordiclifescience.org/different-covid-19-strategies-in-the-nordic-countries/
Has your opinion changed? Why?
Some more questions!
Give an example of a national stereotype mentioned in the article.
What do you think the authors mean by ‘the explanation of Swedish exceptionality’?
Given Sweden’s low PDI score, how do you account for the following observation:
‘Sweden has a reputation for being a paternalistic, prohibitive society, which appears not to be in keeping with the liberal attitude Sweden has had during the corona crisis.’
Etic vs Emic Approaches
Emic and etic are two different approaches when trying to explain social realities from the perspective of the social sciences.
An etic approach is the perspective of the observer - usually the researcher.
In this approach the researcher is trying to explain the social realities they observe using the theoretical apparatus of social sciences.
An emic approach is the perspective of the studied social group.
In this approach, the perspectives, explanations, logic, meanings, beliefs and worldview of the studied people are used to explain the particular values, beliefs or practices. This is the way the actual people understand what they do and think.
These approaches may contradict each other in some respects, but a well crafted research methodology will use both.
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Hall: High / Low Context
Edward T. Hall, a cultural anthropologist is considered as a pioneer of intercultural investigation. In the 60s/ 70s he introduced the terms of ‘time’, ‘space’ and ‘directness of communication’ to describe how different cultures tend to deal with universal problems and questions .
High context – depends on external environment, situation, non-verbal. Clues and meanings indirect e.g. Arabic, Chinese
Low context – communicators have to be explicit, blunt style liked, ambiguity disliked, more open to change
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High Context
Family, friends and co-workers have close personal relationships and large information networks, so do not require extensive background information
People don’t rely on language alone – tone of voice, timing, facial expression are major means of communicating
Low Context
Relationships are shorter in duration and deep personal involvement valued less
Messages must be made explicit – less dependence on non-verbal communication
Agreements written rather than spoken
People separate lives into different sectors like work and personal life, so need more detailed information in interacting
High dependence on words to convey meaning – complete and accurate meaning is important
Low-High Context – It’s All Relative!
Monochronic vs Polychronic
Monochronic vs Polychronic
Based on the concept of ‘timelines’. Discover your own personal timeline!
Think of something that you did today, that you do every day, such as brushing your teeth. As you imagine doing this, where do you ‘see’ this happening in your visual field? For instance, you might picture yourself as you see yourself in the mirror cleaning your teeth. Is this image to your right or left? Up or down?
Now think about cleaning your teeth yesterday, last week, last month . . . Where do these images ‘appear’?
Monochronic vs Polychronic
Now, repeat the same activity but thinking of something you will do in the future. This can be cleaning your teeth, or something like working on your coursework assignment.
Thinking about an early stage activity, such as reading the assignment briefing. Then think about the final stage, submitting your coursework.
Where do you ‘see’ these activities in your mind’s eye?
Monochronic vs Polychronic
Examples of polychronic cultures (from highest to middling):
Latin America, Arab countries, Africa
Indian subcontinent
Mediterranean cultures
Portugal, N Italy
Examples of monochronic cultures (from highest to middling):
Germany, Switzerland Austria
USA
Nordic countries
Other ‘Anglo’ countries: UK, Canada, New Zealand, Australia
Netherlands, Belgium
South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore
Monochronic vs Polychronic
The following two links are not academic sources, but will give you a flavour of the differences, along with some practical business considerations.
Which source is better in your opinion, and why?
https://vplegacies.com/monochronic-vs-polychronic-cultures-what-are-the-differences/
Fons Trompenaars
general relationship between employees and organisation
vertical or hierarchical system of authority defining superiors/subordinates
general views of employees about organisation’s destiny, goals, purpose and their place in it
based on a values questionnaire to over 15,000 managers in 28 countries (1993)
later extended to other countries including former Soviet-bloc countries not covered by Hofstede
Trompenaars’s dimensions
Universalism vs Particularism
Individualism vs Collectivism
Range of emotions expressed: neutral vs affective
Range of involvement with other people: specific vs diffuse
Method of according status to other people:
achievement vs ascription
Time
Environment
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Universalism as a belief that what is true and good can be discovered and applied universally
Particularism -A belief that unique circumstances determine what is right or good
Similar to Hofstede – the degree to which one plans actions with reference to individual benefits or those of the group
In neutral cultures, emotion should be held in check and maintaining an appearnace of self-control is important
In affective cultures it is natural to express emotions openly
The degree to which individuals are willing to allow access to their inner selves to others.
