final research
FAX Transmittal Memo To: Dr. B From: UF Student Company: Orange County Public Schools Company: Location: Ronald Blocker Building Location:
Orlando, FL Telephone: 407-317-3200 Telephone: Fax: 407-317-3401 Fax: Total number of pages: November 21, 2015 Dear Dr. B, This fax contains my research proposal for a study to examine sport fan motivation at the high school level. My objective is to increase athletic enthusiasm in low-income schools such as Wekiva. Please consider the attached proposal. I look forward to discussing it with you in the near future. Sincerely,
Running Head: Sport fan motivation at the high school level 1
Sport fan motivation at the high school level: Increasing athletic enthusiasm in low-income schools
A Research Proposal
Prepared for Dr. B
Running Head: Sport fan motivation at the high school level 2
Table of Contents
Executive Summary ……………………………………………………………………………….3
Problem Statement ………………………………………………………………………………...4
Research Objectives ……………………………………………………………………………….4
Literature Review………………………………………………………………………………….5
Importance of Study ……………………………………………………………………………...14
Research Design………………………………………………………………………………….15
Sampling Design …………………………………………………………………………15
Instrumentation …………………………………………………………………………..15
Data Collection Procedures ………………………………………………………………16
Ethical Requirements …………………………………………………………………….16
Nature and Form of Results ……………………………………………………………………...17
Qualifications of Researcher ……………………………………………………………………..17
Budget ……………………………………………………………………………………………17
Schedule/Timeline ……………………………………………………………………………….18
Facilities and Special Resources …………………………………………………………………18
Appendix A: School Climate Survey – Teachers ………………………………………………..19
Appendix B: School Climate Survey – Students ………………………………………………...20
Appendix C: High School Athletes Survey ……………………………………………………...21
References ………………………………………………………………………………………..22
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Executive Summary
The purpose of this research proposal is to examine sport fan motivation at the high school
level. One particular school, Wekiva High School, is experiencing all-time low attendance records
and revenues in the athletic department. My objective is to find out why this is the case, and what
can be done to fix it. This study will attempt to identify factors that may contribute to a lack of fan
motivation at low income and Title I schools.
To determine what factors play a role in school spirit, we will study the school identity
and brand, the demographic of the communities servicing the school, what motivates students, if
ticket prices deter attendance, if incorporating student incentives will increase motivation, and
student satisfaction and perception of the school, teams, athletes, and facilities.
A literature review of 12 studies was conducted to find additional research on these
topics. Information was collected in regards to school violence, family and community
involvement, personalizing the school experience, school size, male vs. female perceptions of
school sports, and psycho-social aspects of sport. The full literature review can be found in the
complete document.
For this study, a sample of 328 students (82 from the freshman, sophomore, junior, and
senior classes, respectively) and 80 out of 100 available faculty will be randomly selected by
their student and employee numbers, respectively, using a random number table to complete a
series of surveys related to perceptions of school and perceptions of athletics as an athlete or
coach and as a spectator. Data will be compiled through the school year and the project will be
completed by April 2016.
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Problem Statement
School spirit and athletic participation and event attendance are at an all-time low. Drug
use is on the rise and vandalism is rampant. Students have very little respect for their teachers,
their peers, and themselves. Increasing school spirit and giving the students a sense of school
identity may help to decrease these negative behaviors. The athletic department is also severely in
debt. By creating a school identity, ticket sales will increase and students, parents, and alumni will
purchase merchandise to help increase revenue to the department.
We need to increase school spirit and athletic involvement despite low economic (Title I)
status at our school. We need to determine what we can do as school administrators to increase
school spirit and game attendance for our students. By increasing school spirit, creating a school
identity, and increasing game attendance, can we increase athletic involvement, improve our
athletic records by utilizing more of our students to satisfy our 8A state qualification, increase
school grade and attendance, and decrease negative behaviors?
Research Objectives
The purpose of this research study is to attempt to identify what we, as school officials, can
do to increase school spirit and game attendance for students. We are attempting to determine if
economic status of a school affects school identity and spirit, as well as game attendance. To
determine what factors play a role in school spirit, we will study the school identity and brand, the
demographic of the communities servicing the school, what motivates students, if ticket prices
deter attendance, if incorporating student incentives will increase motivation, and student
satisfaction and perception of the school, teams, athletes, and facilities.
