week 3 discussion question
Many myths picture goddesses and gods much like human beings with supernatural powers: They have families, love, rage, and sometimes can kill or be killed. Their duties often mirror the societies that produced them. In many myths, gods rule like earthly kings and the heads of households, commanding powerful natural forces, the course of war, and the fate of nations. Goddesses, often seen as wives and daughters, influence areas such as fertility, childbirth, domestic peace, and creative skills like weaving and song writing. Such myths come from ancient civilizations in Europe, Africa, and Asia and are still commonly told in many parts of the world.
Many scholars believe that in prehistoric times, all of Europe and parts of Syria and Libya worshiped one mother goddess who had many names. She was all-powerful and eternal, representing the nurturing earth, which was so vital to the hunting-gathering peoples whose survival depended on natural abundance.
Stories of gods and goddesses provide a revealing look at the societies that honored them and often shed light on the different roles assigned to men and women. For example, the ancient Sumerian Creation Epic tells how the mingling of fresh water (personified as the god Apsu) and salt water (the goddess Tiamat) brought forth all other gods and the earth. Apsu and Tiamat ruled until younger (male) gods rebelled. When Tiamat tried to crush the upstarts, she was defeated by the god Marduk. This story may express the shift from worship of the creator goddess to male-centered religions as the first city-states arose and people began to cultivate the land. Kingship was linked to the power of the gods, and women played lesser roles. Yet all worshiped the fertility goddess Inanna (also known as Ishtar, right).
Religion was an essential part of everyday life in ancient Egypt. Among countless major and minor gods, the most powerful was Ra, the sun god. Goddesses were creators and protectors of the pharaoh; most had their own temples or shrines. Their importante reflected the higher social status of women. Egypt even had a few female rulers. Key deities included Osiris and his wife, Isis (above), who embodied the fertility of the Nile River, on which Egypt's existence depended, and Seth, who represented the deadly heat and wind of the desert. Other powerful gods and goddesses ruled the realm of the dead. The Egyptians were obsessed with the afterlife, as evidenced by monuments such as the famous pyramids at Giza and the tombs at Luxor up the Nile River.
Eight of the twelve main Greek deities were male. They ruled heaven, earth, the seas, and the underworld. They shaped human destiny and controlled the natural forces of weather, tides, volcanoes, fire, and the sun, as well as more human concerns like war and wine. The four major goddesses had much less collective power, mainly influencing childbirth, hunting, justice, wisdom, love, and fertility. The Romans, who borrowed the Greek gods and goddesses (merely changing their names), kept this division of male and female power. At times, both Greek and Roman societies accorded women less importance than men.
The Jewish religious tradition, the Christian beliefs that arose from it, and the islamic religion that developed later excluded goddess worship. The Old Testament Yahweh, the New Testament Godhead, and the Koran's Allah were defined in male terms. Women might become saints, but they remained handmaids of the supreme being, never "goddesses." Male supremacy in heaven supported male dominance on earth, making men religious leaders, civil authorities, and heads of families. Women were expected to focus on household duties, child rearing, and so on. Although much has changed, some of these social concepts remain widespread.
Of all the religions currently practiced by large numbers of people, the only one whose chief divinity is female is Japanese Shinto. This belief system focuses on worship of the sun goddess Amaterasu (Great Shining Heaven, left).
Although Hinduism in India has traditionally included goddesses, the oldest writings, the Vedas, focus on the male trinity of Brahma, Vishnu (opposite left), and Shiva (his consort, Parvarti, at opposite right). These deities represent the cosmic forces of creation, preservation, and destruction. Generally, goddesses play a secondary role -- as do women in a society that values men more highly. An exception is the goddess Kali, who represents the power of creation that brings even the gods into being.
