Essay

HUM 2633: Hinduism

Hinduism is the third largest world religion. It has 1.2 billion adherents worldwide.

Hinduism traces its roots to 1500 B.C. in the Indus Valley region.

Map source: www.ancient.eu

The countries that have the largest concentrations of Hindus: Nepal (>81.3% population is Hindu); India (>90% world’s Hindu population in India—where 79.8% of population is Hindu). Bangladesh, Indonesia, and Pakistan also have large Hindu populations.

Hinduism is a complex religious tradition with a long history. Hinduism has exerted significant historical, social, and political influence. Like most religious traditions, Hinduism has central tenets or beliefs that have remained largely constant over its history; at the same time, significant differences exist among practitioners of the religion regarding the centrality of certain beliefs as well as interpretation of certain basic views. Similar to the way in which different Christian denominations exist, different schools of Hindu thought have existed at various times and they continue to do so in different geographical regions. Though these variations are of considerable historical and cultural interest, our goal in this class is to develop a working understanding of the core philosophies of four major world religions.

As such, our goal with regards to Hinduism is to understand:

a.) its basic worldview (both the universe’s origins and ends – which encompass metaphysics and eschatology)

b.) its theory of salvation (soteriology), and

c.) its recommendations for how to live (ethics). Thus, we will try to concentrate on the ideas that have been and remain central to the religious tradition, ideas to which virtually all Hindus would subscribe.

The first thing it is important to recognize about Hinduism is that it is a monotheistic tradition with polytheistic aspects. For most people, this would seem like a contradiction in terms. It would seem a religious tradition either has to be monotheistic (believe in one god), OR polytheistic,

(believe in many gods), and that it cannot be both. However, if one examines Hindu metaphysics, also known as cosmology, one can see how the two can be reconciled with one another—indeed, all you need is TIME.

Though Americans generally have very little knowledge of Hinduism, one thing most people are aware of is that Hinduism endorses belief in many gods. Most Americans have, at one point or another, seen a portrait of a Hindu god or goddess, such as the image of Krishna (right). In this respect, we can see similarities between the polytheism evident in Hinduism and that evident in the Greek pantheon. Both traditions propose that a multiplicity of gods and goddesses exist. Also like the Olympian pantheon, Hinduism proposes that female power balances male power. It maintains that a hierarchy of gods exists, males and females, and that many of these gods and goddesses align with natural forces (e.g., Agni-fire, Indra-storm, Vayu-air).

Unlike the Olympian pantheon, however, Hinduism does not propose that one set of gods succeeded another (e.g., Titans to Olympians). Rather, in Hinduism, all the individual gods and goddesses that exist are incarnations or manifestations of one divine source, the Absolute, Brahman. And here one can see the monotheistic root of Hindu thought.

For Hindus, all things derive from the infinite, all-powerful, and eternal god, Brahman, a figure also described as Purusha—or pure spirit. This includes matter (prakriti), and all things in the material world. Similar to the way in which the Christian God is envisioned as a trinity, Brahman is similarly accepted as having triumvirate form. The Hindu Trimurti takes the form of Brahman, Vishnu, and Shiva.

Brahman - creator Goddess Sarasvati traditionally seen as consort

Vishnu - sustainer Goddess Lakshmi traditionally seen as consort

Shiva - destroyer Goddess Parvati traditional seen as consort; though goddesses Durga and Kali are similarly associated with destruction.

Brahman is the creator of the universe, and the process by which Brahman, or God, creates the universe is called L I L A , which translates from the Sanskrit to play. Thus, Brahman’s creation is conceived of as spontaneous and natural, indeed it is likened to a playful dance. In fact, in some Hindu creation narratives, Brahman is portrayed as a cosmic dancer, a divine entity who literally spins universes into existence in and through his joyous dancing. Here, we can see a difference between Hindu metaphysics and the Christian one that predominates in this region and to which many students may subscribe. Rather than creation being a sober and methodical process, Hindu cosmology portrays creation as a spontaneous outcome of the ecstatic action of God.

