HHS 320 Cultural Awareness in the Human Services WK3-A
5 Sex, Gender, and Sexual Orientation Identity
Sex and gender are other influential factors in self-concept development—ones also affected by values and statuses assigned by society and cultural groups. In some situations and under certain circumstances, sex or gender may be a dominant factor influencing people to make particular decisions that establish their personal identity. In addition, unwarranted fears and oppressive acts cross social and cultural groups and unfairly discriminate against people because of their gender, sexuality, and sexual orientation identity (Robinson, 2005). Sexism, when acted out by a single person, embraced by certain groups, or promulgated through socially accepted customs, has an impact on both individual development and the collective beliefs of society. Therefore, sex, gender, sexuality, and sexual orientation identity are significant social and cultural variables for professional helpers to consider and understand in providing effective assistance with all clients.
This chapter explores the meaning of sex, gender, and sexual orientation identity as they relate to and influence self-concept development. According to Hamachek (1992), a first step in the process of self-identity is to establish a gender identity, “which is a boy’s and girl’s awareness and acceptance of his or her basic biological nature as a male or female” (p. 236). Biological sex, therefore, is the precursor to gender identity and ultimately sexual orientation identity. The title of this chapter includes all three factors in a seemingly sequential process, realizing that they do not illustrate stages of development, nor do they convey distinct terms unrelated to one another. Sex, gender, and sexuality are closely related concepts that interact with biological traits, social constructs, and cultural beliefs in a complex process of influences to a person’s identity. To comprehend this influence, we begin with a brief exploration of biological sex.
The human body is a marvelous and complex organism that under normal circumstances produces offspring as one of two possible sexes, female or male. What distinguishes these two sexes biologically is a single pair of chromosomes in each human cell. In the usual case, human cells have 46 chromosomes arranged in 23 pairs. The first 22 pairs of chromosomes are autosomes and they consist of identical genetic material in males and females. The 23rd pair of chromosomes, called sex chromosomes, is different for females and males (Wachtel, 1994).
Sex
The resulting sex of a newborn is a biological outcome that begins during the second month of gestation. Genetic material in the sex chromosome activates production of proteins thereby causing a successive chain of hormonal activity, ultimately leading to the development of either an XY (normal male) or XX (normal female) sex chromosome. On rare occasions, aberrant development results. For example, sometimes only 45 chromosomes (XO, female) exist, known as Turner’s syndrome, or an additional 47th chromosome (XXY, male) is found, called Klinefelter’s syndrome. Turner’s syndrome is a rare chromosomal disorder of females that typically results in shortness of height and minimal sexual development, and occasionally other physical abnormalities. Klinefelter’s syndrome affects males and results in minimal testicle growth with low sperm count, which generally leaves subjects infertile. Behavioral indicators of Klinefelter’s syndrome include delayed speech, motor function, and maturational development. Examination of normal and aberrant chromosome counts concludes that the absence or presence of the Y chromosome triggers hormonal and protein activity that determines the sex of a human being (Ridley, 1999; Wachtel, 1994).
Research on biological sex has found some differences between females and males. A few years ago, such a statement would have been an affront to women and their strides toward equality for both sexes. Today, through scientific discovery and particularly genetic research, we know that at first glance, the male-determining Y chromosome, consisting of only 25 genes, seems deficient in comparison to the female-determining X chromosome with over 1,000 genes. However, a part of the Y chromosome has one powerful gene, called Sry, which triggers hormones that play a dominant role in male development (Therman & Susman, 1993). This genetic variance instigates diverse hormonal activity between sexes, and these combined processes cause differences in brain development and resulting behavior patterns. Some notable findings (Kimura, 2002; Kreeger, 2002):
• Men typically have larger brains than women do, but the female brain is more densely organized, which facilitates thought processing.
• Part of the anterior hypothalamus gland, a tiny structure at the base of the brain that regulates reproduction, is larger in men than in women. Variations in the size of the hypothalamus gland may relate to sexual identity, suggesting a biological link to sexual orientation and gender identity.
• Although intellectual differences between sexes are not definitive, researchers have found differences when studies consider specific patterns of functioning and ability. For example, in laboratory studies men typically outperform women on spatial tasks, mathematical reasoning, targeting moving objects, and navigation through a maze. Women, on average, outperform men on measurements such as word recall, verbal fluency, matching items, object memory, and precision manual tasks. Some cognitive and skill differences have been found between young girls and boys as early as 3 years old, leading to increased speculation of hormonal contributions.
• Hormonal deprivation or overstimulation influences sex development and related functioning. For example, production of abnormally large quantities of adrenal androgens in girls might result in play with toys and activities typically associated with masculinity in U.S. culture.
• Studies continue to find a relationship between sex-based differences and vulnerability to particular autoimmune diseases. For example, rheumatoid arthritis tends to occur more frequently in women.
The findings summarized above are examples of some scientific discoveries that suggest biological sex differences (Kimura, 2002; Kreeger, 2002). Much more research is required to make firm conclusions. Just as researchers are finding no meaningful genetic differences between racial groups yet more significant variance within groups, similar results emerge from between sex studies. As Kimura (2002) summarized, “On the whole, variation between men and women tends to be smaller than deviations within each sex, but very large differences between the groups do exist—in men’s high level of visual-spatial targeting ability, for one” (p. 2).
