annotate three articles
Alcohol and Other Drug Abuse Among First-year College Students
For additional information
The Higher Education Center for Alcohol and Other Drug Abuse and Violence Prevention Education Development Center, Inc. 55 Chapel Street Newton, Massachusetts 02458-1060 Web site: http://www.higheredcenter.org Phone: 1-800-676-1730; TDD Relay-friendly, Dial 711 Fax: 617-928-1537 E-mail: HigherEdCtr@edc.org
Funded by the U.S. Department of Education March 2008
INFOFACTSRESOURCES
by Virginia Ross, Ph.D., and William DeJong, Ph.D.
The Higher Education Center for Alcohol and Other Drug Abuse and Violence Prevention
Although any new undertaking is exciting because of the opportunities it may bring, the transition to college life also brings new pres- sures and uncertainties. From the shelter of home, young people emerge into a new culture, with a new environment for success. Here they are their own masters, often far from the vigilance of parents and the strictures of tightly scheduled school days. As they take this step toward independence, they face the temptation to celebrate their newfound freedom, test limits, and perhaps escape from new pressures through alcohol and other drugs.
This guide addresses three questions:
1. How serious is the problem of alcohol and other drug use among fi rst-year students?
2. What developmental and environmental factors make the fi rst year of college a time of greater vulnerability?
3. How can prevention professionals help stu- dents successfully negotiate the sometimes perilous transition from high school to college life?
Scope of the Problem Heavy drinking by students in institutions of higher education (IHEs) was characterized as “wide- spread, dangerous, and disruptive” by the Task Force on College Drinking of the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA).1
National surveys fi nd that about two in fi ve U.S. undergraduates engage in heavy drinking, which is typically defi ned as having fi ve or more drinks in a row at least once in a two-week pe- riod.2 According to survey data compiled by the Core Institute in 2004, 45.3 percent of freshmen nationally can be classifi ed as heavy drinkers. The same data indicate that 17.7 percent are heavy and frequent drinkers, meaning that they engaged in at least one episode of heavy drink- ing in the previous two weeks and drank on three or more occasions per week.3
The negative consequences associated with college alcohol use are legion, including personal injury, physical illness, high-risk sexual behavior, and death. Research estimates that 1,700 college students ages 18–24 die annually from alcohol- related unintentional injuries. Nearly 80 percent of those deaths are associated with driving after drinking. In 2001, just over 10 percent of college students reported being injured, while 8 percent reported having unprotected sexual intercourse because of their drinking.4
Diffi culty in academics also is associated with higher levels of alcohol consumption. One national survey reported that students with an A average consumed an average of 3.4 drinks per week, while B average students consumed 4.5 drinks, C average students 6.1 drinks, and D or F students 9.8 drinks.5 About one-fourth of college students report academic problems caused by alcohol use, such as earning lower grades, doing poorly on exams or papers, miss- ing classes, and falling behind in their studies.6 College administrators report that signifi cant
numbers of students drop out each year because alcohol interfered with their academic work.7
Many students confront problems because their classmates misuse alcohol: interrupted study and sleep (60.0 percent), having to take care of a drunken student (47.6 percent), being insulted or humiliated (29.2 percent), having a serious argument (19.0 percent), having personal property damaged (15.2 percent), receiving unwanted sexual advances (19.5 per- cent), being hit or assaulted (8.7 percent), and being a victim of sexual assault or date rape (1 percent).8 In addition, alcohol is sometimes a precursor to other substance use—often illicit and even more dangerous drugs.9
Elevated Risk in the First Year of College The transition to college life is a key risk period, according to college-based prevention profes- sionals. The college years are the time many youths fi rst experiment with alcohol, while others move from experimentation to frequent use.10 In fact, escalated drinking during the transition to college is so common that the phenomenon has been given a name: the “Col- lege Effect.”11 Data from the Harvard School of Public Health College Alcohol Study show that about one-fi fth of students who did not drink heavily in high school begin to do so once they entered college.12 At the same time, students who drank in high school often are predisposed to seeking a college environment that enables or even encourages heavy drinking.