To attempt to fix this problem, we will investigate a number of factors relating to school
behavior. We will attempt to measure the academic performance of the school and compare it to
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other schools of similar size with similar economic hardships. We will measure the attendance
records of the school day and also athletic events. We will also attempt to survey students and
determine why they feel they should or should not attend athletic events. I hypothesize that school
spirit can be increased among students through motivation and incentive programs. I also
hypothesize that low economic status will act as a deterrent to athletic attendance and involvement.
Literature Review
This literature review will include sections on school attendance, economic status, urban
school trends, student motivation, and sport consumer behavior.
Violence in Schools
Bowen and Bowen used research conducted with the National School Success Profile
(NSSP) and a survey conducted by the National Teens, Crime, and the Community Program (TCC)
to study how the neighborhoods in which students live can affect their behavior and success in
school. Students were asked to rate their environments in regards to how dangerous they perceived
them, which was then compared to race, attendance, behavior, and grades. This study focused
primarily on the psychological and emotional aspects of a violent environment as opposed to the
physical distress.
They found that an unsafe home environment (neighborhoods, family situations, etc.) lead
to increased problems with behavior and attendance in schools. Increased drugs and crime lead a
child to become less physically fit and emotionally stable over time. Alarmingly, Bowen found
that “students themselves believe crime and violence constrain their school performance” (Bowen
& Bowen, 1999).
Reynolds, Temple, Robertson, and Mann followed low-income children for 15 years and
evaluated their outcomes based on a government-based program designed to intervene before the
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children became delinquents. They used a center in Chicago focused on child-family services for
school aged children as the basis for their study. They compared children who attended preschool
prior to full day kindergarten with those who attended preschool activities prior to their first year
of traditional school and children in elementary school who had access to extended educational
programs. The researchers measured high school completion and drop-out rates, juvenile arrests,
violent and non-violent crimes, grade retention, and special education classifications for the
children 15 years after they were first observed (Reynolds, Temple, Robertson & Mann. 2001).
Reynolds and his team found that children who attended preschool were more likely to
complete high school than their counterparts. They were also less likely to have been arrested for
violent crimes, and drop out of school. Children who attended extended-day programs were less
likely to be retained for a grade and less likely to be referred for special education services. In
summary, students who were given early interventions for their low-income status showed better
educational and social outcomes than their counterparts.
We can use this study to begin interventions at a young age. If we start targeting our feeder
middle and elementary schools to become better fans of the high school they will be attending, we
can instill a sense of pride at a young age. If we can provide some of these extended educational
programs and intervene before the children become habitual delinquents, we can not only improve
our athletic attendance, but perhaps improve our school culture.
It stands to reason that if students do not feel safe at home, they are less likely to feel safe
or enjoy school. This may lead to a decreased school identity which could, in turn, decrease a drive
to become involved in extracurricular activities, or athletic events. Borman examined four models
designed to reform low-performing Title I schools into challenging schools. The models on which
they reported were The Grassroots Site-Based Reform Model, locally mandated reconstitution, a
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nationally recognized whole school reform, and partnership with a local external partner (Borman
et al., 2000).
Researchers at Johns Hopkins University and the University of Memphis conducted this
study for the purpose of attempting to determine which of the four school improvement models
was most effective. They chose school districts in four different regions of the country to eliminate
regional bias. All schools studied were in urban school districts, which directly relates to the school
that has the current issue at hand. All school districts were studied between 1996 and 1999 and
included classroom visits, data studies, and interviews of principals and teachers.
The researchers found that change in Title I schools starts with the teachers. Implementation at the
teachers’ level is imperative for success. If teachers do not believe in their practices students will
not adapt and will not show improvements. In order for teachers to implement changes to reform
a school, they must be supported by the administration, and must be able to work collaboratively
within their cohorts and believe in what they are doing.
This study has implications in our research question due to its usefulness in examining
Title I schools and how to increase student achievement and teacher success. Currently, teachers
have no “buy-in” to the practices they are asked to implement and have very little optimism in how
students achieve. Students are unruly and take no pride in their school or their athletic teams.