Importantly, creation and destruction are essential in Hindu metaphysics (or cosmology), and this is true both on both a local and global scale. Again, traditional creation narratives describe the days and nights of Brahman. The days and nights of Brahman refer to the cosmic cycles of creation and destruction that are part of Brahman’s dynamic and ongoing existence. The activity of creation and destruction is sometimes likened to breathing, with Brahman’s exhale breathing worlds out into being, and inhale drawing them back into oneness with himself. This analogy nicely illustrates the ephemeral nature of existence as well as its dependence on, and connection to, God. Importantly, Brahman is also not seen as merely the creator of one universe. It is assumed that Brahman, by virtue of his infinite power, spins out an infinite number of universes, cycling universes out and then destroying them again and again through the course of eternity. Our universe is but one of millions; our lives merely drops in an infinite sea. As this portrait of existence reveals, Hindu cosmology is terrifically expansive. Just as there are myriad universes, myriad worlds exist in those universes, and those worlds have myriad levels— including heavens and hells. Having gotten a preliminary sense of the metaphysics, we might, at this point, consider where the human person figures into this scheme of things. And it is critical to do this because Hindu cosmology is clear regarding the individual’s relationship to the Absolute, or Brahman. According to Hinduism, at the core of every physical person lies an eternal soul, and it is referred to as the ATMAN. Hinduism therefore endorses belief in the immortal soul and sees this soul as the core of the self. The atman, or soul, is what animates the material body and having a soul is what distinguishes animate beings from inanimate ones. In fact, Hinduism recognizes that entities other than humans have souls. This motivates a general moral prohibition against harm to other beings (ahimsa). Hinduism also maintains that the individual soul has a direct connection to God. Indeed, it asserts that the relationship between the individual and God is one of identity (e.g., Atman=Brahman). To the extent that the individual is identified with God, not just regarded as a product of God, Hindu texts emphasize the phrase: Thou Art That (Tat Tvam Asi). Indeed, realization of one’s identity with God is crucial to achieving salvation, what is known as MOKSHA. According to Hindu cosmology or metaphysics, which is often envisioned as a wheel (see illustration), though individuals are always and forever one with God, most individuals do not exist in a state in which they recognize that oneness. Therefore, instead of residing naturally in moksha, they exist in a state of ignorance and estrangement from the divine, a state known as SAMSARA. Because most individuals do not realize their connection to God, individuals misunderstand the nature of their existence, and they suffer. And, because they are ignorant, they typically try to remedy their suffering in ways that compound rather than relieve it, binding them tighter to their suffering and further alienating them from joy.