The social consequences of research findings on sex differences play out in legislative arenas, courtrooms, pharmaceutical companies, and other decision-making venues. Scientific and medical discoveries regarding sex differences influence public perception and have implications for laws passed, court decisions rendered, drugs manufactured and marketed, and a host of other social, legal, and economic choices. Often, scientific findings and conclusions influence perceptions and decisions that are either favorable or unfavorable to women or men. Offering one historical example, Robinson (2005) noted, “Menstruation has been perceived of as an impediment and an illness, and menopause has been labeled a disease and a social problem” (p. 214).
What do these research findings mean for how counselors and human service workers might help clients? First, professional helpers might keep in mind that research of biological differences are similar to other types of group studies and thereby illustrate variance of findings across the group. Therefore, practitioners cannot apply group results with precision to individual clients because they do not know exactly where on the spectrum of statistical variance a particular client might fall. For example, if a study verifies that men, on average, perform differently than women on a spatial relationship test, this conclusion is made from variances in mean scores on the test. However, some women in the study might have scored significantly higher than some male subjects did. Therefore, the range of scores for women subjects overlaps the range of scores for men in the study, even though the mean scores between the two groups statistically are significantly different. Consequently, where a female client falls in the spectrum of spatial relationship scores cannot be certain unless her test results are available and compared with the overall population. Generalizing the results of one study or a group of studies to a particular female or male client could be an error that does disservice to the client. The potential for this type of error exists when counselors generalize research findings to any of their clients.
Biological differences are only one of numerous variables that contribute to human development and functioning. Environmental influences, family factors, cultural traditions, and individual perceptions are among the variables that combine with biology to produce a functioning human being. Understanding the role that all these factors play helps us move from knowledge and awareness about biological sex to comprehension of gender differences and gender roles in society.
Gender
Use of the terms sex and gender is often inconsistent in both popular and scientific literature. The greatest confusion comes from the synonymous use of these terms by authors from all areas of literature, government agencies, and scientific study. This confusion inhibits understanding of important theoretical assumptions as well as scientific findings, and equally important, causes misunderstanding and disagreement among legislators, policy makers, and the public about vital social and cultural issues. This text uses the term sex to indicate biological identity as either female or male. In contrast, gender refers to people’s self-beliefs and representations of themselves as female or male, or how society responds to people’s depiction of themselves. To assess your understanding of the terms, complete Exercise 5.1 “The Gender Quiz” and compare your responses to those of other classmates.
The sex of a newborn may be determined biologically, but how parents, grandparents, other relatives, and society respond and assign value to one sex or another has tremendous impact on self-concept development. Thanks to the development of sophisticated medical technology, expectant parents are now able to identify biological sex before birth. Sonograms using ultrasound technology (sonography) allow visual identification with good, but not absolute, reliability during the first trimester of pregnancy.
Exercise 5.1
The Gender Quiz
Instructions: Mark each statement True or False. Compare your responses to those of other classmates.
_____
1.
After the birth of a newborn, it is appropriate (and accurate) to ask the proud parents about its gender.
_____
2.
As a term, sex has dichotomous meaning.
_____
3.
The terms gender and sex are synonymous.
_____
4.
The sex of a newborn male is masculine.
_____
5.
People have only one of two possible gender orientations, so it is a dichotomous concept.
_____
6.
A person’s sex always conforms to societal gender interpretations.
_____
7.
To be psychologically healthy, males must identify with the masculine gender and females must identify with the feminine gender.
_____
8.
Other animal species also identify by gender.
_____
9.
Gender is a given trait rarely influenced by experience.
_____
10.
It is appropriate to use the term sex when referring to a person as either masculine or feminine.
The social implications of these procedures, current and future, are that a newborn child enters a world that is already prepared for a particular sex based on common cultural traditions and beliefs. For example, when traditional-thinking parents-to-be in the United States find out their child will be a girl, they might cover the nursery in pink or other pastels. The parents would decorate the room with beautiful curtains, lovely dolls, and cuddly stuffed animals. In contrast, another set of parents might want to “liberate” their daughter from traditional beliefs. They paint the nursery with vibrant colors and fill it with artifacts, playthings, and visual images that could appeal to children of either sex. In both situations, each set of parents takes steps to begin influencing their daughter’s perception of biological sex and gender roles that she might adopt in life.
Exercise 5.2
Gender Role Development
Interview your parents or a close relative who has known you since birth. Ask them about your development as a male or female. Ask them about masculine and feminine roles you adopted or that you exhibited in early childhood. What contributions did they make toward your gender role development? How do their recollections balance or merge with the way you perceive your gender roles today?
As part of your development as a healthy and competent professional helper, it is appropriate to consider how your parents’ behavior may have affected your gender identity. Complete Exercise 5.2 as part of this journey.
As noted, gender is a combination of biological sex and social construction. Ridley (1999) concluded, “The brain is an organ with innate gender. The evidence from the genome, from imprinted genes and genes for sex-linked behaviours, now points to the same conclusion” (p. 218). In sum, we must consider both nature and nurture when contemplating gender roles. The nurturing side of this issue includes cultural influences important to the dynamics of helping relationships with clients.