Examining these models may help us to develop a plan to increase these aspects of school culture.
Family and Community Involvement
Epstein and Sheldon, also from Johns Hopkins University, studied student attendance and
how it related to involvement of family and community. They suggested, in the case of dropouts,
that schools address attendance issues early before it becomes habitual (Epstein & Sheldon, 2002).
On a personal level, it is no secret that truancy will negatively impact the student. He will have
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less opportunities to learn material, and consequently score lower on achievement tests. Because
achievement tests can affect school grades and funding, the attendance of each individual student
is crucial in maintain a school’s status. The researchers suggested that improved school attendance
can be achieved by showing students that classroom time is important, and helping them develop
a sense of purpose by coming to school, effectively eliminating their anonymity.
Sport classifications are based not on school attendance, but school enrollment. If students
are enrolled but do not come to school, they are still counted in the determination of sport
classifications. Schools with low attendance rates suffer because they are evaluated based upon
number of students enrolled, not the number of students present and available to play. A common
theme among urban schools is the notoriety of violence and low-income children. Hellman and
Beaten studied public schools (17 high schools, 78 middle schools, and 78 elementary schools) in
Boston and observed their patterns of violence compared to the racial make-up and community
status of where the school resided (Hellman & Beaten, 1986).
Specifically, suspensions and reasons for them were documented during the study. When
broken down, the study showed that over 30% of school suspensions were for violence (threat of
bodily harm, bullying, etc.) while almost 4% were for possession of a dangerous weapon. The data
also showed that suspension rates were higher for black males than any other ethnicity. Hellman
and Beaten used this data to compare the community to the suspension rates at the school to
determine how the community may influence such behaviors. They examined family structure,
economic status, age, race, sex, and quality of housing compared to property crime rate, level of
offenses, frequency of police calls to the area, and violent crime rate. They found that suspension
rates are directly related to level of crime in the community as well as ethnicity.
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School environment, however, can change these trends. When the community influence is
controlled and schools exert a positive influence on the students, the number of suspensions can
be reduced. The study suggested for administrators to promote positive social interactions for the
school and community, control access to school buildings, and limit trespassing to limit school
disruptions. The researchers found that increasing family involvement and community activities
helped to increase school attendance. Providing family informational nights, “Pee-wee Football”
nights at varsity football games, extracurricular activities and programs, student awards and
achievement recognition, community service events (such as car washes and community clean-up
events) and increasing parent-teacher contact in regards to attendance and grades, could help to
improve the truancy issue. By improving attendance records at school, maybe we can increase
attendance at athletic events.
Personalizing the School Experience
Rutledge et. al. conducted a case study for the purpose of defining successful practices and
characteristics of high achieving schools. They argued that extracurricular activities are equally as
important as instructional and educational practices. “(Learning) in schools is a social process, in
which both adults and students benefit from environments that cultivate and encourage their social
emotional well-being” (Rutledge, et. al., 2015).
They examined quality of instruction, rigorous curriculum, individualized learning, culture
of learning, community connections, leadership, use of data, and performance accountability
across four schools in one district. They found that the highest difference between the high
performing and low performing schools was the opportunity for social engagement. High
achieving schools had teachers that made active connections with students and encouraged them
on a personal level.
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We can use this study as a basis for getting our teachers involved with our students.
Creating an adopt-a-player program for the football and basketball teams, providing opportunities
for safe social engagement such as dances, “white-out” nights at games, and parking lot tailgates,
can increase students’ social interaction with their school, the athletes, and their peers.
School Size
Paul Lindsay conducted a study to evaluate the participation, satisfaction, and attendance in
relation to high school population size. It has always been assumed that a bigger high school would
lead to increased student participation and attendance, simply because of size. Many publications
in the 1950s and 1960s supported this belief. There has been more recent research to suggest,
however, that smaller high schools provide a more comprehensive education for their students
(Lindsay, 1982).
When examining this problem, Lindsay also found research to suggest that larger size leads
to more violence, greater absenteeism, and decreased overall satisfaction. To study these findings,
Lindsay replicated a previous study conducted by Barker and Gump on the effects of high school
population size and its consequential effect on learning (Barker, 1964). Participants were rated on
athletics, drama, music, and student government and political clubs. Their satisfaction with
academic work and satisfaction with overall experience with the school were examined. The
schools involved in the study were categorized based on the population size of the senior class into
“small”, “medium”, or “large”.