Life transitions in general are times of risk for increased alcohol use and abuse, but many fea- tures of the college transition make it a particularly risky period. First, a big jump in high-risk alcohol use is typical among many young people of traditional college age. Studies conducted during
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student attrition and to the individual student in unproductive expenditures in time and effort and a resulting sense of failure.”22
Interventions for First-year Students Clearly, the alcohol and other drug abuse problems associated with the college transition argue for a greater focus on fi rst-year students.
Environmental Management Approaches Substance use problems are driven by environ- mental factors that increase both the availability and the appeal of alcohol and other drugs, each of which can be addressed by a set of environ- mental management strategies:23
1. Alcohol-free Options: Many students, espe- cially at residential colleges, have few adult responsibilities like jobs and family, a great deal of unstructured free time, and too few social and recreational options. The strategic objective: offer and promote social, recreation- al, extracurricular, and public service options that do not include alcohol and other drugs.
2. Normative Environment: Many people accept drinking and other drug use as a “normal” part of the college experience. The strategic objective: create a social, academic, and residential environment that supports health-promoting norms.
3. Alcohol Availability: Too often alcohol is abundantly available to students and is inex- pensive. The strategic objective: limit alcohol availability both on and off campus.
4. Alcohol Marketing and Promotion: Local bars, restaurants, and liquor stores may use aggressive promotions to target those who are underage and others in college who drink. The strategic objective: restrict mar- keting and promotion of alcoholic beverages both on and off campus.
5. Policy Development and Enforcement: Campus policies and local, state, and federal laws related to substance use may not be en- forced consistently for the campus population. The strategic objective: develop and enforce campus policies and enforce local, state, and federal laws, and make sure everyone knows what the policies are.
the last decade reveal that the highest proportion of both heavy drinkers and multi-substance abusers are found among people ages 18–29 years.13
Second, college attendance itself creates addi- tional risk, as evidenced by the fact that college stu- dents use more alcohol and do so more frequently than young adults not attending college.14 Going to college brings a substantial increase in responsi- bility and stress, as students face major decisions that will direct the course of their academic, profes- sional, and personal lives for years to come.
Moreover, many entering college students ar- rive on campus expecting to drink heavily while in college, and campus environments—often defi ned by easy access to alcohol, marketing and advertising that glorifi es high-risk drink- ing, and weak enforcement of the institution’s rules and local and state laws—too often facilitate that choice.15 Unscheduled time is more abundant. Living arrangements also are a factor: fi rst-year college students who live in residence halls use more alcohol than those who continue to live with their parents.16 Students tend to anticipate that alcohol will deliver their expected college experience and that drinking will ensure social success, according to Robert Chapman in “When They Drink: Alcohol and the First-Year Experience as Seen by Students.” Students may expect alcohol to bolster their confi dence as they risk seeking a peer group in a completely new setting.17
Mary Stuart Hunter, director of the National Resource Center for the First-Year Experience and Students in Transition, states that today’s fi rst-year students are facing challenges beyond what parents or faculty members faced when they matriculated, amplifying the risk of substance abuse. Hunter notes that a higher percentage of entering students today are al- ready heavily involved with alcohol and other drugs. There also are more new students who
suffer from depression, anxiety, and other mental health problems, and many of these students are taking prescription medications.18 Chronic social isolation is more prevalent, enabled by 24-hour Internet access. And students today more often experience substantial fi nancial distress caused by high tuition, student loans, and social pressure to enjoy a high-end college lifestyle, which is abetted by easy access to credit cards.19
Hunter adds that parents today are more likely to view college as a “commodity” they are buying for their children. Such parents are more likely to be an intrusive presence in their children’s lives, leaving them in a kind of suspended childhood. New technologies, includ- ing cell phones, e-mail, and instant messaging, can facilitate a hovering parental presence. This type of parental involvement, Hunter asserts, can interfere with children’s maturation and
undermine their ability to as- sume adult responsibilities and make healthy lifestyle choices.20
According to Hunter, the college transition takes longer than educators generally believe, not just the fi rst few weeks of college, but the entire fi rst year. Moreover, there are predictable phases in this process of transition. Times of high risk for alcohol and other drug abuse problems include the early fall, when
fi rst-year students might be estab- lishing behavior patterns that will be diffi cult to change, and the January return to campus. For students generally, holidays, academic breaks, and special campus events (e.g., football games, festivals) also are times of greater risk.21
Despite strong evidence that the fi rst year of college is a critical risk period, few college alco- hol and other drug abuse prevention programs specifi cally target this key transitional stage. Hunter and James S. Gahagan, of the University of South Carolina-Columbia, make the case for changing this state of affairs: “Ignoring or dis- counting the issues faced by fi rst-year students has tremendous costs—to the institution in
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INFOFACTS The Higher Education Center for Alcohol and Other Drug Abuse and Violence Prevention ◆ http://www.higheredcenter.org
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The environmental management approach encourages town-gown collaboration to address these factors and change the campus and com- munity environments in which students make decisions about alcohol and other drug use.
