30.Wk9DisRes

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PATIENT FILE

The Case: Hindsight is always 20/20, or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

The Question: What to do when a primary anxiety disorder is fully treated and inattention remains

The Dilemma: Residual inattention may be difficult to treat

Pretest self-assessment question (answer at the end of the case)

How does an alpha-2a receptor agonist really improve attention?

A. It lowers brainstem NE output similar to its antihypertensive effects B. It promotes DA activity in the DLPFC secondarily C. It lowers GABA activity, which allows greater glutamate activity in the

thalamus D. It allows fine tuning of cortical pyramidal glutamate neurons to improve

signal to noise ratios in frontocortical information processing

Patient evaluation on intake

• 31-year-old man with a chief complaint of anxiety of “different types” • Patient states that he “has been successful in graduate school, has

financial worries, but states that he worries and is tense most of the time”

Psychiatric history

• Has been anxious for many years, mostly since college and now graduate school

• Working part-time and going to school part-time and feels “torn in many directions”

• Generally is tense, restless, irritable, and worries about things even outside school and work – When legitimate stressors diminish, the anxiety lowers, but is still

present and discouraging • This causes him to be argumentative and temperamental most of the

time • He says he is active and likes to stay busy all of the time, but he wonders if

“he is doing too much, as he has no time for all of the things” he wants to do

Social and personal history

• Graduated high school, college, and is enrolled in a graduate-level training program for family counseling

• Gainfully employed now in a clinical setting • Married and without children • Does not use drugs or alcohol

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PATIENT FILE

Medical history

• There are no medical issues but is allergic to penicillin

Family history

• Father has AUD • Distant family members have probable bipolar disorder

Medication history

• There was serendipitous anxiety relief when his PCP placed him on hydroxyzine (Vistaril) 50 mg/d for an allergic skin reaction – This helped to “calm him down” but was only temporary

• Has taken the SSRI paroxetine (Paxil) 40 mg/d but had a difficult time balancing its anxiolytic effects and its sexual side effects – Felt that he was less anxious at these higher doses of this SSRI, but

this was too problematic from a tolerability point of view – Next changed to the slow-release preparation at a lower dose

(paroxetine-CR 25 mg/d), which better balanced efficacy and tolerability

• Next, he responded to a radio advertisement for an anxiety research study and he was placed on an SGRI antiepileptic, tiagabine (Gabitril), as an augmentation strategy, which he found moderately beneficial at a dose of 12 mg/d

Psychotherapy history

• Patient has seen a few psychotherapists for both supportive psychotherapy and PDP

• He reports having psychological issues regarding his father, who was abusive and an alcoholic – Psychotherapy has been very helpful – There is no DSM-5 evidence of PTSD despite this history

Patient evaluation on initial visit • Patient suffers from chronic GAD symptoms that fluctuate over time • Clear stress-based, adjustment disorder-driven causes of anxiety are

superimposed over a baseline of persistent GAD symptoms • Despite these symptoms, he is coping fairly well at work and in

relationships • Has been compliant with medication management, but has somewhat

fragmented care in that he was seeing different providers who were monitoring his individual medications separately

• Does not appear to be at risk for any suicidal attempts • Experiences minor sexual side effects and fatigue from his current

medications

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PATIENT FILE

Current medications

• Hydroxyzine (Vistaril) 50 mg/d (antihistamine anxiolytic) • Paroxetine (Paxil-CR) 25 mg/d (SSRI) • Tiagabine (Gabitril) 12 mg/d (SGRI)

Question

In your opinion, does this combination of medications make clinical sense?

• Yes • No

Attending physician’s mental notes: initial evaluation

• This patient has chronic GAD without many comorbidities • His GAD exacerbations are often triggered by social stressors • He is motivated, bright, and compliant • His medication regimen is interesting, and even though it was provided

by three different clinicians, it makes rational sense – First, the paroxetine-CR was causing side effects at higher doses,

thus augmenting with other agents while keeping paroxetine-CR at a low therapeutic dose makes clinical sense

– Second, hydroxyzine (Vistaril/Atarax) was being used as an anti- allergy medication, but it is approved as an antihistaminergic anxiolytic

– Third, tiagabine (Gabitril) is an anti-epilepsy medication that has failed monotherapy trials in GAD and PTSD, but has some supportive data as an augmentation strategy for TRA when combined with SSRIs ◦ It is a GAT1 GABA reuptake inhibitor that functions to increase

endogenous synaptic GABA levels ◦ Idiosyncratically, this may cause seizures in non-epileptics who

are prescribed this medication in off-label situations – Fourth, this regimen facilitates serotonin by blocking the SERT, or

reuptake pump, antagonizes histamine activity at the H1 receptor, and facilitates GABA by blocking GAT1 transporters ◦ All of these mechanisms are complementary, do not overlap in

pharmacodynamic redundancy, and look to manipulate neural pathways involved in the etiology of anxiety

Question

Which of the following would be your next step?

