Revision HEALTH BENIFITS OF BREASTFEEDING
To narrow down our research we began with the topic, in this case it is breastfeeding benefits for children from infections and chronic illnesses. The articles provide studies done in children in relationship to breastfeeding, neurodevelopment, infection and chronic illnesses. We gathered quantitative research data that shows benefits from breastmilk in relationship to children, neurodevelopment, infections and chronic illness. Some of the articles analyze the effects of breastfeeding in comparison to unfed breastmilk children. This entails randomized controlled trails, quasi experiments, and cohort studies. The articles also help us answer our PICO question by helping us determine if children who have been breastfed as infants, compared to those who have not been breastfed have a lower risk for health problems such as infections or chronic illnesses.
The health outcomes varied considerably for babies who were breastfed compared to those who were not. Not breastfeeding infants exposed them to increased risks of infancy leukemia, sudden baby death syndrome, infancy type one and type two diabetes, and obesity along with a high rate of infectious morbidity. On the other hand, Mothers who did not breastfeed their infants faced elevated incidences of developing type 2 diabetes, metabolic syndrome, and ovarian cancer, postnatal weight gain, myocardial infarction, and breast cancer. The purpose of this paper was to determine if the breastfed infants had any health benefits compared to those who did not get breastfed.
Annotated Bibliography
Ashraf, F Jalil, S Zaman, J Karlberg, S R Khan, B S Lindblad and L. Arch Dis. Child
(1991) ADC Breast feeding and protection against neonatal sepsis in a high-risk
population 66: 488-490.
This article provides answers to mother who were concern about start breast feeding their baby right away or not, to prevent any neonatal infections such as septicemia. The study indicates that protection against neonatal sepsis should start from day one after birth not 3 or 4 days later. According to this article, a lot of cases of neonatal sepsis were found where the baby had died early, even before parents have a chance to take them to the hospital or an urgent care. Another factor that was brought up during this study is that most mother that did not feed their baby with breast milk, were feeding their baby with other foods and fluids to keep those babies alive, and most of those foods and fluids were believing or not contaminated with all kinds of microbes that were invisible and were ingested to the new babies who will get sick and maybe loose their life because of that.
Casiday, R. E., Wright, C. M., Panter-Brick, C., & Parkinson, K. N. (2004). Do early infant
feeding patterns relate to breast-feeding continuation and weight gain? Data from a
longitudinal cohort study. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 58(9), 1290-1296.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
Malnutrition can start before birth and can persist throughout life. Many babies are born with low birth weight and micronutrient deficiencies. Poor feeding practices during the first two years of life have immediate and often long-term negative consequences on growth and development. In this article Casidy et. al (2012), researches 923 mothers of full-term infants feeding breast versus bottle fed babies associated with weight gain. Mothers of these infants had a feeding diary in an Urban UK community. Results showed breast-fed fed more frequently than bottle fed infants. The large-scale study shed the importance of breastfeeding and infant weight gain versus bottle fed infants.
Ferguson, M., & Molfese, P. (2007). Breast-fed infants process speech differently from bottle fed infants: evidence from neuroelectrophysiology. Developmental Neuropsychology, 31(3), 337-347.
In this article, the author looks at the early effects that are apparent in development as well as in later years. Recently, elements in breast milk, polyunsaturatred fatty acids (PUFAs), have been identified as having great potential for increasing nutritional benefits. According to the author, a range of biological, perinatal, and cognitive factors were equated between the two groups, only the ERPs recorded from breast-fed infants changed throughout their recorded period (700 msec), differentiated between all speech sounds, and generated differences in scalp recordings across all regions recorded across both hemispheres. Such differences in the range of their brain responses could signal an advantage for the breast-fed infants for later linguistic and cognitive development.
The article has used quantitative and cross-sectional statistic method to understand the study. Also, this article is presented to the public in a simple language which facilitates the understanding by the readers.
Kim, T., Lee, H., Park, J., Jang, S., and Kim, M. (2013). Effects of early breastfeeding education on maintenance of breastfeeding practice: A prospective observational study. Open Journal of Nursing, 3, 209-213.