A large 2006 study (N = 3,720) found that fi rst-semester heavy drinking is highly predictable, mostly because of continuity with precollege patterns of behavior. These fi ndings suggest that interventions should be timed to interfere with the momentum of previously established drinking behavior.24 Knowing the points of peak risk during a student’s fi rst year can help campus offi cials time their interven- tions for maximum effectiveness. For example, some colleges stipulate that all social events on campus be “dry” during orientation week and arrange activities with very little down time in the schedule. As entering students explore the social life on campus, these policies structure an opportunity to discover alcohol-free activities in a campus and community atmosphere that supports the decision to avoid drinking. Like- wise, some campuses have found that delayed fraternity and sorority rush helps curb high- risk drinking and other drug use, as students going through rush later are likely to be more comfortable and secure in their roles as college students.
For a list of suggested environmental man- agement approaches, see fi gure 1, “Applying Environmental Management to the First-Year Experience.”
Within this general environmental manage- ment approach, strategies can be selected to guide and support fi rst-year students as they make the transition to college life, moving them toward a successful academic career. First-year students will make healthier choices about alcohol consumption and other drug use if they are embraced by a welcoming com- munity that is value-centered and demand- ing in its expectations, yet highly supportive. Entering students need to learn—and to experience—that they are part of a community where academic focus, responsible and healthy decision-making, and care for others are the norm. With that larger vision in mind, colleges and universities can incorporate the following
practices into their own overarching programs to help students make a successful transition to college.
Preenrollment Messages First-year students typically have exaggerated ideas about how much college students drink. Wanting to fi t in and being free of parental con- trol for the fi rst time, these students can be led by this misperception into a pattern of heavy drink- ing that increases their risk of academic failure, serious injury, sexual assault, and even death.
Social norms marketing campaigns try to counteract these false beliefs by conveying accurate survey data about student drinking norms. The idea is that once students learn that far fewer stu- dents are drinking heavily than they once thought, they will feel less social pressure to drink and, therefore, moderate their al- cohol use. Several IHEs—Northern Illinois University, the University of Arizona, Western Washington Uni- versity, and Hobart and William Smith Colleges, among others— have reported success with social norms marketing campaigns.25 Two randomized trials involving 32 IHEs found that, when examin- ing institutions located in communities with lower alcohol outlet density, students attending institutions that implemented a campaign had a lower relative risk of heavy alcohol consump- tion than students attending control group institutions. However, when examining institu- tions located with higher alcohol outlet density, the campaigns were not successful.26
To reach fi rst-year students, a social norms campaign should begin well before their fi rst week of college and then continue throughout the academic year. Why wait until students arrive on campus? The start of the academic year is a hectic time, when entering students
are overwhelmed by new information and the stress of settling in, and there is a risk that the campaign’s message will get lost. In contrast, communicating in advance about the actual drinking norms, while also clarifying the college’s expectations for student conduct, has the potential to help students make healthier choices from the moment they arrive on campus.
To begin, colleges can capitalize on the admissions acceptance letter, perhaps the most memorable correspondence students will receive from their institution. A companion letter to parents can reinforce the social norms message in the context of providing guidance on how to talk with their child about substance use.27 After students commit to attending a college, the institution will send preenrollment information
about fall orientation, housing, and course registration, which also can carry prevention messages.