• Increase the paroxetine (Paxil-CR) • Increase the tiagabine (Gabitril) • Increase the hydroxyzine (Vistaril)

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PATIENT FILE

• Augment the current medications with a fourth agent such as an NRI, a 5- HT1A receptor partial agonist, or a BZ anxiolytic

• Consider him a partial responder on this regimen, which is unacceptable, and streamline and convert him to a less complicated regimen with an SNRI, TCA, or MAOI monotherapy

Attending physician’s mental notes: initial evaluation (continued) • The combination the patient presents with is a good one, covering many

mechanisms of action that are individual, yet complementary • There is a significant family history of addiction, so avoiding BZs makes

sense • He has room to increase any one of his three current medications, but

this will likely exacerbate his sexual and fatigue-based side effects further, which the patient will not appreciate

Further investigation

Is there anything else you would especially like to know about this

patient?

• What about details concerning his past trauma history? – Grew up in less than ideal circumstances with an alcoholic and

verbally abusive father – Denies overt reliving symptoms but clearly has hyperarousal (worry,

muscle tension) thought currently to be from GAD – Denies avoidant or phobic behavior – Feels psychotherapy has been very helpful

• What about details regarding personality style and coping skills? – The patient is socially engaging, hard working, and very active – If he is not working, he is exercising and being active – Never seems to sit still as he has always been a busy person – Keeping busy and exercising allows him to remain calm and more

focused – Feels he would be distracted and less attentive if he did not have time

to exercise

Case outcome: first interim follow-up visit four weeks later

• Declines escalating the SSRI due to sexual side effects • Felt tiagabine (Gabitril) dosing is reasonable but mildly fatiguing • As hydroxyzine (Vistaril/Atarax) is the lowest therapeutically dosed of the

three, he opts to increase this up to 100 mg/d at the risk of daytime sedation – Returns acknowledging the same symptoms as his first appointment – States that he is too tired on the increased hydroxyzine dose to

continue it

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PATIENT FILE

Question

Do you find hydroxyzine a reasonable anxiolytic?

• Yes, for short-term, adjustment-based anxiety symptoms • Yes, for longitudinal anxiety treatment • Yes, especially for use in patients who cannot risk taking a BZ anxiolytic,

i.e., addictive patients • Yes, for treating GAD and agitation but not for PD or OCD • No

Attending physician’s mental notes: second interim follow-up visit at two months

• This was easy in that escalating the SSRI seems to be helping gradually

• He is now about 50% better with global improvement in his GAD symptoms and agrees to continue the SSRI and off-label SGRI

• Will need to discuss with him long-term maintenance on the SSRI and also some pharmacologic antidotes if his sexual side effects become intolerable or threaten poor medication adherence in the future

• Tiagabine (Gabitril) has a limited evidence base where switching from an SSRI to tiagabine monotherapy may maintain efficacy while alleviating SSRI sexual dysfunction

Case outcome: second interim follow-up visit at two months

• The patient is tapered off hydroxyzine altogether and begrudgingly agreed to try a higher dose of paroxetine (Paxil-CR) at 37.5 mg /d while continuing the tiagabine (Gabitril) 12 mg/d – A moderate reduction in anxiety symptoms occurs – There were greater sexual side effects noted – Can see the benefit of the increased SSRI dosing

• Felt to be 20%–30% better compared to the last appointment

Question

If he continues toward full symptom remission, but develops major sexual

side effects, what would you do?