Whereas the major religions of Europe and Asia focus on male gods with supreme power, the important figures in Australian Aboriginal mythology seem more like humans with magical powers. Both men and women have myths that are kept secret from the other gender. Many relate to puberty rites and help a girl or boy understand the role he or she will play as an adult. Both genders are valued, The Tiwi believe that the sun, Pukwi (known as "The Old Woman"), made land and sea. All tribes honor both male and female ancestors.
Among the Eskimo, where cooperation between men and women is vital for survival, a powerful force is Sila (also known as Ella), which has both male and female sides. It engenders life, weather, and wisdom and punishes those who break taboos. The goddess Sedna, or "Sea Woman," cares for the creatures of the sea and must be asked to release them for hunters and fishermen.
Four great gods are honored in Hawaii and eastern Polynesia. Ku, Kane (left), and Kanaloa created the world; Lono is the god of fertility. Among the most powerful goddesses are Pele (opposite), goddess of the volcano and fire (especially important to those living near active craters), and Hi'iaka, Pele's sister, who gave humanity healing arts and the beautiful songs celebrated in the hula.
Africa's countless societies present a patchwork of beliefs involving many supernatural beings -- male and female -- who embody the forces of nature and good and evil. The supreme god is usually seen as the all-powerful creator, controlling the world, humanity, and history -- like a potent chief. African slaves brought their beliefs to the Americas, including those relating to Yoruba deities such as Shango, god of thunder, and his consort, Oya, goddess of waters and fertility. Reverence for these deities survives in the religious practices of voudoun (above) and santeria, carried out throughout the Caribbean and in parts of the United States. These beliefs put human beings in touch with elemental forces of destiny that are seen as male or female energies.
For Native Americans, the most powerful and active mythic figures are male -- the Great Spirit, Sun-Father, Glooscap, Raven, Coyote --reflecting the dominance of male chiefs, shamans, warriors, and hunters. Most tribes honor Earth Mother, on whose bounty all depend. Other myths focus on females: The Shawnees revered Our Grandmother as the supreme deity and creator; many Pueblo people say Grandmother Spider (Spider Woman) created everything by thinking, dreaming, naming, and ritual singing.
Many myths picture goddesses and gods much like human beings with supernatural powers: They have families, love, rage, and sometimes can kill or be killed. Their duties often mirror the societies that produced them. In many myths, gods rule like earthly kings and the heads of households, commanding powerful natural forces, the course of war, and the fate of nations. Goddesses, often seen as wives and daughters, influence areas such as fertility, childbirth, domestic peace, and creative skills like weaving and song writing. Such myths come from ancient civilizations in Europe, Africa, and Asia and are still commonly told in many parts of the world.
Many scholars believe that in prehistoric times, all of Europe and parts of Syria and Libya worshiped one mother goddess who had many names. She was all-powerful and eternal, representing the nurturing earth, which was so vital to the hunting-gathering peoples whose survival depended on natural abundance.
Stories of gods and goddesses provide a revealing look at the societies that honored them and often shed light on the different roles assigned to men and women. For example, the ancient Sumerian Creation Epic tells how the mingling of fresh water (personified as the god Apsu) and salt water (the goddess Tiamat) brought forth all other gods and the earth. Apsu and Tiamat ruled until younger (male) gods rebelled. When Tiamat tried to crush the upstarts, she was defeated by the god Marduk. This story may express the shift from worship of the creator goddess to male-centered religions as the first city-states arose and people began to cultivate the land. Kingship was linked to the power of the gods, and women played lesser roles. Yet all worshiped the fertility goddess Inanna (also known as Ishtar, right).
Religion was an essential part of everyday life in ancient Egypt. Among countless major and minor gods, the most powerful was Ra, the sun god. Goddesses were creators and protectors of the pharaoh; most had their own temples or shrines. Their importante reflected the higher social status of women. Egypt even had a few female rulers. Key deities included Osiris and his wife, Isis (above), who embodied the fertility of the Nile River, on which Egypt's existence depended, and Seth, who represented the deadly heat and wind of the desert. Other powerful gods and goddesses ruled the realm of the dead. The Egyptians were obsessed with the afterlife, as evidenced by monuments such as the famous pyramids at Giza and the tombs at Luxor up the Nile River.