In 2000, George Mason University initiated an innovative transitions program called Healthy Expectations, which helps prepare students moving from high school to col- lege by promoting positive “life health principles,” correcting misperceptions
about campus alcohol and other drug use, and encouraging open and healthy communication with family. Program staff give presentations at local high schools and manage a Web site with tips, facts, quizzes, worksheets, and other resources, to which prospective, admitted, and newly matriculated students are referred via e-mail.28
Open houses for accepted students and the opportunity for campus visits provide other instances to educate both students and parents about student alcohol and other drug use and campus policies and to dispel misperceptions about prevailing campus drinking norms. Upperclass students who serve as student hosts and allow accepted students to stay overnight in a campus residence hall also can be trained to reinforce the social norms message.
INFOFACTS The Higher Education Center for Alcohol and Other Drug Abuse and Violence Prevention ◆ http://www.higheredcenter.org
All too often fi rst-year students are told that their college does not condone underage or high-risk drinking, but then they receive a very different message from the day-to-day reality of big, unsupervised parties, easy access to bars, and cheap or free alcohol. Exhortations to say “no” to underage or excessive drinking will not have a last-ing effect if the campus and community environment says “yes.”
Actions Speak Louder Than Words
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FIGURE 1. Applying environmental management to the fi rst-year experience
Provide Alcohol-free Options. • Create and promote alcohol-free events for fi rst-year students. • Support student clubs and organizations that are substance-free. • Create and promote service learning and volunteer opportunities. • Require community service work as part of the academic curriculum. • Open or expand hours at a student center, recreation facilities, or other alcohol-free settings. • Promote consumption of nonalcoholic beverages and food at events.
Create a Healthy Normative Environment. • Offer a greater number of substance-free residence halls. • Promote faculty-student contact. • Require students to meet regularly with academic adviser. • Require students to meet regularly with resident assistant. • Employ older resident assistants. • Prohibit fraternity and sorority rush for fi rst-year students. • Require students to take more morning and Friday classes.
Restrict Alcohol Availability. • Require all social events during orientation to be “dry.” • Require fi rst-year students to live on campus. • Disseminate responsible host guidelines for both on- and off-campus parties. • Install a responsible beverage service program. • Train alcohol servers and managers to stop service to underage or intoxicated students. • Train alcohol servers and managers in the latest techniques and technologies for recognizing false IDs. • Eliminate residence hall delivery of alcohol purchases. • Advertise food and activities, such as dancing or sports, rather than drinking as the focus of the event.
Restrict Marketing and Promotion of Alcohol. • Ban alcohol promotions with special appeal to underage drinkers. • Ban advertising of high-risk promotions.
Strengthen Policy Development and Enforcement. • Review campus alcohol and other drug policies and strengthen where necessary. • Disseminate campus alcohol and other drug policies and publicize their enforcement. • Require on-campus functions to be registered. • Impose tough penalties for possessing a fake ID. • Enforce minimum legal drinking age laws. √ Increase ID checks at on-campus functions and parties. √ Use decoy operations at campus pubs and on-campus functions. √ Increase ID checks at off-campus bars and liquor stores. √ Use decoy operations at retail alcohol outlets. √ Enforce seller penalties for sale of liquor to minors. • Support local and state enforcement in imposing driver’s license penalties for minors violating alcohol laws, and in changing driver’s licensing procedures and formats. • Notify parents of their children’s rules violations.
Source: Adapted from Zimmerman, R., and DeJong, W. Safe Lanes on Campus: A Guide for Preventing Impaired Driving and Underage Drinking (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, Higher Education Center for Alcohol and Other Drug Prevention, 2003).
INFOFACTS The Higher Education Center for Alcohol and Other Drug Abuse and Violence Prevention ◆ http://www.higheredcenter.org
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is superior to an academic lecture in changing students’ knowledge, beliefs, and alcohol- related behaviors.30
Orientation week programs can include other activities that help students connect with campus resources and programs that direct them away from alcohol and other drug use. Boston College, for example, offers a community service program and a sports competition during its orientation week. Recent fi ndings show that increasing numbers of college freshmen are interested in volunteer community service.31 Pro- grams that support this trend
reinforce students’ perceptions that they have joined a healthy academic community.