Gender and Culture
Since the dawn of humankind, the formation of social groups, the establishment of societal customs, and the development of countless cultures across the globe, people and societies have manifested gender differences. As noted, this process has been a combined influence of biological sex differences and cultural beliefs passed down generation after generation. In prehistoric times, it may not have been accidental that men were the hunters and women the gatherers. Yet, sex differences in contemporary society are rivaled by cultural influences on male and female role development and subsequently on each individual’s identity.
In their examination of the relationship between gender and culture, Davenport and Yurich (1991) noted, “some generalizations can be made transculturally” (p. 64). For example, across most cultures women are the caregivers and exhibit characteristics of gentleness, nurturing, and dependence. In contrast, transcultural expectations of men generally are that they will be in control, powerful, and sexually dominant. As Davenport and Yurich (1991) indicated, these expectations influence the emerging self of both genders and consist of both negative and positive attributes. They wrote, “The costs of such superimposed, arbitrary structure are that the structure not only rules out certain potentialities as nonlegitimate but also sets as requisites to esteem certain qualities and behaviors that are not possible or even desirable for all people to attain” (Davenport & Yurich, 1991, p. 64).
As an example of social structure that sets requirements for behaviors, consider the power of communication in society and how men and women as public speakers were viewed from the birth of America to the present-day United States. In this instance, we have come light years in changing cultural beliefs and bridging the equality gap between women and men. However, it was not always this way. From colonial days when people ridiculed, shunned, and banned from town women who communicated their opinions in public to present-day institutions where women hold high public office, are celebrity broadcasters and noted orators, we have witnessed significant change (Borisoff & Merrill, 1992). Nevertheless, stereotypical views about communication styles and gender differences persist. For example, a common view is, “Unlike the women activists … the stereotypically feminine speaker is soft spoken, self-effacing, and compliant. More emotional than logical, she is prone to be disorganized and subjective” (Borisoff & Merrill, 1992, p. 9). In contrast, the masculine stereotype “is that of a speaker who is direct, confrontative, forceful and logical; the few well-chosen words are focused on making a particular point” (Borisoff & Merrill, 1992, p. 13).
Stereotypic views of gender differences are not unique to U.S. society. Counselors and human service professionals understand how various cultural groups perceive gender differences and the impact those beliefs might have on male and female clients and on helping relationships. For illustrative purposes, the following paragraphs describe some common (and in some cases, stereotypical) beliefs about different cultural groups. For students learning this information for the first time, caution is warranted about applying these beliefs to particular members of identified cultural groups. These are only a sample of beliefs published in the literature that may or may not be applicable to individual clients or other persons who happen to identify with a particular culture.
African American culture traditionally has viewed women equal in status with men. This is in contrast with the patriarchal structure that historically existed in African cultures where a common view was that women were inferior to men. One consequence of the American slave trade was to diminish this patriarchal structure, placing men and women on an equal yet powerless footing. According to Davenport and Yurich (1991), the oppressive conditions of slavery for African American men and women dismissed “any illusions they had that men were superior to and/or capable of protecting women” (p. 68). An outgrowth of such oppression is that American Black women have cultivated a history of independence, working outside the home while at the same time maintaining leadership of the family. African American females tend to include a multitude of roles in the process of developing their self-identity, and these roles frequently involve work and family (Porter, 2000a). A stereotypical view of African American women, however, is that because of their ability to handle so many tasks, they do not need support or assistance (Harrison, 1989). As Porter (2000a) emphasized, the perpetuation of this stereotype and individual internalization of the impression of a strong self-sufficient woman fails “to acknowledge and recognize the stress it engenders resulting from the tremendous amount of energy required to live up to such standards” (p. 189).
High unemployment rates and lower educational achievement among Black males have had historic effect. In the decades since slavery ended in the United States, the outcomes of this enormous social tragedy have continued to influence African American male status. Largely, the negative effects on male roles can be attributed, in part, to continued economic oppression and denied access to equal educational opportunity. Such an outcome leads many African American men to feel marginalized in trying to overcome obstacles and provide for their families (Brooks, Haskins, & Kehe, 2004).
Historic discrimination and oppression has in essence rebuffed many African American males from taking advantage of educational opportunity, achieving gainful employment, and ultimately sharing power with others in society. In contrast, the independence claimed by many Black women has encouraged entry into educational arenas that often leads to higher employment opportunity. Some evidence suggests that at the turn of the twenty-first century African American women in general were more motivated to enter and complete college than African American males (Cokley, 2001). Consequently, stereotypical views perpetuate the depiction of self-sufficient African American women as opposed to “Black men who are caricatured as shiftless and irresponsible” (Davenport & Yurich, 1991, p. 69). At the same time, some studies indicate that African American men report higher levels of self-worth than their female counterparts and also attach greater significance to spirituality and religious behavior (Parker, Ortega, & Hill, 1999).