Eight of the twelve main Greek deities were male. They ruled heaven, earth, the seas, and the underworld. They shaped human destiny and controlled the natural forces of weather, tides, volcanoes, fire, and the sun, as well as more human concerns like war and wine. The four major goddesses had much less collective power, mainly influencing childbirth, hunting, justice, wisdom, love, and fertility. The Romans, who borrowed the Greek gods and goddesses (merely changing their names), kept this division of male and female power. At times, both Greek and Roman societies accorded women less importance than men.
The Jewish religious tradition, the Christian beliefs that arose from it, and the islamic religion that developed later excluded goddess worship. The Old Testament Yahweh, the New Testament Godhead, and the Koran's Allah were defined in male terms. Women might become saints, but they remained handmaids of the supreme being, never "goddesses." Male supremacy in heaven supported male dominance on earth, making men religious leaders, civil authorities, and heads of families. Women were expected to focus on household duties, child rearing, and so on. Although much has changed, some of these social concepts remain widespread.
Of all the religions currently practiced by large numbers of people, the only one whose chief divinity is female is Japanese Shinto. This belief system focuses on worship of the sun goddess Amaterasu (Great Shining Heaven, left).
Although Hinduism in India has traditionally included goddesses, the oldest writings, the Vedas, focus on the male trinity of Brahma, Vishnu (opposite left), and Shiva (his consort, Parvarti, at opposite right). These deities represent the cosmic forces of creation, preservation, and destruction. Generally, goddesses play a secondary role -- as do women in a society that values men more highly. An exception is the goddess Kali, who represents the power of creation that brings even the gods into being.
Whereas the major religions of Europe and Asia focus on male gods with supreme power, the important figures in Australian Aboriginal mythology seem more like humans with magical powers. Both men and women have myths that are kept secret from the other gender. Many relate to puberty rites and help a girl or boy understand the role he or she will play as an adult. Both genders are valued, The Tiwi believe that the sun, Pukwi (known as "The Old Woman"), made land and sea. All tribes honor both male and female ancestors.
Among the Eskimo, where cooperation between men and women is vital for survival, a powerful force is Sila (also known as Ella), which has both male and female sides. It engenders life, weather, and wisdom and punishes those who break taboos. The goddess Sedna, or "Sea Woman," cares for the creatures of the sea and must be asked to release them for hunters and fishermen.
Four great gods are honored in Hawaii and eastern Polynesia. Ku, Kane (left), and Kanaloa created the world; Lono is the god of fertility. Among the most powerful goddesses are Pele (opposite), goddess of the volcano and fire (especially important to those living near active craters), and Hi'iaka, Pele's sister, who gave humanity healing arts and the beautiful songs celebrated in the hula.
Africa's countless societies present a patchwork of beliefs involving many supernatural beings -- male and female -- who embody the forces of nature and good and evil. The supreme god is usually seen as the all-powerful creator, controlling the world, humanity, and history -- like a potent chief. African slaves brought their beliefs to the Americas, including those relating to Yoruba deities such as Shango, god of thunder, and his consort, Oya, goddess of waters and fertility. Reverence for these deities survives in the religious practices of voudoun (above) and santeria, carried out throughout the Caribbean and in parts of the United States. These beliefs put human beings in touch with elemental forces of destiny that are seen as male or female energies.
For Native Americans, the most powerful and active mythic figures are male -- the Great Spirit, Sun-Father, Glooscap, Raven, Coyote --reflecting the dominance of male chiefs, shamans, warriors, and hunters. Most tribes honor Earth Mother, on whose bounty all depend. Other myths focus on females: The Shawnees revered Our Grandmother as the supreme deity and creator; many Pueblo people say Grandmother Spider (Spider Woman) created everything by thinking, dreaming, naming, and ritual singing.