INFOFACTS The Higher Education Center for Alcohol and Other Drug Abuse and Violence Prevention ◆ http://www.higheredcenter.org
Orientation Week The National Resource Center for the First-Year Experience and Students in Transition estimates that as many as 2,000 IHEs in the United States now offer comprehensive orientation programs that include information about the institution’s alcohol and other drug policies and enforcement.29 In that context, during general assemblies and in written support materials, the president, dean of freshmen, or other high-level offi cial should deliver the social norms message and establish clear expectations for student conduct.
As part of its “RhodeMap to Safety” cam- paign, the University of Rhode Island distributes information to both fi rst-year students and their parents. Key messages describe survey fi ndings about widespread student support for stricter en- forcement of drinking and driving laws; current state laws and local ordinances; descriptions of the campus’s parental notifi cation and “three- strikes” policy, whereby students with three policy infractions can be suspended or in some cases expelled; enhanced driving under the infl uence (DUI) patrols and other enforcement actions by local police; and responsible beverage service policies practiced by local alcohol retailers as part of a cooperating tavern program.
As an alternative to the standard lecture about alcohol and other drug use, the University at Albany, State University of New York, founded a peer theater troupe called the Middle Earth Players to perform before fi rst-year and other student groups. The Middle Earth Players do an orientation perfor- mance that incorporates social norms data on student drinking and misperceptions of drinking norms, with the purpose of promoting, reinforcing, and supporting students’ healthy lifestyle choices. An evaluation study found that the performance
Fall Semester First-year students need basic information about alcohol and other drugs—the health, safety, and legal risks that come with substance use; how alcohol and other drugs affect brain develop- ment and learning; how choices about alcohol and other drug use af- fect both academic and personal success; and substance use norms on campus. This information must be presented in the context of a compre- hensive program that includes environ- mental management strategies; stand- alone informational programs have been shown to be ineffective in preventing alcohol and other drug abuse.32
Students also need a structured opportunity to examine their own patterns of alcohol and
other drug use, to explore how substance use may affect their life goals, and to discover whether their positive expectations about sub- stance use (e.g., increased sociability and sexual attractiveness) may be unrealistic. They then need to learn ways to reduce their alcohol and other drug use risk, including managing stress and other factors that can result in increased use, tracking daily alcohol consumption, and deciding to adhere to a drinking limit before they go to social events.
Some institutions meet these needs by having fi rst-year students attend a mandatory life skills course. At the University of Rhode Island, all fi rst-year students take URI 101: Traditions and Transformations, a one-credit freshman seminar designed to help students navigate their fi rst year in a new setting. Most class sections, limited to 25 students each, are designed for particular majors or around other student interests (e.g., athletics, leadership). URI 101’s larger focus is to help
students identify their personal education goals, plan their courses of study, enhance their academic skills, learn about available resources at the university, and explore career options. The semi- nar also requires an inquiry-based community service experience. Specifi c course units focus on substance use issues. One class conveys the social norms message by collecting data from the class and then comparing the class’s estimates of campus
alcohol and other drug use against what the students themselves reported.
The Rochester Institute of Technology provides a fi rst-year enrichment course with
Grand Valley State University in Michigan developed the Passport Program for students who want “to enjoy the college experi-ence without indulging in alcohol or other drugs.” The program has four goals: 1. Assign a peer mentor who can serve as a point of contact for entering students and can guide them through their fi rst year on campus.
2. Provide a quality living experience for students who choose to live with other residents who desire not to use alcohol in any setting. 3. Offer welcome week activities, monthly social outings, and semester service projects for residents living in Passport Housing.
4. Provide opportunities for residents to learn about and develop stronger leader-ship skills.
Passport Program
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Some online programs can be set up to require that students complete the entire curriculum and pass an examination on the content.