Today, educational achievement of both African American men and women is opening economic pathways and employment opportunities that allow them to elevate themselves and their families. Nevertheless, the gap between White and Black educational attainment and economic power in American society continues to be a significant barrier. Unintentional and intentional practices in schools and society in general contribute to this challenge. In 1987, Sadker and Sadker wrote in their classic work about the hidden curriculum that schools send messages, perhaps unintended but powerful, to students about roles their gender and/or race should take. Nearly twenty years later, stories and pictures in readers, textbooks, and other media used for instruction frequently offer hidden messages that discourage or encourage particular behaviors based on race or gender. Efforts to eradicate such unintentional messages continue, but schools and publishers need to do much more.
Regarding gender differences, White culture in the United States has moved through countless transitions over the decades. Still, some stereotypic views persist, and as social and political pendulums swing back and forth, variations of old themes reemerge. For example, the twenty-first century has included perspectives between the “career woman” and the “stay-at-home mom.” At the same time, uncertain economic conditions, changing legal perspectives, and advanced career opportunities have created the “househusband,” “single dad,” and “stay-at-home dad” phenomena. These changing patterns and views will likely contribute to identity dilemmas for both female and male clients in the mental health and human service arenas.
Porter (2000a) noted that the plight of Native American women in comparison to their male counterparts is their “invisibility” (p. 189). Yet, women of Native American heritage suffer the same poverty, lower education, and physical and mental health issues that men do. Historic trauma and unresolved grief among Native Americans have contributed to social and personal problems “such as alcoholism, suicide, homicide, domestic violence, child abuse, and negative career ideation” (Trimble & Thurman, 2002, p. 56). These mental health and social issues are shared by both men and women. In learning and understanding about gender differences among Native Americans, counselors and other professional helpers note the multiple identities existing among people of various heritage. Similar to the number of cultures that comprise Asian or Pacific Islander identities, “a Native individual’s multiple identities can be influenced by that individual’s tribal lifeways and thoughtways, which may be at variance with conventional expectations and proscriptions” (Trimble & Thurman, 2002, p. 56). Garrett (1995) reported that the U.S. government recognizes over 500 tribes with more than 250 languages and many nations. Because language provides a foundation for expressing cultural beliefs, it is the platform upon which communities.
describe, accept, and reject gender issues and sexual behaviors. Therefore, gender and sexual differences may be influenced by multiple factors including language that counselors and human service providers might not apply consistently or with certainty across Native American groups.
Porter (2000a) mentioned some historic gender differences across Native American groups. She noted that before European explorers and settlers arrived, Native American women held positions of authority in their families, had considerable power in their tribes, and owned and cultivated land that they inherited from their mothers. The Europeans, according to Porter (2000a), imposed paternalistic and patriarchal structures, which caused Native American women to lose power and status. This legacy regrettably continues in many instances, contributing to the social and cultural outlook of Native American women.
Asian women face the stereotypic view of being passive, shy, and detached. A common perspective is that women of Asian heritage defer to male authority, and this view, according to Bradshaw (1994), is perpetuated and accepted among Asian cultures. Zane, Morton, Chu, and Lin (2004) noted, “Although there is a trend towards increasing gender equality, Asian cultures tend to encourage men and women to hold different responsibilities and to abide by rules of conduct that emphasize social stability over individual rights” (p. 199).
The challenge of identifying gender differences in Asian groups is complicated by the number of various cultures categorized as either Asian or Pacific Islander. Still, the literature notes that large numbers of Asian and Pacific Islander women face the stress of acculturation to American society while taking menial jobs to provide financial support for their family. This new marital role frequently meets with disapproval from Asian or Pacific Islander men who view their newly acquired household chores as demeaning and insulting to the masculine role (Sandu, Leung, & Tang, 2003).
Among Arab cultures, some gender roles are commonly misinterpreted (Erickson & Al-Timimi, 2004). For example, although Arab men are generally head of the house, women control their own money and property, giving them an important source of influence. In Arab families, women’s influence in decision-making processes usually is done privately, presenting a contrasting public view of more passive behavior. Erickson & Al-Timimi (2004) observed that Americans often misinterpret this difference between private influence and public persona as Arab women being overly dominated and oppressed by men. Although some Arab women have legitimate complaints about gender roles and differences, Erickson and Al-Timimi continued, “Arab women’s status varies considerably with socioeconomic background and religious conservatism” (2004, p. 241), a pattern similar to American culture.
Earlier in this section, information about Native American cultures noted how the variance of language might influence attitudes and behaviors about sexual identity and behavior. Language influences these processes in all cultures, and is particularly notable among Spanish-speaking cultures. Machismo, hembrismo, and marianísmo are beliefs of Latino cultures that illustrate gender role differences. Sometimes misinterpreted as male sexual dominance, machismo more accurately means “men’s prescribed role as breadwinner, reliable father and spouse, and protector of the family” (Arredondo & Perez, 2003, p. 123). Finding roots in the Catholic belief of the Blessed Virgin Mary, marianísmo holds that women should demonstrate caring, nurture their families, and lead virtuous lives. Hembrismo presents the expectation that women fulfill a multitude of roles in and out of the home (Gloria, Ruiz, & Castillo, 2004). Sometimes, adherence to these values is viewed as submissive and passive behavior, which causes conflict for Latinas who attempt to acculturate to American values.