Background: Every infant needs to be breastfed by the mother or a wet nurse in case the birth mother is unable to, which makes it an ideal type of feeding for mothers and infants. The study examined the impact of breastfeeding prenatal education and early breastfeeding with the aim of safeguarding or maintaining the practice of breastfeeding after the mother has delivered. The research study represents a case-control study design. Methods: 82 pregnant women that delivered naturally that is through virginal delivery took part in the study that took place between January and October 2006. Recruitment of the women was from the Soonchunhyang university hospital in the Obstetrics and Gynecology Department located in Bucheon, South Korea. Variable differences among the participants of the study were evaluated using SPSS ver. 10.0 where data was collected through surveys. Telephone interviews were the means used to follow-up and investigate on the infant feeding technique and other technicalities performed twice after delivery in week one and week four. Results: ANOVA was used to calculate the correlation among the patient’s weight of the newborn, social factors, age, height, and weight of the pregnant women, and abortion experience. The relationship between breastfeeding practice maintenance and early breastfeeding showed no statistical significance. Conclusions: The study was beneficial in illuminating the necessity or significance of postpartum period and antenatal education in enhancing maintenance of the breastfeeding practice. Developing educational programs was also recommended. This study is beneficial because it encourages educating pregnant women on the importance of breastfeeding early after delivery reducing health problem
risks like diseases and infections (Kim et al., 2013).
Seifu, W., Assefa, G., & Egata, G. (2014). Prevalence of the exclusive breastfeeding and its predicators among infants aged six months in Jimma Town, Southwest Ethiopia,2013. Journal of Pediatrics & Neonatal Care, Volume 1 Issue 3, 1-16.
Background: Breastfeeding of children is a vital strategy in public health that promotes health conditions of the mother and the child. This study examines the exclusive breastfeeding prevalence or how common infants are fed only breast milk and the associated factors causing this for infants in Jimma town, Southwest Ethiopia aged six months. The research study represents a cross-sectional study design. Methods: 422 infant mother-pairs were exposed to a qualitative injury where qualitative data was collected from January to February in the year 2013. The cross-sectional study was institutional based carried out in Jimma town in health facilities where structured questionnaires were used. Multi-variable logistic regression was used to estimate the 95% confidence interval odds ratio. Results: Pretested structured questionnaires were given to the 422 mothers and the 95% confidence interval odds ratio was calculated in order to identify the exclusive breastfeeding independent predictor by employing the multi-variable logistic regression. The exclusive breastfeeding prevalence decreased as infants got older and the exclusive breastfeeding independent predictors of the studied community included having antenatal clinic visits, having good knowledge, being of younger age (less or equal to 2 months), and being lower parity. Conclusion: Providing communication on behavioral change by employing different channels like antenatal counseling and mass media was recommended in order to enhance exclusive breastfeeding practices. This study is beneficial as it provides information that can be used to educate pregnant mothers on the importance of breastfeeding infants exclusively until a suitable age especially in developing countries (Seifu, Assefa and Egata, 2014).
Singhal, A., Cole, T., Lucas, A., Singhal, A., Cole, T. J., & Lucas, A. (2001). Early nutrition in preterm infants and later blood pressure: two cohorts after randomized trials. Lancet, 357 North American Edition (9254), 413-419
In this article the focuses are on the understanding of the nutritional affects such outcomes has not been established. Breastfeeding has been associated with lower blood pressure in later life, but previous studies have not controlled for possible confounding factors by using a randomized design with prospective follow-up. Dietary interventions were: donated banked breast milk versus preterm formula and standard term formula versus preterm formula.
The article has used quantitative and cross-sectional statistical methods to support that breast milk consumption was associated with lower later blood pressure in children born prematurely. The data provide experimental evidence of programming of a cardiovascular risk factor by early diet and further support the long-term beneficial effects of breast milk.
Stockman, J. (2012). Impact of Breast Milk on Intelligence Quotient, Brain Size, and White Matter Development. Yearbook of Pediatrics, 433-435.