Students in each of the four categories were classified as “participant” or “non-participant”,
and then their satisfaction was surveyed. Attendance rates were also sectioned into four categories.
Location of the school was categorized as “rural”, “suburban” or “urban”. Socioeconomic class
was separated into “high” and “low”, as determined by data compiled by the Research Triangle
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Institute, who also compiled a score for each student determining their academic ability, also
classified as “high” or “low”.
Lindsay found that participation in extracurricular activities was higher at smaller schools,
which was to be expected. Male participation in journalism and political clubs, drama, and music
was significantly higher at the smaller schools, while female participation was higher, but not as
much of a dramatic increase. The trend continued, with attendance and overall student satisfaction
being higher at the smaller schools as well. Students with higher socioeconomic status and students
with higher academic abilities participated in more extracurricular activities.
Fowler and Walberg conducted a similar study “to explore the possible dependence of educational
outcomes on staff attributes and organizational size”. They used state records for approximately
300 high schools to measure school outcomes related to violence (Fowler & Walberg, 1991). They
found that increased school size lead to increased suspensions, violence, arrests, low-income, and
minority.
Unfortunately, this information does not bode well for our school. We have approximately
2500 students, with 71% minority rate, and 69% receiving free and reduced lunch. We have a low
socio-economic status and we are a “C” school. Fortunately, Lindsay found that rural or urban
location did not show a dramatic change in participation when examining athletics. Perhaps, if we
focus on shaping the athletes into successful young people, we can overcome the negative aspects
of the school.
Male vs. Female: Perceptions of School Sport
A study conducted at Miami University compared male and female students and their fan
behavior. 76 undergraduate students were given course credit for completing a questionnaire
related to their sport fan choices and behaviors. The section of the survey titled, “Reasons for
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Being a Sport Fan” included “plays sports, enjoys cheering, watches sports, has sports heroes, has
sports memorabilia” and other related questions. The second section, titled, “Male and Female
Sport Fan Identification, Behavior, and Knowledge” included questions regarding “sport fan
identification, hours discussing sports, interest in sports, and sport knowledge” among others
(Deitz-Uhler, 2012).
Deitz-Uhler, et. al. found that males identified themselves as sports fans more strongly than
females and spend more time discussing sports, watching sports on television than their female
counterparts. They also found that males hold a greater interest in sports and, as a result, know
more than females about sports (Deitz-Uhler, 2012). They did find, however, that females attend
the same amount of sporting events as males. Females were likely to be sports fans because they
enjoy watching sports with family and like to cheer. Males were sports fans most likely because
they played sports, and enjoy discussing sports with peers.
If we apply this research to our own school trends, we see that males are more likely to
play sports and attend sporting events. We have struggled to meet the Title IX requirement year
after year for providing female sports. If we focus on the female students and attempt to get them
more involved, maybe we can change this dynamic. Similarly, if we focus on the female students
when addressing school spirit, we could also increase student attendance at athletic events.
Psycho-social Aspects of Sport
A study conducted by Daniel Funk and Jeff James also conducted a study examining the
psychological aspects of sport fan motivation. They studied the connections that individuals
associate when following sports teams. Their model, The Psychological Continuum Model (PCM)
was introduced in 2001 to provide a framework for future research when examining the psycho-
social aspects of sport fan motivation (Funk & James, 2001).
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“Awareness, Attraction, Attachment, and Allegiance” are the basis of the PCM framework.
Awareness refers to a fan’s awareness that a team exists, but they do not follow the team or care
to choose a favorite. Attraction occurs when a fan chooses a favorite team based on location or
because people around the fan have chosen that team as a favorite.
Attachment refers to when a fan becomes associated with a team based upon a sense of importance.
Finally, Allegiance is when the fan becomes loyal to the team and an unwavering devotion to the
team (Funk & James, 2001).
We need to use the PCM model in our own school. Currently, many students are in the
“Awareness” or “Attraction” phases. We need to move them into the “Attachment” and eventually
the “Allegiant” phases of the model. More research is needed on this model, but it has very
promising potential.