Throughout the fall semester and into the spring, alcohol and other drug abuse prevention information can be incorporated into already planned events. The fall parents’ weekend, for example, provides an opportunity to support parents in communicating expectations to their children. Reminder messages also can be sent out to fi rst-year students via e-mail, newspaper ads, residence hall presentations, and other campus venues.
Appropriate Involvement of Parents Many IHEs have been reluctant to involve parents or guardians in alcohol and other drug abuse prevention. They know well that some parents, out of sincere and deep-seated concern, partici- pate too much in their children’s lives and deci- sions. But new research shows that, if involved appropriately, parents can help their fi rst-year students navigate the transition to college:
• Young people are at lower risk of alcohol and other drug use problems during the transi- tion to college if their parents are involved in communicating about substance abuse, even in late adolescence.38
• Confl ict between parents and children at the beginning of college has been correlated with heavier alcohol consumption and negative consequences one year later among fraternity and sorority members.39
• Parental monitoring has been shown to moderate the negative infl uence of peers.40
These fi ndings underscore the importance of parental involvement even when their teens have entered college and moved away from home. Strategies to involve parents as poten- tial allies in college alcohol and other drug abuse prevention work are just beginning to be explored.
A 2002 study showed that fi rst-year college students whose parents read an extensive manu- al describing how to talk to their teens about alcohol-related problems had lower drinking rates and experienced fewer alcohol-related consequences than students whose parents did not read the manual. The researchers found
fi ll out an assessment, receive feedback about their drinking behavior, and work with a trained counselor to develop a plan for change. Research data show that high-risk drinkers who participate in the BASICS program signifi cantly reduce both their alcohol use and drinking- related problems compared with participants in a control group.35 Other research has shown that individually tailored feedback delivered by mail also can be effective.36
Online programs are a very effi cient means for colleges to provide basic alcohol and other drug education and to identify and intervene with students at risk, and many institutions are adopting this approach. A literature review published in 2005 described fi ve Web-based alcohol education and intervention programs that target college drinkers. Most of the pro- grams use a mix of educational, skills-based, and motivational strategies to present materi- als, and all fi ve include drinking assessment questions and personalized feedback or other information customized to each user. There is growing evidence that these learning tools can increase student knowledge, change attitudes, build skills, and ultimately reduce alcohol use.37
similar aims, using a combination of course instruction and coaching to help students become “independent members of the college community in order to facilitate their academic and personal success.”34 Specifi c units cover goal setting, time management, learning strate- gies, university resources, plagiarism, ethical decision-making, and community expectations. The latter unit, which emphasizes the develop- ment of personal responsibility, equips students with information and skills to think through the consequences of their choices. The course, required of all freshmen, matches each fresh- man with a student affairs professional who serves as a performance coach. Group leaders and peer educators in these small seminars are trained to recognize students who are struggling with the transition to college and who might be at risk for substance use–related problems.
Fall semester is also a good time for fi rst-year students to complete a personal risk assess- ment and receive feedback on their drinking. A brief motivational interview program called Brief Alcohol Screening and Intervention for College Students (BASICS) is one such program, which involves two sessions in which students
INFOFACTS The Higher Education Center for Alcohol and Other Drug Abuse and Violence Prevention ◆ http://www.higheredcenter.org
(Continued on page 7)
Disclosing Information to Parents of Postsecondary Students
The following information is excerpted from the U.S. Department of Educa- tion’s Web site regarding what the Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA) “says about postsecondary institutions sharing information with parents”:33
• Under FERPA, schools may release any and all information to parents, without the consent of the eligible student, if the student is a dependent for tax purposes under the IRS rules.
• The Department interprets FERPA to permit schools to disclose information from education records to parents if a health or safety emergency involves their son or daughter.
• Another provision in FERPA permits a college or university to let parents of students under the age of 21 know when the student has violated any law or policy concerning the use or possession of alcohol or a controlled substance.
• Additionally, under FERPA, schools may disclose information from “law enforcement unit records” to anyone—including parents or federal, state, or local law enforcement authorities—without the consent of the eligible student. Many colleges and universities have their own campus security units. Records created and maintained by these units for law enforcement purposes are exempt from the privacy restrictions of FERPA and can be shared with anyone.