• Just switch to tiagabine (Gabitril) monotherapy • Lower the SSRI and try a less sexual side effect-prone drug, such as

bupropion-XL (Wellbutrin-XL), trazodone-ER (Oleptro), mirtazapine (Remeron), vilazodone (Viibryd)

• Add bupropion-XL (Wellbutrin-XL) at doses of 300 mg/d or more to the SSRI/SGRI combination to alleviate his sexual dysfunction

• Add buspirone (BuSpar) to alleviate his sexual dysfunction

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PATIENT FILE

• Add sildenafil (Viagra) to alleviate his sexual dysfunction • Lower the SSRI and switch to a BZ as they have lower incidence of sexual

side effects

Case outcome: interim follow-up visits through five years • The patient completes graduate school and finds a permanent job in his

field of choice • Reports much new performance anxiety and hyperarousal around this • There is now stress in other areas of his life as well, but these create

more dysphoria and despondency suggesting possible onset of depressive illness

• Tolerates the same medication regimen with good effects until late in his fifth year of treatment when the adjustment issues and his GAD symptoms begin to escalate

• Begins seeing his psychotherapist again, and is unwilling to increase his SSRI any further

Question What would you do next?

• Nothing, as the psychotherapy should address his adjustment disorder issues

• Augment the current tiagabine plus paroxetine-CR combination with a third agent

• Switch his currently failing combination to an SNRI

Attending physician’s mental notes: interim follow-up visits through five years

• Patient has received a fair amount of anxiety stabilizing treatment from his current two medications (SSRI plus SGRI) for many years

• While there are certainly adjustment disorder issues here, he does genuinely have increased GAD symptoms

• His therapist provides PDP, thus giving him a course of CBT for his performance anxiety is unlikely to help now, as disturbing transference issues should be avoided

• As he is comfortable on his current medications, adding a third agent to re-establish his remission makes sense

Case outcome: interim follow-up visits through six years

• The patient considers much of his newer stress and dysphoria to arise from performance anxiety in his new work

• Starts propranolol (Inderal) up to 30 mg/d as needed, to use specifically for performance anxiety symptoms, and he does well

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PATIENT FILE

• For the baseline GAD symptoms, he continues on tiagabine (Gabitril) and paroxetine-CR (Paxil-CR) but is augmented next with L-methylfolate (Deplin) 7.5 mg/d – Ideally this can boost the anxiolytic effects of his SSRI and help avoid

the need to increase the SSRI further, thus avoiding sexual side effects

Note: L-methylfolate (Deplin) is an approved medical food that may boost

the effectiveness of antidepressants in treating depression. Why might this

work in anxiety disorders?

• SSRIs treat both depression and anxiety, so should L-methylfolate (Deplin) augmentation

• L-methylfolate theoretically enhances the one-carbon metabolic cycle, which lends to the ability of neurons to make more monoamines, such as serotonin

• L-methylfolate’s ability to escalate serotonin levels allows SSRIs to be more effective in that SERT inhibition now accounts for more synaptic serotonin availability when compared to those levels prior to augmentation – Essentially, the SSRI now has more serotonin to work with – This mechanism theoretically should enhance serotonin

antidepressant or anxiolytic efficacy in TRD or TRA • The patient does not respond to the L-methylfolate (Deplin)

augmentation and it is discontinued • Switches to a combination strategy where the 5-HT1A partial receptor

agonist-approved GAD anxiolytic, buspirone (BuSpar) 30 mg/d, is added to the SSRI paroxetine-CR (Paxil-CR) while the SGRI tiagabine (Gabitril) is tapered off and deemed to be ineffective at this point – Around this time, warnings that tiagabine may induce seizures in

certain non-epilepsy patients also led to the decision to not escalate it further and to discontinue its use

• The combination of buspirone/paroxetine-CR failed to obtain remission

Question

What would you do next?

• Insist he change to a CBT therapist • Augment with an alpha-2-delta calcium channel blocking antiepileptic

medication such as gabapentin (Neurontin) or pregabalin (Lyrica) • Deem that his SSRI is also ineffective and switch to an SNRI • Deem that his SSRI is also ineffective and switch to a BZ

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PATIENT FILE

Attending physician’s mental notes: interim visits through year six

• This patient is appearing to have more significant TRA now • He is being treated by a competent psychotherapist and is compliant

with his medications • He is very agitated at times, which is interfering with his work • Would like to use an as-needed BZ while we work out a longer-term

strategy, but worries about addiction given his family history • Failed an SSRI, a 5-HT1A receptor partial agonist, an antihistamine

anxiolytic, and an SGRI

Case outcome: interim follow-up visits through six years (continued)

• The patient agrees to taper off paroxetine-CR (Paxil-CR) and is started on an SNRI, duloxetine (Cymbalta), and is titrated to 60 mg/d – Its escalation further is limited by side effects of frequent headaches

and lightheadedness that do not dissipate with time • During this time, he is allowed 0.5 mg as needed and uses the BZ