Bacigalupe (2000) emphasized that language plays an important role in defining gender issues for Spanish-speaking cultures. “We are unavoidably immersed in the world of gender characterized by oppositional terms for male and female: el/ella, eso/esa, el/la” (Bacigalupe, 2000, p. 34). To make this more challenging, Spanish language applies gender terms to inanimate objects and abstract concepts as well as to people and animals. Bacigalupe (2000) explains, “the ocean and the sky are masculine … the earth and writing are feminine” (p. 34). At the same time, there are no terms to define homosexual lifestyles, which emphasizes a dichotomous sexual world “that may preclude the realities of Latino gays in families and couples” (p. 34).
In addition to what we have learned about gender differences by studying various cultures, research continues to discover behavioral differences between genders. These findings offer general views that might be helpful in understanding male and female client behavior, particularly self-concept development.
Gender and Identity
If gender role is a product of societal expectation and cultural tradition, then how individuals perceive these factors, incorporate them into their self-view and ultimately their world-view, and act upon this understanding defines their interpretation of feminine and masculine roles. More important, this unique perceptual process helps each person establish a gender identity. All the factors considered thus far in this chapter—biological sex, societal norms, cultural influence, and others—combine with a person’s experiences and unique interpretation of those experiences to reach conclusions about gender roles.
Psychological studies have found that the personal conclusions drawn about gender roles are not static (Papalia & Olds, 1992). Rather, they change as persons move through developmental stages and as societal changes occur. For example, researchers have noted that as girls move through adolescence they often exhibit changes in self-confidence and self-worth. Some studies have shown that adolescent girls show a decline in self-esteem. If true, this finding might be explained by gender phenomena, biological influences, or a combination of factors. At the same time, the biological differences between girls and boys, such as structural differences in brain size and functioning and dissimilar hormonal activity, help explain, in part, various cognitive functioning, emotional and physical expression, and problem-solving styles (Papalia & Olds, 1992).
Two social identifiers that interact with a person’s decision about gender role are the terms masculine and feminine. Generally, masculine behaviors and traits are associated with males and feminine characteristics with females. Depending on cultural beliefs and traditions, societies place different values on femininity and masculinity, and often it is the masculine gender and the male sex that gains preference. As Robinson (2005) explained, “Gender is a status characteristic that manifests in multiple ways throughout society. Males tend to enter into the world as the preferred sex” (p. 151). Although American society has experienced significant change in gender role differences in recent years, many indicators point to continued disparities between men and women, which supports the notion that being male is preferable. As an example, the significant difference between pay for men and women who perform essentially the same work continues across the labor force and in various professions.
Masculine and feminine characteristics are not absolute or definitive qualities. We view these traits on a continuum of characteristics that, at the same time, are influenced by particular situations. Some men, for example, might exhibit a range of emotional expression depending on the circumstance. It is possible, therefore, that an American man might express sincerity and sentimental feelings, typically identified in western culture as more feminine than masculine characteristics, while mourning the loss of a parent. Soon after, this same man might demonstrate competitiveness, dominance, or other masculine traits as the family seeks leadership to make plans for the future. Likewise, females also are capable of incorporating a range of feminine and masculine responses to various situations. Sometimes, a women’s use of masculine qualities to help in career advancement is greeted by disparaging remarks, such as “She acts like a man.” Similarly, men who embrace feminine qualities are “sissies” or called other unkind names by people who experience discomfort with men who express emotion openly or demonstrate other qualities commonly identified as being more feminine than masculine.
How a person processes social, psychological, and biological factors into formulating a gender identity is a significant part of the developing self-concept. Return to Figure 2.2 presented in Chapter 2, which explains the influence of society and culture on the developing self-concept. Through this figure, we might see how gender identity contributes to self-concept development. The diagram illustrates several social and cultural factors and perceptions, including gender, which, depending on their proximity to “My Self,” influence a person’s self-view and, ultimately, the choices related to self-identity. If we adapt that diagram to focus on gender identity and the influence of biological sex, the result might look like Figure 5.1. As with the original diagram (Figure 2.2), the proximity of perceptions and beliefs (the smaller spirals) to the core of the self-concept (“My Self”) indicates the power and influence they have. Use Figure 5.1 to complete Exercise 5.3.
Ultimately, a person’s perception about sex, gender roles, and masculine and feminine characteristics interact with her or his biological makeup to influence decisions about sexuality and acceptance of one’s sexual orientation. This is a momentous process with implications for self-concept development, social acceptance, and cultural identification.
Sexual Orientation Identity
Every day we learn new scientific research about biological factors that contribute to human behavior. Few behaviors receive more interest, or are more hotly debated in the United States, than those that relate to sexual preference and sexual orientation identity (LeVay & Hamer, 1994; Myers, 2004; Stein, 1999).
Over the years, various theories have attempted to link sexual orientation to mental fitness, family structure and constellations, biological factors such as genetic difference or hormonal imbalance, and unintended learning due to experiences or encounters with homosexual behavior. Despite volumes of theoretical literature and research reports, no single idea has emerged with a definitive explanation, and no scientific research has produced findings that demonstrate with certainty any specific environmental influences as the determining factors in sexual orientation identity. This lack of certainty is significant because of the debate about helping gay, lesbian, and bisexual people change their sexual orientation and the stress, guilt, and loss that parents and families experience when a child, sibling, or parent comes out. From all the research over the past fifty years and more, no one can say what or how environmental factors influence sexual orientation (Myers, 2004).