In specific cultures people separate private life from public, whereas in diffuse cultures they overlap
This is about how power and status are determined in society
In an ascription society status is based on who a person is, whereas in an achievement society it is what a person does
Sequential:-
Time seen as measurable and a sequence of events – ordered, rels > schedule, recent performance counts, initial plan preferred
Synchronic:-
Members juggle various activities in parallel at same time. Rels>Schedule, performance is judged over whole history, plans can change.
Past vs future orientation – also how far time is linear as opposed to holistic and integrated past, present and future
How far individuals see themselves as the primary influence on their lives vs environment as more powerful than they and they should seek harmony with it.
The GLOBE project
Global Leadership and Organisational Behaviour Effectiveness research project: nine cultural dimensions
assertiveness,
future orientation,
gender differentiation,
uncertainty avoidance,
power distance,
institutional collectivism,
in-group collectivism,
performance orientation,
humane orientation
National Cultural Clusters
Anglo: Australia, Canada, Ireland, New Zealand, South Africa, United Kingdom, United States.
Arab: Abu-Dhabi, Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates.
Far Eastern: Hong Kong, China, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Vietnam, Taiwan, Thailand.
Germanic: Austria, Germany, Switzerland.
Latin American: Argentina, Chile, Colombia, Mexico, Peru, Venezuela.
Latin European: Belgium, France, Italy, Portugal, Spain.
Near Eastern: Greece, Iran, Turkey.
Nordic: Denmark, Finland, Norway, Sweden.
Independent: Brazil, India, Israel, Japan, South Korea.
Development of Intercultural Competence: International Profiler (1)
Development of Intercultural Competence: International Profiler (2)
See Chapter 8 in: Spencer-Oatey, H. and Franklin, P. (2009). “Intercultural Interaction: A Multidisciplinary Approach to Intercultural Communication”. Palgrave: Basingstoke.
Development of Intercultural Competence: International Profiler (3)
Culture Shock
Can lead to a sense of isolation, depression, uncertainty and reduce productivity
It is a natural response, cumulative too and can stem from ‘trivial’ incidents
Psychological disorientation. Cannot rely on familiar signals regarding relationships, behaviour, communication
Symptoms
A sense of tension and frustration – low energy levels. Difficulty making decisions
Alienation leads to feelings of homesickness and antagonism towards new culture
Behaviour problems e.g. drinking
Depression
Reverse Shock
Repatriate needs to adjust to their return
Reduced financial benefits
Less power and autonomy
Job alienation, being out of the loop
Increased cost of living, less domestic help
Reduced status and social life
Company Strategies
Having a mentor
Introducing manager to support groups, networking possibilities
Before and after repatriation, briefing manager on living conditions at home and at new post
Debriefing manager to show interest, learn important information
Acknowledge status, value of contribution
CULTURAL adaptation (1)
Maude (2016) writes of psychological growth and new skills that can occur with cultural adaptation.
In groups:
From your experiences or from those you have heard about, or read about, share in your groups some thoughts on the psychological growth and new skills that you learned when adapting to a foreign culture.
CULTURAL adaptation (2)
Discuss the 'Miranda' case study (from French, 2015)
Why do you think that keeping contact with one’s own (expatriate) culture as well as the new (‘host’) culture is a better strategy than total immersion in the new culture?
If you speak more than one language, can you relate these adaptation behaviours to your ability to use both languages?
CULTURAL HERTAGE
In groups: discussion of 'Miranda' case study (from French, 2015) and thoughts on above questions.
Why do you think that keeping contact with one’s own (expatriate) culture as well as the new (‘host’) culture is a better strategy than total immersion in the new culture?
If you speak more than one language, can you relate these adaptation behaviours to your ability to use both languages?
Reading for this week . . .
This week, please consult the following books which are available online in the University Library:
Spencer-Oatey, H. and Franklin, P. (2009). “Intercultural Interaction: A Multidisciplinary Approach to Intercultural Communication”. Palgrave: Basingstoke.
Reading for this week . . .
Guirdham, M. (2004). “Communicating Across Cultures at Work”. London: Palgrave Macmillan
Locate the relevant chapters. At this point on the module, I suggest you dip in and read up on concepts that you recognise and interest you. This will help you to assimilate the material from this week. When you start drafting your coursework assignment, you will be more familiar with concepts and able to navigate around the textbook.