This article is based on experimental research and observational findings which link breast milk to increased scores on cognitive tests associated with mothers' choice to breastfeed, it has been suggested that several factors of breast milk facilitate cognitive development, particularly in pre-terms. The data suggest randomized feeding trial to calculate percentage of expressed maternal breast milk (%EBM) in the infant diet of 50 adolescents. MRI scans were obtained (mean age=15 y 9 mo), allowing volumes of total brain (TBV) and white and gray matter (WMV, GMV) to be calculated. In the total group, %EBM correlated significantly with verbal intelligence quotient (VIQ); in boys, with all IQ scores, TBV and WMV. VIQ was, in turn, correlated with WMV and, in boys only, additionally with TBV. No significant relationships were seen in girls or with gray matter. These evidence shows that breast milk promotes brain development, particularly white matter growth. The selective effect in males accords with animal and human evidence regarding gender effects of early diet. evidence supports the hypothesis that the effects of constituents of mothers’ milk underlie the repeated observations that breastfeeding is associated with a higher cognitive level, at least in males.
Tasnim, S., Akhtar, S. N., & Haque, F. M. (2014). Pediatrics Research Inernational Journal, Nutritional Status and Breast Feeding Practice among Mothers Attending Lactation Management Centre. IBIMA Publishing Article ID 790373.
This article presents a good study done in one of the greatest country that fight for mother to breast feed their baby, this country is called Bangladesh. The study was done to see how many mothers during the first month, breast feed their baby. After interviewed a handful of women, that claimed that there are many factors that were noticeable during breastfeeding their babies that is the reason why they use other forms of feeding beside breast feeding. According to those women who finally attend some forms of lactation center, they were complaining of not enough milk in their breast, lack of knowledge, breast problems such as mastitis, refusal for the baby to breastfeed and many problems that they encounter during trying to breast feed their newborns. Those moms were saying that the reasons why they give their babies other forms of feedings such as bottle feeding, or other foods and fluids is to keep their baby alive even though they know that breast milk is best for their newborns.
Literature Review
The researcher searched Conchrane, CINAHL, and MEDLINE library where 8 abstracts got identified. Meta-analyses, case-controlled studies, and comparative trials were included in determining the health-risks involved in not breastfeeding. The literature review was confined to the qualitative studies carried out in developed nations especially the US and focused on the two research aspects necessary to answer the research questions identified.
Health Risks of not Breastfeeding
Infants not breastfed faced a higher rate of contacting infectious morbidity especially during the first 12 months of birth than those who got breastfed (Casiday, Wright, Panter-Brick, & Parkinson, 2004). Such a variation in health outcome could be partly attributed to the specific natural immune factors associated with the mother’s milk. Mothers transferred their immunity-specific antibodies to their infants during breastfeeding which safeguarded the infants from infectious illnesses in the external environment (Stockman, 2012). Examples of immune-specific antigens transmitted during breastfeeding included oligosaccharides which offered protected a child against common morbidities including Streptococcus pneumonia, and Hemophilic influenza as well as glycoproteins which prevented the development of stomach pathogens like rotavirus, Escherichia coli, and Vibrio cholerae (Ashraf, Zaman, Karlberg, Khan, Lindblad, & Child, 1991).
Moreover, infants not breastfed were found to be three-fold probable to develop tract ailments during the first 12 months of birth, compared to those who got continuously breastfed during first six months. Non-breastfed children also faced an increased risk of suffering from diarrhea and gastrointestinal infections (Stockman, 2012). From the meta-analyses studies conducted, it was established that children not breastfed were 2.8 times likely to suffer from gastrointestinal infections compared to those who got breastfed. Also, studies on diseases indicated that non-breastfed children were an elevated risk to suffer from either type 2 diabetes or cardiovascular disorders or become obese (Singhal, Cole, Lucas, Singhal, Cole, & Lucas, 2001).