GABA-A receptor PAM, alprazolam (Xanax), with close monitoring for misuse – Misuse does not occur and the anxiolytic is clinically effective while

awaiting the SNRI to become more effective • At the 60 mg/d monotherapy SNRI dose, the patient states that his GAD

symptoms are well controlled but not in remission – Still has fluctuating bouts of tenseness, irritability, and worry,

regardless of situational stress – No longer requires the as-needed alprazolam and it is

discontinued • In addition, states that one of the main residual complaints is

inattention, inability to focus on longer tasks. This leads to actual and perceived performance problems at work, raising his anxiety and dysphoria further – Interestingly, while physically injured recently and unable to exercise

for a few weeks, he realized he is routinely hyperactive – Reflects that he has been this way “since he was a kid”

Question Does this patient have ADHD that was missed in the initial evaluation?

• No, GAD has indecisiveness, inattention, poor concentration, and psychomotor agitation are key symptoms that can look identical to ADHD

• No, the ADHD was not diagnosed in his elementary school years and is not valid as an adult diagnosis as such

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PATIENT FILE

• Yes, his GAD has likely been treated to remission, his adjustment disorders have resolved, and these residual symptoms are likely comorbid ADHD that went undiagnosed for years

• Maybe, but it does not matter as inattention as a residual symptom of GAD or from comorbid ADHD may be treated by similar medications

Attending physician’s mental notes: interim visits through year six (continued)

• The patient’s history, in retrospect, makes a good case for long-standing inattention, which likely predates the GAD onset

• Despite adequate GAD treatment and resolution of social stressors, he is inattentive and not at his peak of possible wellness

• It would be a win–win situation if an augmentation agent could be utilized that might lower his remaining anxiety and also treat his inattentive symptoms

• As his SNRI, duolextine (Cymbalta), has full ability as an NRI, using an ADHD-approved NRI such as atomoxetine (Strattera) would be redundant and likely not be helpful

• Owing to intolerability, his current SNRI cannot be increased to gain better NRI effects

• Adding bupropion-XL (Wellbutrin-XL) might act in a novel manner as a DRI and redundantly as an NRI, would not risk addiction, but again is partially redundant given his SNRI use

• Adding a stimulant or wakefulness-promoting agent may work well for inattention, but escalate his anxiety as a side effect and further risk addiction

• Adding an alpha-2 receptor agonist, such as guanfacine-ER (Intuniv) (approved for child and adolescent ADHD) might allow for an improvement in ADHD-driven inattention or dampen anxiety further, secondarily improving inattention – There would be little risk of addiction or escalating his anxiety – This drug is also an antihypertensive, hence low blood pressure may

be a risk

Case debrief • GAD is one of the most common anxiety disorders • GAD is one of the highest comorbidities to occur in those suffering with

adult ADHD • A win–win situation occurs in this comorbidity when the SNRI class of

medications is able to treat the anxiety with its SNRI dual mechanism of action, and treat the ADHD symptoms specifically with the SNRI’s NRI mechanism – In this case, the patient experienced a partial ADHD and GAD clinical

response, but not remission

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• In order not to escalate this patient’s GAD symptoms or risk addiction, stimulants were avoided by using the ADHD medication, guanfacine-ER (Intuniv)

• This was added to his duloxetine (Cymbalta) and titrated to 2 mg/d • If the patient had comorbid depression (instead of GAD) and ADHD, then

a stimulant augmentation might be ideal as it would be less likely to aggravate anxiety (which would not be present), and might carry with it good antidepressant and procognitive effects

• In this patient, low-dose guanfacine-ER improved his attention, concentration, and anxiety to where he was deemed to be in remission from both GAD and ADHD

Take-home points

• There are several ways to treat GAD • Psychotherapy, SSRI, SNRI, 5-HT1A receptor partial agonism, anti-H1

receptor antagonism, and GABA-A receptor PAM are all mechanistic ways with solid evidence bases with regard to treating GAD symptoms

• Like depression, GAD can become more treatment resistant and the use of combination and augmentation strategies may be utilized in a method similar to that of treating depressive disorders, i.e., rational polypharmacy

• When combining/augmenting, clinicians should use drugs with different mechanisms of action instead of redundant mechanisms, as this may theoretically increase effectiveness and avoid additive side effects

• Some off-label medications may have limited data to support their use, but understanding each medication’s mechanism of action gives theoretical backing and permission to use it as long as the prescriber documents the rationale behind its use

• In this case, the SGRI mechanism of tiagabine (Gabitril) would be suggestive for anxiolysis as other medications that facilitate GABA activity (i.e., BZs) help anxiety as well

Performance in practice: confessions of a psychopharmacologist

• What could have been done better here?