The view that most individuals exist in a state of ignorance is communicated by the word, MAYA, with which many westerners are familiar, even though they might not know what it means. The term maya literally translates to illusion, and according to Hinduism, most individuals exist for most of their lives, indeed over the course of many lifetimes, in a state of delusion. This illusion (or delusion) creates both recurrent suffering (dukkha), and bondage (samsara). Ignorance is commonplace because people understand themselves in terms of where they find themselves. In short, we conceive of ourselves in terms of what we see. When we become aware of ourselves, or self-conscious, it is as finite entities in a finite world; as a result, we see ourselves as fundamentally those material beings in that material world. I conceive of myself as that human who I find myself to be, an entity made happy, and unhappy by the things in my world. I don’t see myself as necessarily having a grander destiny or a connection to something bigger. Instead, my focus is local. I chase my immediate desires, sometimes finding them satisfied, at least temporarily, but in the end, finding that new desires emerge, prompting unsettlement, and spurring desire onward. Hinduism assumes that eventually, my spirit will tire of this vicious cycle. It may take time, indeed many life times, but it will tire of it because it is not fundamentally finite and cannot be satisfied by finite things. Instead, it is eternal. Behind my body, its eyes that see, its ears that hear, is my spirit, my atman. My atman is one with Brahman; it is infinite. Because my nature is infinite, so too is my desire. And infinite desire can only be fulfilled by the infinite. Our eternal nature cannot find satisfaction in the finite, even though, for a time (due to maya), we think it can. Until I see my connection, indeed my identity, to God, I will remain tied to the material—and as such, I will destine myself to BE what I think I am, a finite thing. This leads us to two more things we need to discuss relative to Hinduism, REINCARNATION, and KARMA. According to Hindu cosmology, our ignorance, and consequently our bondage, can be long. As intimated, it can be hundreds if not thousands of lifetimes. Yes, lifetimes. Hinduism assumes the process of reincarnation. It assumes that the eternal atman cycles through myriad material incarnations. Remember, Brahman (spirit/purusha) creates matter (prakriti), and by extension all the material things of the world. Though all things are of God, some of them literally carry the divine in their core (atman); they embody God. However, rather than see that oneness, most mistakenly see themselves as their material incarnation, and become, as a result, attached to it. This attachment keeps the soul from being liberated from the material plane at the time of death, and causes the soul to be re-incarnated (literally “put back into flesh”). And in Hinduism, that placement is a function of karma. Karma is the “law” of cause and effect that governs the actions and operations of the material world. It is a central concept in Hindu metaphysics. Born of Brahman, everything conforms to laws, and all that exists is necessary and just (though not

necessarily pleasing). We reap what we sow. One’s actions in life have karmic consequences that determine rebirth, and adverse conduct produces adverse impact. Though ignorant or imprudent action can destine one’s soul to tremendous suffering and countless (even sub-human) rebirths, Hinduism is a fundamentally optimistic tradition. It is

because it assumes that we have a long time to achieve salvation. In fact, Hinduism assumes that we have all the time we need because the end we seek – oneness with God –already IS, due to the eternal atman’s existing identity with Brahman; that oneness is merely unrealized so its joy is unknown. Hinduism assumes we will all find salvation. It just may take a really long time. With this, we see another critical difference emerge between Hinduism and the other prominent religious traditions, including the Christian

tradition. Some traditions assert that the individual has only one lifetime in order to achieve salvation. Christianity is one. Since we do not even know how long that life will be, the assumption that we only have one lifetime in which to achieve salvation (and avoid eternal damnation), creates terrific urgency and time pressure. This urgent demand to get right with God is not present in the same way in a tradition that assumes reincarnation. According to Hindu cosmology, once one completely realizes one’s oneness with God, the karmic cycle and the bonds of samsara are broken. This is moksha, or liberation, and frees the atman from ongoing rebirth. Rather than be cast into yet another finite material form, the soul can reside in perfect harmony and bliss with the Absolute. Complete realization is not as simple as conceptually understanding the link that exists with Brahman. It involves thoroughgoing dissociation from the body and the material world such that subtle threads of attachment do not obscure understanding and maintain karmic connection. When achieved, moksha (salvation/emancipation) constitutes pure blissful re-identification and unification with Brahman. Unlike the Christian idea of salvation as existing blissfully in God’s presence, Hindus believe that when one achieves moksha, the individual no longer exists as individual, but is instead completely subsumed in the Absolute. As noted previously, we must work to achieve moksha because we do not find ourselves in that state. As we grow understand our relation to God and cultivate non-attachment to the material world, the karmic ties to this world lessen and moksha becomes possible. In Hinduism, salvation marks complete transcendence of the material plane of existence where individuation is alienation from God. Hinduism recognizes that there are different types of people and therefore that there are different paths to enlightenment. These paths are called YOGAS. While most westerners are familiar with yoga as a physical practice designed to yield increased bodily well being, fewer recognize its religious history and continued function as the principle method of spiritual liberation in the Hindu religion.