Joan Duda, at Purdue University, conducted a study to determine how high school students
perceive the importance of high school sports. She took approximately 150 male and female high
school athletes and distributed the Task Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire (TEOSQ). The
purpose of this questionnaire was to identify factors that high school athletes find important in
high school sports (Duda, 1989). Duda found that females are more task-oriented than males, who
are more ego oriented. This means that females are more likely to play sports to win. They are
competitive and feel that they have something to prove. Males, on the other hand, are more likely
to play to boost themselves up and “look good.”
Conclusion
Overall, these studies are all equally important to the question at hand. How can we
increase school spirit and athletic involvement despite low economic (Title I) status at our school?
We can look at the size of the school, the community from which the students are drawn, socio-
Running Head: Sport fan motivation at the high school level 14
economic status, male vs. female population, and attendance records. Changing the culture of the
school is the most important issue to address. Once we change that, we can focus more on the
athletics and increasing school spirit.
Importance of the Study
Last year, the Wekiva Athletic Department finished the school year nearly $30,000 in
debt. Football was the only sport out of 22 sports that made a profit, and they made less than
$5,000. These debts were attributed to lacking ticket sales, payment for officials, field
maintenance, and athletic training supplies. Field maintenance cost the department roughly
$10,000 for the football field and $5000 for the baseball and softball fields. This was due in part
to students vandalizing and damaging equipment and buildings. Wekiva has been open for eight
years and has never seen a winning season in any sport. Athlete numbers are low, and students
do not care for nor take pride in their school.
This perception must change. We must increase athletic involvement to increase ticket
sales and bring the athletic department out of debt. Increasing athletic involvement will increase
roster numbers and, with hope, increase talent. Creating more athletes can change the perception
of our school and increase school pride in addition to sport fan motivation. Completing this study
will help us to determine what we can do to improve these factors currently affecting us.
Research Design
Sampling Design
The simple random sample will consist of students, teachers, administrators, and other
staff of the target school (Wekiva High School). Our student population is approximately 2400,
therefore a sample size of 328 will be obtained by randomly selecting 82 students each from the
freshmen, sophomore, junior, and senior classes. Out of the 100 faculty, 80 will be randomly
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selected. Each participant will be selected using a random number table to eliminate bias.
Appropriate sample size was determined by a chart provided by Dr. Michael Sagas (Sagas,
2015). Subjects will be selected from Wekiva High School and Apopka High School, a school
that is relatively the same size as Wekiva, but does not face any of the challenges being studied
in this research study. Selection procedures will be identical between the two schools.
Instrumentation
To measure perceptions of school culture, students, faculty, and staff will be given a
series of surveys. Students will be given the surveys through their English classes, as every
student in every grade is required to take an English class. Many students will be apathetic to the
study and may choose not to participate. Those that participate in every survey will receive an
invitation to a party at the end of the year.
Data Collection Procedures
Teachers will be given the School Climate Survey for School Staff developed by
the New Jersey Department of Education (Appendix A). Teachers will answer a variety of
questions related to perception of safety, student achievement, faculty and staff relationships, and
school pride (NJ Dept. of Ed., 2015). Similar surveys will be given to students, also developed
by the New Jersey Department of Education (Appendix B). Students will also be given a survey
related to athletic participation and perceptions of achievement (Appendix C). Students that do
not participate in a sport will have questions pertaining to their perceptions of athletics as
spectators (Survey Monkey, 2015).
Attendance records and grade point averages for the student numbers selected will be
collected and analyzed to assess whether school attendance and academic achievement relate to
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sport participation. Census data from the Wekiva High and Apopka High school zones will be
analyzed to determine socio-economic status and drugs use in the areas servicing the schools.
Ethical Requirements
This study does not need IRB approval, as subjects will remain anonymous and will
never be identified or disclosed to the researchers. The only identifying information will be
students’ and staff’s identification numbers assigned by the school district. Participants will
never interact with the researchers and will never experience any physical testing.
Nature and Form of Results
Data Analysis
All data will be analyzed by an external consultant and details of this analysis can be
provided to the sponsor upon request.