– Instead of using polypharmacy approaches with a limited evidence base (e.g., SGRI), consider using solid approved monotherapies earlier for GAD, such as buspirone (BuSpar), Venlafaxine-ER (Effexor-XR), duloxetine (Cymbalta), etc.

– Instead of considering adult ADHD as a diagnosis of exclusion, evaluate this symptom complex earlier in care ◦ Perhaps use of a rating scale, such as the ASRS would help

• Possible action items for improvement in practice

– Research typical comorbidities and presentations for adult ADHD patients

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– Research diagnostic rating scales and instruments that may aid in diagnosing ADHD in adults

Tips and pearls • Antihypertensives are often used in psychopharmacology practice • Prazosin, an andrenergic alpha-1 receptor antagonist, is gaining

popularity for use in treating nightmares associated with PTSD • Propranolol, a beta-adrenergic receptor antagonist, has been a standard

approach in treating performance-type SAD for many years – It may also aid in treating and preventing PTSD if used quickly after

exposure to traumatic events • Clonidine and guanfacine, both adrenergic alpha-2 receptor agonists,

have been used for treating childhood ADHD, off-label, for many years – Clonidine, especially, has been used in an off-label manner to treat

agitation and insomnia associated with anxiety disorders as well – Slow-release preparations of clonidine and guanfacine are approved

for childhood ADHD now (Kapvay and Intuniv)

Mechanism of action moment

Why does adrenergic alpha-2 receptor agonism treat ADHD

symptoms?

• Stimulating presynaptic alpha-2 receptors in the LC, with the use of approved antihypertensive medications within this pharmacological family of medicines (e.g., guanfacine [Tenex] and clonidine [Catapres]), dampens adrenergic tone by reducing NE release, and thus causes a lowering of blood pressure

• Dampening of peripheral sympathetic, noradrenergic tone makes sense from an anxiolytic point of view in that palpitations, diaphoresis, tremulousness are driven by the sympathetic nervous system and diminished by certain antihypertensives – However, this mechanism may not explain how these drugs treat

ADHD, where good cortical noradrenergic tone is actually needed to treat ADHD symptoms

• The slow-release preparations of these medications are now approved for childhood ADHD (e.g., guanfacine-ER [Intuniv] and clonidine-ER [Kapvay]) – When prescribed for ADHD, they hypothetically stimulate

postsynaptic alpha-2 receptors on cortical glutamate pyramidal neurons, instead of those located presynaptically in brainstem regulatory centers that control blood pressure

– Centrally in the DLPFC, these noradrenergic agonist drugs hypothetically affect postsynaptic cortical heteroreceptors in that they bind to alpha-2 NE heteroreceptors located upon glutamate neurons

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Mechanism of Action of Alpha-2a Agonists Guanfacine-ER and Clonidine

prefrontal cortex

nucleus accumbens - no action

DAT

D1 D2

NE neuron

imidazoline receptor

sedation hypotension

clonidine

∝2B ∝2C ∝2A

NET

guanfacine ER

D1 D2

DA neuron

Figure 21.1. Mechanism of action of alpha-2a agonists guanfacine and clonidine.

• Alpha-2 adrenergic receptors – Are present throughout the CNS, including the prefrontal cortex, but

do not have high concentrations in the nucleus accumbens – In particular, are believed to mediate the inattentive, hyperactive, and

impulsive symptoms of ADHD, while other alpha-2 adrenergic receptors may have other functions

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• Clonidine is an alpha-2 adrenergic receptor agonist that is non-selective, and binds to alpha-2a, -2b, and -2c receptors – It also binds to imidazoline receptors, which contribute to its more

sedating and hypotensive effects as well – Although clonidine’s actions at alpha-2a receptors make it a

therapeutic option for ADHD, its actions at other receptors may increase side effects

– The slower-release preparation of clonidine (Kapvay) is approved for ADHD, keeping drug plasma levels lower and helping mitigate these side effects

• Guanfacine-ER (Intuniv) is a more selective alpha-2a receptor agonist, and thus has therapeutic efficacy with a reduced side-effect profile as it does not stimulate the alpha-2b and -2c receptors as much as clonidine products do