FIGURE 5.1 Influence of Sex and Gender Identity on the Self-Concept
Exercise 5.3
Review Figure 5.1. As a counselor or human service professional who might be working with a client exhibiting this self-concept profile, what conclusions would you draw and how would you proceed to help this client if the identified concern is gender confusion? Share your ideas in class discussion.
Theories and Research Findings
The oldest theory, one that related homosexuality to mental illness, was debunked following a classic study by Hooker in 1957. Her study found no support for the belief that homosexuality was linked to mental illness. Hooker’s findings, followed by those of other researchers who reached similar conclusions, propelled changes in public opinion and policy, and eventually compelled the American Psychiatric Association (APA) to change its classification of homosexuality as a mental disorder. Today, the APA’s latest edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM IV-TR) makes no mention of homosexuality (neither gay nor lesbian terms appear in the manual) as a mental disorder to treat (American Psychiatric Association, 2000).
So far, no definitive scientific study has linked sexual orientation to family structure or chance learning. Some preliminary findings suggest a possible link to genetic and hormonal factors, but these results are tentative and, like environmental factors, strongly debated within and outside the scientific community. Yet, continuing research seems to verify a relationship among various biological factors and sexual orientation identity.
Authors often cite the work of LeVay and Hamer to support a biological link to sexual orientation (LeVay, 1993; LeVay & Hamer, 1994). Their initial finding came from LeVay’s examination of brain cell clusters taken from sections of the anterior hypothalamus of heterosexual and homosexual people who had died. He discovered that the cell clusters of heterosexual men were consistently larger than they were for women and homosexual men (Myers, 2004). Although critics have noted that some of LeVay’s subjects had died of AIDS, which might have affected their brains, subsequent studies of both animal and human subjects have supported the hypothesis that some parts of the brains in heterosexual and homosexual men differ in size (Allen & Gorski, 1992; Myers, 2004).
Scientific studies also suggest that genetics may have a role in sexual orientation. This speculation generally comes from studies of twins, both identical and fraternal, where one or both of the twins were homosexual. Similarly, studies of hormonal activity during the middle trimester of pregnancy indicate some influence of a person’s disposition to be attracted to one sex over another (Myers, 2004).
As noted, scientific findings that indicate a possible link to biological factors and sexual orientation are not without critics or controversy. Some researchers, such as Stein (1999), debate whether sexual orientation is simply an “either-or” phenomenon, meaning that it is essentially binary or bipolar in nature. Critics also note that sexual orientation is more complex and even inclusive than some biological researchers might believe.
Today, the general view among researchers and practitioners in the field is that sexual orientation is the outcome of a complex process of interacting biological, social, and personal factors. The process of being heterosexual or homosexual, therefore, is influenced by many variables. Bem (2000) suggested that although biological research seems to overwhelm current literature and findings about sexual orientation identity, developmental understanding of how these factors interact with social and cultural experiences helps to comprehend this vital aspect of the human condition. As the helping professions move toward greater understanding, clear terminology will be helpful.
erminology
Several terms describe sexual orientation and attitudes about it. Heterosexuality is the orientation of being attracted to the opposite sex (female–male) for physical and emotional satisfaction. Homosexuality is the orientation of being attracted to the same sex (male–male; female–female) for physical and emotional satisfaction. Bisexuality is an orientation that includes attraction to both sexes. Robinson (2005) suggested that these categories of sexuality orientation might be on a continuum as illustrated in Figure 5.2. One problem with this illustration is that it seems to define sexual orientation as an absolute quality or condition in every person.
FIGURE 5.2 An Illustration of Sexual Orientation as a Continuum
Another perspective might be that sexual orientation results from the multiple factors alluded to earlier, and is guided or influenced by situational and environmental events. Such a perspective might illustrate sexual orientation identity as consisting of overlapping constructs with one dominant point of reference. Figure 5.3 attempts to illustrate this alternate perspective using circles and overlapping areas to denote three interrelated orientations. In this diagram, the size of a particular circle or area represents its prevalence in the person’s sexual identity. The illustrations in Figure 5.3 show two clients (A and B) with different sexual orientations. Client A leads a mostly heterosexual lifestyle, yet has strong homosexual leanings, with subsequently bisexual interests. Client B is predominantly homosexual with virtually no bisexuality and limited heterosexual interest.
Among members of the human species, the common orientation is to be heterosexual. Regrettably, this reality too frequently translates into other orientations being described as sinful, unnatural, or disturbed. Some terms that relate to this type of absolute thinking include heterosexism and homophobia. Heterosexism is the perception that all persons are heterosexual in their orientation. Therefore, it is the preferred and superior lifestyle. Robinson (2005) noted, “Heterosexism is institutionalized through religion, education, and the media” (p. 188). Heterosexism denies value for other forms of sexual orientation and desire.
FIGURE 5.3 Illustrations of Sexual Orientation as Multiple Perspectives
Homophobia is a relatively new term in the psychological arena of understanding sexual orientation. People described as homophobic express irrational fears about people who exhibit signs of accepting or using behaviors related to same-sex forms of sexual desire and orientation. Because heterosexism and homophobia have had such devastating effects on people with divergent sexual orientations, new terms have emerged, particularly during the feminist movement, to describe and differentiate sexual preferences and orientations (Robinson, 2005). As an example, lesbian (derived from the Greek island of Lesbos where the poet Sappho wrote verses about women) is often preferred by homosexual women to describe their lifestyle.