The Role of Antenatal Education on the Promotion and Support of Breastfeeding practices
The majority of mothers often decided on breastfeeding at the prenatal stage (Casiday, Wright, Panter-Brick, & Parkinson, 2004). For that reason, it was important that expectant mothers sought the professional advice of obstetricians who could assist them overcome the challenges of breastfeeding. From the past studies, it was evident that a majority of expectant mothers heeded the advice offered to them by obstetricians concerning the breastfeeding duration (Seifu, Assefa, & Egata, 2014). The most appropriate approach to provide support for breastfeeding practices would be to ask open-ended questions upon which the obstetricians might base their advice. By understanding the health risks involved in using bottle-feeds, mothers could reconsider breastfeeding and save them from infancy health problems discussed.
Analysis
The mother’s milk played a critical role the transmission of essential innate immune antibodies to an infant. From epidemiological studies, it was evident that human milk contained a favorable profile of lipids and proteins compared to animal milk (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2017). For instance, an enzyme like adipokines functioned as energy regulators and hence reduced the risk of developing obesity in the long-term. Also, the polyunsaturated nature of the lipids in human milk functioned as insulin resistance and thus prevented the development of cardiovascular disorders in the long-run (Casiday, Wright, Panter-Brick, & Parkinson, 2004). Moreover, the self-regulation of human milk intake by babies contributed to its health benefits compared to the normal milk which required increased regulation on the amounts a baby would take at a time.
Conclusion
Breastfeeding played a critical role in the maturation and development of infants’ immune system. In comparison to breastfed children, non-breastfed infants possessed higher levels of pH in their stomachs that facilitated the growth of pathogenic microbes such as Bacteroides fragilis, Clostridium difficile, and E coli (Ashraf, Zaman, Karlberg, Khan, Lindblad, & Child, 1991). The composition of the breast milk facilitated the development of beneficial enzymes including immunoglobulin, oligosaccharides, and cytokines, all of which played a critical role in the development and regulation of the infant’s immune system (Singhal, Cole, Lucas, Singhal, Cole, & Lucas, 2001). Since some mothers often decide on the issue of breastfeeding or not during the prenatal stage, obstetricians could be of considerable in assisting such mothers in overcoming breastfeeding obstacles. Consequently, antenatal education played a crucial role in the improvement of the infants’ health outcomes.
Literature Review
The researcher searched Conchrane, CINAHL, and MEDLINE library where 8 abstracts got identified. Meta-analyses, case-controlled studies, and comparative trials were included in determining the health-risks involved in not breastfeeding. The literature review was confined to the qualitative studies carried out in developed nations especially the US and focused on the two research aspects necessary to answer the research questions identified.
Health Risks of not Breastfeeding
Infants not breastfed faced a higher rate of contacting infectious morbidity especially during the first 12 months of birth than those who got breastfed (Casiday, Wright, Panter-Brick, & Parkinson, 2004). Such a variation in health outcome could be partly attributed to the specific natural immune factors associated with the mother’s milk. Mothers transferred their immunity-specific antibodies to their infants during breastfeeding which safeguarded the infants from infectious illnesses in the external environment (Stockman, 2012). Examples of immune-specific antigens transmitted during breastfeeding included oligosaccharides which offered protected a child against common morbidities including Streptococcus pneumonia, and Hemophilic influenza as well as glycoproteins which prevented the development of stomach pathogens like rotavirus, Escherichia coli, and Vibrio cholerae (Ashraf, Zaman, Karlberg, Khan, Lindblad, & Child, 1991).
Moreover, infants not breastfed were found to be three-fold probable to develop tract ailments during the first 12 months of birth, compared to those who got continuously breastfed during first six months. Non-breastfed children also faced an increased risk of suffering from diarrhea and gastrointestinal infections (Stockman, 2012). From the meta-analyses studies conducted, it was established that children not breastfed were 2.8 times likely to suffer from gastrointestinal infections compared to those who got breastfed. Also, studies on diseases indicated that non-breastfed children were an elevated risk to suffer from either type 2 diabetes or cardiovascular disorders or become obese (Singhal, Cole, Lucas, Singhal, Cole, & Lucas, 2001).