7
that fi rst-year students were less likely to drink heavily if their mothers talked with them before college about alcohol effects and drinking con- sequences.41 Researchers are now trying to distill what made these discussions effective.
Conclusion Perhaps no other crossroads in life is fraught with as much possibility for both growth and risk as the transition to college. IHEs can help students navigate this transition in a healthy way. Environmental management strategies have been shown to be effective in addressing each of the factors that increase the appeal and availability of alcohol and other drugs on cam- pus. A wide range of resources is now available to campuses, including the successful experi- ence of many IHEs across the country that have already established varied programs based on environmental management strategies. Effec- tive alcohol and other drug abuse interventions targeted at fi rst-year students during this critical period can help determine the future trajectory of promising young lives.
Virginia Ross, Ph.D., is a freelance writer in Acton, Mass. William DeJong, Ph.D., is a professor of social and behavioral sciences at the Boston University School of Public Health and a senior adviser to the Higher Education Center for Alcohol and Other Drug Abuse and Violence Prevention.
INFOFACTSRESOURCES The Higher Education Center for Alcohol and Other Drug Abuse and Violence Prevention ◆ http://www.higheredcenter.org
4. Hingson, R.; Heeren, T.; Winter, M.; Wechsler, H. “Magnitude of Alcohol-Related Mortality and Morbid- ity among U.S. College Students Ages 18–24: Changes from 1998 to 2001.” Annual Review of Public Health 26: 259–279, 2005.
5. Presley, C. A.; Meilman, P. W.; and Cashin, J. R. Alcohol and Drugs on American College Campuses: Use, Consequences, and Perceptions of the Campus Environment, Vol. IV, 1992–94 (Carbondale, Ill.: Core Institute, Southern Illinois University, 1996).
6. Perkins, H. W. “Surveying the Damage: A Review of Research on Consequences of Alcohol Misuse in College Populations.” Journal of Studies on Alcohol, supplement no. 14: 91–100, 2002.
7. Ibid. 8. Wechsler, H.; Lee, J. E.; Kuo, M.; Seibring, M.; Nelson, T.
F.; and Lee, H. “Trends in College Binge Drinking Dur- ing a Period of Increased Prevention Efforts: Findings from 4 Harvard School of Public Health College Alco- hol Study Surveys, 1993–2001.” Journal of American College Health 50: 203–217, 2002.
9. Fergusson, D. M., and Horwood, L. J. “Does Cannabis Use Encourage Other Forms of Illicit Drug Use?” Ad- diction 95: 505–520, 2000.
10. Wechsler, H.; Lee, J. E.; Kuo, M.; and Lee, H. “College Binge Drinking in the 1990s: A Continuing Problem: Results of the Harvard School of Public Health 1999 College Alcohol Study.” Journal of American College Health 48: 199–210, 2000.
11. Outside the Classroom, Inc. Research Results: The College Effect. Available at http://www.outsidetheclaroom.com/ images/PDF/CollegeEffect_031605.pdf. (Last accessed on June 19, 2006.)
12. Wechsler et al., “Trends in College Binge Drinking.” 13. Grant, B. F. “Prevalence and Correlates of Alcohol Use and
DSM-IV Dependence in the United States: Results of the National Longitudinal Alcohol Epidemiologic Survey.” Journal of Studies on Alcohol 58: 464–473, 1997.
14. O’Malley, P. M., and Johnston, L. D. “Epidemiology of Alcohol and Other Drug Use among American College Students.” Journal of Studies on Alcohol, supplement no. 14: 23–29, 2002.
15. DeJong, W., and Langford, L. M. “A Typology for Campus-Based Alcohol Prevention: Moving Toward Environmental Management Strategies.” Journal of Studies on Alcohol, supplement no. 14: 140–147, 2002.
16. Bachman, J. G.; O’Malley, P. M.; and Johnston, L. D. “Drug Use among Young Adults: the Impacts of Role Status and Social Environment.” Journal of Person- ality and Social Psychology 47: 629–645, 1984.