Sexual Orientation Identity and Development Models
Typically, heterosexual people do not think much about their sexual identity or development due to societal assumptions about “normal” behavior (Fassinger, 2000). Nevertheless, the early work of Sigmund Freud (1946) and Erik Erikson (1968) among others either relegated same-sex behaviors to unhealthy lifestyles or ignored them altogether. More recently, some researchers and theorists, such as Eliason (1995) and Sullivan (1998), have outlined stages and processes to describe heterosexual orientation identity. As with other aspects of self-identity, the process of recognizing and accepting one’s sexual orientation has attributes and behaviors that can be understood by using stages of development. Building on earlier models and research, Worthington, Savoy, Dillon, and Vernaglia (2002) proposed a multidimensional model of heterosexual identity development that considers combined biological, psychological, and social influences. The model
distinguishes two parallel, reciprocal processes: (a) an individual sexual identity process involving recognition and acceptance of, and identification with, one’s sexual needs, values, sexual orientation and preferences for activities, partner characteristics, and modes of sexual expression and (b) a social identity process involving the recognition of oneself as a member of a group of individuals with similar sexual identities … and attitudes toward sexual minorities. (p. 510)
Six biopsychosocial influences in heterosexual identity development described by Worthington and colleagues (2002) include (1) biology, (2) systemic homonegativity, sexual prejudice, and privilege, (3) culture, (4) microsocial context, (5) religious orientation, and (6) gender norms and socialization. At the same time, this model considers multiple dimensions within the two processes of individual identity and social identity mentioned earlier. Dimensions in the individual identity process are:
(a) identification and awareness of one’s sexual needs, (b) adoption of personal sexual values, (c) awareness of preferred sexual activities, (d) awareness of preferred characteristics of sexual partners, (e) awareness of preferred modes of sexual expression, and (f) recognition and identification with sexual orientation. (Worthington et al., 2002, p. 512)
Dimensions in the social identity process include (1) group membership identity and (2) attitudes toward sexual minorities. Furthermore, this model suggests that individual and social identity process these dimensions according to five statuses or stages experienced by the person: (a) unexplored commitment, (b) active exploration, (c) diffusion, (d) deepening and commitment, and (e) synthesis. According to the authors, “the model should be thought of as flexible, fluid descriptions of statuses that people may pass through as they develop their sexual identity” (Worthington et al., 2002, p. 512). Figure 5.4 illustrates the parallel processes, biopsychosocial influences, dimensions, and statuses of the multidimensional model of heterosexual orientation identity (Worthington et al., 2002).
FIGURE 5.4 Multidimensional Model of Heterosexual Orientation Identity
Source: Adapted from Worthington, R. L., Savoy, H. B., Dillon, F. R., & Vernaglia, E. R. (2002). Heterosexual identity development: A mutidimensional model of individual and social identity. The Counseling Psychologist, 30, 496–531.
Persons who have come out—meaning that they have accepted and announced their homosexuality—identify themselves as gay, and some developmental models of homosexual orientation identity have appeared in the literature over the past several decades. Cass’s (1979, 1984) model of gay identity formation is one (Baruth & Manning, 1999; Robinson, 2005). According to this model, a person generally processes six stages of development. Some people, however, remain stuck at particular stages, while others regress to earlier stages or skip stages to move to new levels of understanding and accepting their sexual orientation and identity. Other models of sexual identity also use stage theory, and three examples are briefly presented here:
Coleman’s Model (1982). This is a five-stage model that presents social pressures inherent in the different stages of development. The stages include pre-coming out, coming out, exploration, first relationships, and integration.
Morales’s Model (1989). A five-stage model, this theory suggests an identity process for racial and ethnic minorities who are also gay or lesbian persons. The stages include denial of conflicts, bisexual versus gay/lesbian, conflicts in allegiances, establishing priorities in allegiance, and integrating various communities.
Troiden’s Model (1989). This theory suggests a four-stage model that includes sensitization, identity confusion, identity assumption, and commitment.
In addition to general models of homosexual identity development mentioned above, some theorists have presented stage models specifically for understanding lesbian development (Falco, 1991; McCarn & Fassinger, 1996; Sophie, 1985). The following descriptions offer brief summaries of stages of homosexual identity development as gleaned from various models presented or mentioned above. It is a composite view identifying five possible stages of development.
Awareness and Confusion.
A person moves into initial stages of sexual development with many unanswered questions about his or her sexuality. However, information about heterosexuality and homosexuality seems pertinent to the individual. As this information becomes more personally relevant, the individual faces increasing confusion and a lack of congruency in life. Some behaviors associated with this stage of development might be inhibition, denial, and expression of innocence regarding certain homosexual-type encounters. For example, a person might disavow a particular homosexual encounter or experience by redefining the behavior within the context it was exhibited. Robinson (2005) offered these examples of such rationalization: “I was just experimenting,” and “It was an accident” (p. 194). Other behavior observed during early stages might be serious inquiry into homosexuality as an initial step to learn about sexual orientation. Such behavior might move the person toward the next stage of development.