There are different paths to God. These paths are reflected in the different types of yoga. In turn, these yogas reflect the realization that given the differences in disposition that exist between individuals, what works for one person, may not work for another. Hindu cosmology recognizes that the differences that exist between people are a function of karma, specifically the variable karmic distribution of different ratios of core elements in their material constitution. Just as we see some individuals as more intellectual than others, and others as more emotional, Hinduism traces these individual differences to the presence of different volumes of three GUNAS in individuals. The gunas are aspects of our material nature (prakriti). They are reason (sattva), emotion (rajas), and appetite (tamas). Different proportions of these gunas determine different personalities and dispositions.

Four Types of Yoga Jnana Jnana yoga privileges intellectual analysis and meditative practices as the means to

realization (moksha).

Bhakti Bhakti yoga privileges devotional practices, typically ones oriented toward a personal deity, as the means to realization (moksha). Bhakti yoga is the most commonly practiced yoga.

Karma Karma yoga privileges selfless dedication to work, one’s duty, or DHARMA, as the means to realization (moksha).

Rajas Rajas yoga privileges the performance of advanced spiritual exercises requiring considerable discipline and effort as the means to realization (moksha). This form is typically reserved for spiritual practitioners such as yogis.

The type of yoga one practices would, of course, not only be a function of one’s disposition, it would also be influenced by one’s community, and if one lives in India, it might also be influenced by one’s caste. The caste system in India goes back centuries and is shaped by (as well as shapes) Hindu thought. It is particularly reflective of the idea of karma and the idea that individuals operate at different levels of spiritual attainment. The caste system divides Indian society into a series of ranked levels, or castes, levels that, to a great extent, dictate who individuals can interact with, marry, and what their occupation will be. While the caste system has obvious, and problematic social impacts (including limited social mobility and the oppression and marginalization of those in the lowest castes), it was originally designed to ensure that spiritual

hierarchies were clearly reflected within the context of society. It was assumed that membership in the highest caste was a function of higher rebirth due to successful spiritual practice in a previous life; though placement is a function of birth (family membership) individuals are assumed to be “born” into their caste by virtue of their karma; their prior actions place them into a caste that expresses what traits and abilities they cultivated as well as gives the individual an opportunity to continue to master certain functions and abilities. In the renowned Bhagavad-Gita, we will see the main character, Arjuna, work to understand his duty (dharma) as a Kshatriya (Image source: www.BBC.com).

Summary

Metaphysics Brahman is the first cause, the source of all things. All that exists originates in Brahman. The core of the individual person (the soul, or atman) derives from and is one with Brahman. The individual soul cycles through lifetimes (the wheel of samsara). It is subject to rebirth via the law of karma, and is reborn until it realizes its oneness with Brahman. At that time, it is released from the material plane altogether and reunited with the absolute. Hinduism accepts that the universe is ordered (as opposed to random), a product of the divine, and the individual has a direct relationship to the divine.

Soteriology Moksha is the term used for salvation and it is achieved when one realizes one’s oneness with Brahman. When moksha is achieved, one’s soul is liberated from the material plane; thus, salvation, while earned in the material world, is not a worldly phenomenon. The path to moksha is achieved through the practice of yoga.

Eschatology In Hinduism, it is correct to say that from a global perspective, the system has no definitive end. Hinduism assumes that Brahman, the eternal progenitor of all things, will create eternally. While individual worlds will come to an end, there is no thought that the cycle of creation and destruction that Brahman engages in will do so. Thus, Hinduism endorses more of a cyclical understanding of time than a linear one. However, there is an END talked about in Hinduism that is of critical importance. Thus, if we are considering end state that the individual seeks, one that in fact marks the literal end of the individual, that end is MOSKHA. It is achieved when the individual frees herself from the bonds of karma and reunites with Brahman.

Ethics Hinduism emphasizes the notion of dharma, or duty. One has duties to one’s family, to one’s social station, to one’s stage in life, and most clearly, to God. Performance of one’s duty is critical in order to find a release from karma, which is necessary to salvation. Most notably, Hindus emphasize the virtue of ahimsa, or no harm, and this is a belief that motivates practices such as vegetarianism among so many Hindus.

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