17. Chapman, R. J., and Zaballero, A. “When They Drink: Alcohol and the First-Year Experience as Seen by Stu- dents.” In When They Drink: Practitioner Views and
References 1. Task Force of the National Advisory Council on Alcohol
Abuse and Alcoholism, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism. A Call to Action: Changing the Culture of Drinking at U.S. Colleges (Washington, D.C.: National Institutes of Health, 2002).
2. Johnston, L. D.; O’Malley, P. M.; Bachman, J. G.; and Schulenberg, J. E. Monitoring the Future: National Survey Results on Drug Use, 1975–2004. Volume II: College Students and Adults Ages 19–45 (Wash- ington, D.C.: National Institutes of Health, 2005).
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(Continued on page 8)
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8
INFOFACTSRESOURCES The Higher Education Center for Alcohol and Other Drug Abuse and Violence Prevention ◆ http://www.higheredcenter.org
This publication was funded by the Offi ce of Safe and Drug-Free Schools at the U.S. Department of Education under contract number ED-04- CO-0137 with Education Development Center,
Inc. The contracting offi cer’s representative was Richard Lucey, Jr. The content of this publication does not necessarily refl ect the views or policies of the U.S. Department of Education, nor does the mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement by the U.S. government. This publication also contains hyperlinks and URLs for infor- mation created and maintained by private organizations. This information is provided for the reader’s convenience. The U.S. Department of Education is not responsible for control- ling or guaranteeing the accuracy, relevance, timeliness, or completeness of this outside information. Further, the inclu- sion of information or a hyperlink or URL does not refl ect the importance of the organization, nor is it intended to endorse any views expressed, or products or services offered.
Resources
Offi ce of Safe and Drug-Free Schools (OSDFS) U.S. Department of Education http://www.ed.gov/osdfs; 202-260-3954
OSDFS supports efforts to create safe schools, respond to crises, prevent alcohol and other drug abuse, ensure the health and well-being of students, and teach students good citizenship and character. The agency provides fi nancial assistance for drug abuse and violence preven- tion programs and activities that promote the health and well-being of students in elemen- tary and secondary schools and institutions of higher education.
The U.S. Department of Education’s Higher Education Center for Alcohol and Other Drug Abuse and Violence Prevention http://www.higheredcenter.org; 1-800-676-1730; TDD Relay-friendly, Dial 711
The Higher Education Center offers an integrated array of services to help campuses and communities come together to identify problems; assess needs; and plan, implement, and evaluate alcohol and other drug abuse and violence prevention programs. Services include training; technical assistance; publications; support for the Network Addressing Collegiate Alcohol and Other Drug Issues; and evalua- tion activities. The Higher Education Center’s publications are free and can be downloaded from its Web site.
National Resource Center for The First-Year Experience and Students in Transition, University of South Carolina http://www.sc.edu/fye; no telephone number
The National Resource Center promotes the de- velopment of campus-based and international communities that are committed to the success of fi rst-year students and students in transition.
The Network Addressing Collegiate Alcohol and Other Drug Issues http://www.thenetwork.ws; see Web site for telephone contacts by region
The Network Addressing Collegiate Alcohol and Other Drug Issues (Network) is a national consortium of colleges and universities formed to promote healthy campus environments by addressing issues related to alcohol and other drugs. Developed in 1987 by the U.S. Depart- ment of Education, the Network comprises member institutions that voluntarily agree to work toward a set of standards aimed at reduc- ing alcohol and other drug problems at colleges and universities. It has approximately 1,600 members nationwide.
29. Skipper, T. L. Student Development in the First Col- lege Year: A Primer for College Educators (Colum- bia, S.C.: National Resource Center for the First-Year Experience and Students in Transition, 2005).
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31. Pryor, J. H.; Hurtado, S.; Saenz, V. B.; Lindholm, J. A.; Korn, W. S.; and Mahoney, K. M. The American Fresh- man: National Norms for Fall 2005 (Los Angeles: Higher Education Research Institute, University of California, 2006).
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37. Walters, S.; Miller, E.; and Chiauzzi, E. “Wired for Wellness: E-Interventions for Addressing College Drinking.” Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 29: 139–145, 2005.
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