Identity Comparison and Group Association.
At this stage, the person begins to explore the possibility of being gay. He or she moves from self-criticism and denial toward dealing with social isolation, alienation, and hostility from family members, peers, and associates. The person recognizes the existence of varying sexual orientations and might begin associating with gay or lesbian people. At the same time, the person faces an uncertain future by giving up a heterosexual lifestyle, which encompasses many traditions including marriage and raising a family.
Tolerance and Group Identification.
The person comes to accept the likelihood that he or she is a homosexual and begins to appreciate the challenge of satisfying personal, social, and sexual desires. The person also begins to seek relationships with other gay/lesbian people and moves closer to the gay community for support, camaraderie, and opportunity for intimate relationships.
dentity Acceptance.
At this stage of development, gay and lesbian people move from simple tolerance of their homosexuality to genuine acceptance of their sexual orientation. At the same time, persons increase their association with other gays and lesbians and form new attitudes about homosexuality. In some instances, gay persons might withdraw from their relationships and associations with heterosexual people due to the potential stress of facing homophobic attitudes and reactions.
Sexual Satisfaction and Integration.
Models of gay/lesbian identification typically indicate the last stage of development is one of achieving self-knowledge and self-satisfaction with one’s sexual orientation. Exhibiting pride in the legitimacy of various sexual orientations increases, and combating dichotomous, stereotypical views of sexual orientation helps to synthesize one’s identity. At the same time, the gay/lesbian person at this stage of development recognizes that not all heterosexual people are anti-gay. Awareness that many non-gays are genuinely accepting of gay lifestyles and actively support the rights of people with different sexual orientations is achieved.
This chapter has presented theoretical perspectives and research findings related to sex, gender, and sexuality as additional social and cultural foundational aspects important to counselors and other helping professionals. As do previous chapters of this text, it concludes with a summary of implications of these perspectives and findings for helping relationships with clients of varied backgrounds.
Counseling Inferences
As with competent practice when working with clients of diverse racial and ethnic backgrounds, successful helpers approach gender issues and sexual identity concerns from a posture of understanding, awareness, and knowledge. A first step is to know one’s own inner thoughts, attitudes, biases, and other personal aspects related to gender and gender roles. Examination of or reflection about one’s development from childhood into adulthood, including influential family attitudes and biases, is an appropriate place to start. Rigid views of male and female roles or feminine and masculine characteristics could inhibit a counselor of other professional from being an effective helper with clients who do not meet those standards. Understanding the views that guide beliefs and actions is also an essential step. Likewise, taking action to attack and alter misguided notions that might inhibit the formation of healthy, productive helping relationships is paramount to becoming a proficient practitioner who can assist a wide range of clients.
Reflection and understanding of one’s attitudes about gender issues and roles is complemented by ongoing study and informed knowledge of research findings about sex differences. This text barely scratches the surface of this issue. More informed study is required. Although counselors and other professional helpers are not biological scientists, it is nevertheless important to stay abreast of pertinent research findings, so they are better informed to answer clients’ questions and offer appropriate resources for further client inquiry.
The combined understanding of attitudes about gender and gender roles and knowing about general scientific findings allows professional helpers to appreciate more fully the dynamics between counselors and clients of same and different sexes. Early unchallenged learning and current attitudes and knowledge interact dynamically to influence a counselor’s behaviors within every helping relationship. Similarly, a client’s background is a fundamental factor in understanding reactions to a helper’s verbal and nonverbal behaviors. Considering all this, the final implication according to many authorities and researchers is how accurately and genuinely a counselor or other helper demonstrates empathic understanding toward each client (Robinson, 2005). This factor—empathy—seems to cross all configurations of same-sex and different-sex helping relationships.
Inferences for working with clients who are dealing with issues of sexual orientation begin with the similar refrains of understanding one’s beliefs and attitudes about heterosexual and homosexual behavior. At the same time, counselors and other helpers must be aware of, and comfortable with, their own sexuality. It is hard to imagine a professional who has not moved beyond the entry stages of his or her own sexual identity being successful in helping a young man or woman process feelings, awareness, acknowledgment, and acceptance of his or her sexual development.
The following are some additional thoughts about working with clients about their sexual orientation or sexuality:
• Create a safe and accepting relationship where clients feel secure to share intimate thoughts and feelings.
• Acknowledge clients’ confusion about sexual identity and encourage them to explore that confusion as well as their fears and misconceptions about homosexuality.
• When clients acknowledge their homosexuality, help them work through the potential loss of relationships with heterosexual family members and friends, who might be intolerant of their coming out. Grief accompanies all loss in life, but through counseling and other interventions, clients can learn to accept unwanted changes by celebrating new beginnings.
• Prepare homosexual clients for the challenges they will face in a society that remains largely intolerant of different sexual orientations. This reality cuts across many cultural groups and nationalities. Search for strategies to help these clients achieve beneficial social experiences.
• Encourage all clients to create healthy relationships with people of different genders, diverse views of gender roles, and varied sexual orientations. Actively support community programs and other systems that benefit gays and lesbians in overcoming social barriers and fighting injustice.