• In Figure 21.2A, a DLPFC glutamate pyramidal neuron is depicted • Situated on this neuron’s spine is an alpha-2a adrenergic heteroreceptor

and a D1 dopaminergic receptor • These are both connected via cAMP to cation channels called HCN

channels • If DA and NE act in concert and are in balance, binding their respective

receptors, then the HCN channels are opened to the appropriate size allowing the pyramidal glutamate neuron to fire efficiently – not too much and not too little

• If millions of these cortical neurons fire efficiently and in synchrony, adequate attention and concentration theoretically occur

• In ADHD, patients may have an imbalance in this cortical system, which allows inefficient processing with subsequent inattention

• In situations such as those with inattention due to ADHD, or even anxiety, these HCN channels may be out of balance

• In Figure 21.2B, endogenous NE may bind to an alpha-2a heteroreceptor and this will in turn close down its associated HCN channel – This allows the glutamate pyramidal neuron to retain some of its

internal electrical signal (it maintains or improves its signal to noise ratio) and to become focused on its own firing

– If this occurs, in millions of these neurons, the DLPFC may become more efficient and allow for better focus and concentration symptomatically

• It is at these alpha-2a receptor sites where ADHD medications such as clonidine-ER and guanfacine-ER may exert their anti-ADHD mechanism of action

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PATIENT FILE

Two-minute tutorial

Using antihypertensives in psychiatric practice

• Clinicians have to be aware and competent in their use – This may be achieved by reading each drug’s approved package

insert or by reviewing relative prescribing textbooks • All antihypertensives are antihypertensive; therefore, a key therapeutic

effect in patients with elevated blood pressure includes a lowering of the problematic blood pressure – However, in psychiatric care, many of our patients treated with

antihypertensives are actually normotensive, so that lowering their blood pressure may not be desired

• A standard of care likely should involve routine blood pressure monitoring in the office setting of the psychopharmacologist because – Many of our antidepressant medications that elevate NE may

increase blood pressure – Many of our medications that increase weight gain may increase

blood pressure – Many of our medications that antagonize alpha-2a or alpha-1

receptors may lower blood pressure • These three things likely encompass most prescribing practices, and

therefore, should drive better use of blood pressure monitoring

Clinical pearls should include

• In those patients who are normotensive, provide adequate informed consent and start at low doses of the antihypertensive drug being used

• Warn of common side effects: lightheadedness, dizziness, orthostasis, and syncope

• Suggest patients start treatment on a day where they can afford to lie down and not drive, if they need to combat fatigue or hypotensive side effects

• Initially suggest patients also increase fluids and salts if these side effects occur

• Start at a lower than normal dose when compared to patients suffering from essential HTN, and titrate more slowly to avoid side effects

• Consider teaching the patient to self-monitor at home with a commercially available automated blood pressure cuff/system

• A win–win scenario may occur if the patient is hypertensive from an idiopathic or iatrogenic point of view – For example, if the patient becomes hypertensive on an SNRI

(iatrogenic) or comes to your practice with essential HTN

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(idiopathic), then use of an antihypertensive becomes warranted for the HTN and for their ADHD, insomnia, or anxiety

– Clinicians, in these cases, may treat HTN and psychiatric symptoms simultaneously

Posttest self-assessment question and answer

How does an alpha-2a receptor agonist really improve attention?

A. It lowers NE output similar to its antihypertensive effects B. It promotes DA activity in the DLPFC secondarily C. It lowers GABA activity, which allows greater glutamate activity in the

thalamus D. It allows fine tuning of cortical pyramidal glutamate neurons to improve

signal to noise ratios in cortical information processing Answer: D As depicted in the figures in this case, specifically for inattention symptoms, these antihypertensive, alpha-2 noradrenergic receptor agonists act upon heteroreceptors. They modulate glutamate pyramidal neurons originating in the frontal cortex. In synchrony with other pyramidal neurons, alpha-2 receptor agonists improve signal to noise ratios and may fine tune neuronal firing, thus improving attention and concentration. Lowering NE tone for HTN reasons would not help attention. This is a separate mechanism of action. Alpha-2 agonists do not promote DA activity; rather they act in concert with endogenous DA activity, which occurs at the D1 receptor also situated on glutamate neurons. The alpha-2 agonists do not manipulate GABA in order to modulate glutamate neurons.

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