The Role of Antenatal Education on the Promotion and Support of Breastfeeding practices
The majority of mothers often decided on breastfeeding at the prenatal stage (Casiday, Wright, Panter-Brick, & Parkinson, 2004). For that reason, it was important that expectant mothers sought the professional advice of obstetricians who could assist them overcome the challenges of breastfeeding. From the past studies, it was evident that a majority of expectant mothers heeded the advice offered to them by obstetricians concerning the breastfeeding duration (Seifu, Assefa, & Egata, 2014). The most appropriate approach to provide support for breastfeeding practices would be to ask open-ended questions upon which the obstetricians might base their advice. By understanding the health risks involved in using bottle-feeds, mothers could reconsider breastfeeding and save them from infancy health problems discussed.
Analysis
The mother’s milk played a critical role the transmission of essential innate immune antibodies to an infant. From epidemiological studies, it was evident that human milk contained a favorable profile of lipids and proteins compared to animal milk (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2017). For instance, an enzyme like adipokines functioned as energy regulators and hence reduced the risk of developing obesity in the long-term. Also, the polyunsaturated nature of the lipids in human milk functioned as insulin resistance and thus prevented the development of cardiovascular disorders in the long-run (Casiday, Wright, Panter-Brick, & Parkinson, 2004). Moreover, the self-regulation of human milk intake by babies contributed to its health benefits compared to the normal milk which required increased regulation on the amounts a baby would take at a time.
Conclusion
Breastfeeding played a critical role in the maturation and development of infants’ immune system. In comparison to breastfed children, non-breastfed infants possessed higher levels of pH in their stomachs that facilitated the growth of pathogenic microbes such as Bacteroides fragilis, Clostridium difficile, and E coli (Ashraf, Zaman, Karlberg, Khan, Lindblad, & Child, 1991). The composition of the breast milk facilitated the development of beneficial enzymes including immunoglobulin, oligosaccharides, and cytokines, all of which played a critical role in the development and regulation of the infant’s immune system (Singhal, Cole, Lucas, Singhal, Cole, & Lucas, 2001). Since some mothers often decide on the issue of breastfeeding or not during the prenatal stage, obstetricians could be of considerable in assisting such mothers in overcoming breastfeeding obstacles. Consequently, antenatal education played a crucial role in the improvement of the infants’ health outcomes.
References
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2017, 4 26). Retrieved 11 15, 2017, from https://www.cdc.gov/ https://www.cdc.gov/
Ashraf, F. J., Zaman, S., Karlberg, J., Khan, S. R., Lindblad, B. S., & Child, L. A. (1991, 4 26). ADC Breast feeding and protection against neonatal sepsis in a high-risk.
Casiday, R. E., Wright, C. M., Panter-Brick, C., & Parkinson, K. N. (2004). Do early infant feeding patterns relate to breast-feeding continuation and weight gain? Data from a longitudinal cohort study. European Journal Of Clinical Nutrition, 58(9), 1290-1296.
Ferguson, M., & Molfese, P. (2007). Breast-fed infants process speech differently from bottle-fed infants: evidence from neuroelectrophysiology. Developmental Neuropsychology 31(3), , 337-347.
Seifu, W., Assefa, G., & Egata, G. (2014). Prevalence of the exclusive breastfeeding and its predicators among infants aged six months in Jimma Town, Southwest Ethiopia,2013. Journal of Pediatrics & Neonatal Care, Volume 1 Issue 3, 1-16.
Singhal, A., Cole, T., Lucas, A., Singhal, A., Cole, T. J., & Lucas, A. (2001). Early nutrition in preterm infants and later blood pressure: two cohorts after randomized trials. Lancet, 357 North American Edition (9254), 413-419.
Stockman, J. (2012). Impact of Breast Milk on Intelligence Quotient, Brain Size, and White Matter Development. Yearbook of Pediatrics, 433-435.
Tasnim, S., Akhtar, S. N., & Haque, F. M. (2014). Pediatrics Research International Journal, Nutritional Status and Breast Feeding Practice among Mothers Attending Lactation Management Centre. IBIMA Publishing Article ID 790373.