Qualifications of Researcher
Research holds a Bachelor’s Degree and is pursuing a Master’s of Science in Sport
Management from the University of Florida….etc.
Budget
Budget Items Charge
Survey Rights
Distribution
Travel Costs
$3,000
$1,500
$3,000
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Equipment/Supplies
Printing Costs
Data Entry
$2,850
$1,200
$300
Total $11,850
This study will require funds for survey printing and distribution. Travel costs will
include mileage between schools and the Educational Leadership Center, where the primary
office will be located. Data compilation and entry will be conducted by a third party and results
will be provided to the research group. Results can be made available upon request.
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Schedule/Timeline
Facilities/Special Resources
With approval from the Orange County School Board for this study to be conducted, no
special resources or facility costs will be incurred. Surveys will be distributed to students during
the school day and to teachers via email.
September 2015
• Project Start.
October 2015
• Preliminary Research will be conducted. • Exploratory Interviews will be conducted to determine final research questions. • Research Prospectus will be written and submitted.
November 2015
• Questionnaires will be revised and adapted to accommodate targeted subjects. • Subjects will be selected and consent will be obtained for minors. • Research Proposal will be developed.
December 2015
• Final Research Proposal will be submitted for approval. • Editing and Coding will take place to prepare databases for questionnaire entry.
January - February 2016
• Questionnaires will be distributed to subjects (students and teachers).
March 2016
• Data will be collected and analyzed. Data will be entered into database for analysis.
April 2016
• Report will be generated and research questions will be answered. • Project Completion.
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Appendix A
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Appendix B
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Appendix C
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References
Barker R.G., Gump R.V. Big school, small school: High school size and student behavior.
Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1964.
Borman, G.D., Rachuba, L., Datnow, A., Alberg, M., McIver, M. Stringfield, S., Ross, S. (2000).
Four models of school improvement: Successes and challenges in reforming low-performing,
high-poverty Title I schools. Johns Hopkins University.
Bowen, N.K., Bowen, G.L. (1999). Effects of crime and violence in neighborhoods and schools
on the school behavior and performance of adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Research.
14(3), 319-342.
Deitz-Uhler, B., Harrick, E.A., End, C., Jacquenmotte, L. (2000). Sex differences in sport fan
behavior and reasons for being a sport fan. Journal of Sport Behavior. 23(3) 219-231.
Duda, J.L. (1989). Relationship between task and ego orientation and the perceived purpose of
sport among high school athletes. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology. 11, 318-335.
Epstein, J.L., Sheldon, S.B. (2002). Present and accounted for: Improving student attendance
through family and community involvement. The Journal of Educational Research. 95(5),
308-318.
Fowler, W.J., Walberg, H.J. (1991). School size, characteristics, and outcomes. Educational
Evaluation and Policy Analysis. 13(2), 189-202.
Funk, D.C., James, J. (2001). The psychological continuum model: A conceptual framework for
understanding an individual’s psychological connection to sport. Sport Management Review.
4, 119-150.
Hellman, D.A., Beaton, S. (1986). The pattern of violence in urban public schools: The influence
of school and community. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency. 23(2), 102-127.
Running Head: Sport fan motivation at the high school level 23
Lindsay, P. (1982). The effect of high school size on student participation, satisfaction, and
attendance. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis. 4(1), 57-65.
NJ Dept. of Ed. (2015). New Jersey school climate survey. Retrieved from
http://www.state.nj.us/education/students/safety/behavior/njscs/.
Reynolds, A.J., Temple, J.A., Robertson, D.I., Mann, E.A. (2001). Long-term effects of an early
childhood intervention on educational achievement and juvenile arrest. 285(18), 2339-2346.
Rutledge, S.A., Cohen-Vogel, L., Osborne-Lampkin, L., Roberts, R.L. (2015). Understanding
effective high schools: Evidence for personalization for academic and social emotional
learning. American Educational Research Journal. 1-33.
Sagas. M. (2015). Sampling: Part 1 [PowerPoint Slides]. Retrieved from
https://ufl.instructure.com/courses/319718/files/26013351/download?wrap=1.
SurveyMonkey. (2015). High school sports – Student feedback survey template. Retrieved from
https://www.surveymonkey.com/mp/high-school-sports-student-feedback-survey-template/.