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Question #2

Lecture 2: Molecules, Cells, and Aging

(1) Describe what a mitochondrion is and briefly discuss three of its major cellular roles.

(2) Explain how mitochondria can contribute to the aging process. Include specific molecular mechanisms to support your answer. （this part is not clear enough）

Mitochondrion is the singular of mitochondria. They are organelles that are enclosed with a smooth outer membrane and a convoluted inner membrane folded into cristae; they are composed of fatty acid oxidation as well as oxidative phosphorylation of ADP.

The cellular roles of mitochondria include Production of cellular battery. This energy is important for the effective operations of the body as well. Major metabolic demand in the body is found from the outer retina which is a place with high concentration of mitochondria. Mitochondrial allows for calcium homeostasis. Mitochondrial calcium exchange refers to the flow of calcium in and out of the cell’s mitochondria which is an essential process in regard to metabolic regulation as well as cell death. Mitochondria as well regulates the inmate immunity which is the inborn system which identifies as well as deals with the infections by pathogens, offering immediate, non-specific defense. Mitochondrial antiviral signaling has a major role in the innate response to viral infections, assisting in the induction of antiviral as well as inflammatory pathways.

Reduction in mitochondrial quality as well as activity is related to normal aging and associated with the growth of age based illnesses. Decrease in mitochondrial function in people has as well been identified, this has the ability predispose one to age based illnesses. Mitochondrial mutations tends to increase in regard to age in animals as well as people. Additionally, risen levels of ROS cause oxidative damage by oxidizing macromolecules for instance lipids as well as DNA. The oxidative damage to macromolecules is as well a cause of aging.

Question #3

Lecture 3: Nutrition, Metabolism, and Aging

(1) What are potential challenges that can affect an elderly person’s nutrition?

(2) Several dietary interventions that influence aging were discussed in class. Choose one and (i) describe the intervention and how it can benefit our health and (ii) explain the physiological mechanism(s) thought to underlie such beneficial effects. (not clear)

The various challenges that can impact an elderly person’s nutrition include culture, it influences the difference in the habitual consumption of specific meals as well as in traditions of preparation and in some instance there might be restrictions; socioeconomic status, elderly persons may have issues affording groceries mostly when they are taking costly treatment; sicknesses, disease based inflammation and sicknesses can lead to the reduction in appetite as well as change on how the body processes nutrients; treatment, some medications can impact appetite as well as the capability to absorb nutrients; and psychosocial problems which can lead to one forgetting to take food as well as other irregular food habits.

Some of the dietary interventions that influence aging include short term starvation, periodic fasting, fasting mimetic diets, intermittent fating, normo-caloric diets with planned deficiencies, and time restricted feeding (“Lecture 3” n.d.).

Intermittent fasting involve eating during specific times. One tends to fast for specific number of hours every day or eating a single meal a couple days a week. This form of fasting tends to impact longevity. When fasting, cells tends to undergo adaptive stress response. It as well enhances the markers of oxidative stress which is a measure of longevity. This practice as well has the ability to protect one against age based illnesses such as diabetes. Intermittent fasting as well improves one’s thinking and memory as well as physical performance.

The physiological impacts that are triggered by intermittent fasting may include improvement of energy utilization, enhancement of repair mechanisms, and induction of autophagy as well as optimization of stress response.

Question #5

Lecture 5: The Endocrine System

(1) Describe what hormones are and list the major endocrine glands.

(2) Various age-related endocrine changes were discussed in class. Choose one such hormone and (i) describe its primary function and (ii) how it can affect the way we age.(go into detail)

Hormones refer to the chemical signals which are secreted in the circulatory system and communicates regulatory messages in the body. The major endocrine glands include pineal gland, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries and testes.

The growth hormone is among the age based endocrine hormones. It is secreted by the pituitary gland. It majors on enhancing the growth of bone, muscle ad majority of the major internal organs. It assists kids to grow tall, maximize the muscle mass and reduces the body fat. It enhances protein synthesis and maximizes breakdown of fats to generate energy required for the growth of tissues (“Lecture 5,” n.d).

In regard to aging, the growth hormone tend to increase muscle mass and minimizes the amount of body fat in older adults. It thus returns the hormone levels of those found in the younger adults. Thus it tends to maximize the hormone. This tends to improve the health of the older adults in a positive way. However, as one ages, the production of the growth hormone tends to reduce. The decrease in growth hormone secretion tends to lead to reduced lean body mass; expansion of adipose tissue mass and thinning of the skin.

Question #7

Lecture 7: The Skeletomuscular System

Based on the age-dependent changes of the skeletomuscular system discussed in class:

(1) Describe one major physiological change that can occur to the skeletal system.

(2) Describe one major physiological change that can occur to the muscular system.

For both (1) and (2), elaborate why the change happens and how it will affect the way we age. (you skipped this question)

Bone mass is among the physiological changes which occurs in the skeletal system. Bone mass tends to decrease with age. Bone remodeling tends to be an extremely managed process which enhances balance between bone resorptions as well as formation therefore maintaining skeletal integrity. This balance changes as one ages thus leading to loss of bone tissue. The ageing bone has minimized mineral content and the bone is less dense, and more fragile. As humans age the rate of bone resorptions by osteoclast cell goes above the rate of bone formation and thus the bones tend to weaken.

Loss of muscle fibers is among the physiological changes which takes place in the muscular system. The loss of fiber is related to denervation and remodeling of motor units. Muscle fibers tend to decrease with age due to decrease in satellite cell proliferation as a result of age based reduction in the level of growth factors; and a decrease in mechanical stimuli as a result of minimized physical activity. Additionally, minimized physical activity can as well result to loss of muscle fiber (“Lecture 7,” n.d.).

References

Lecture 2: Molecules, Cells and Aging. (n.d.)

Lecture 3: Nutrition, Metabolisms and Aging. (n.d.)

Lecture 5: The Endocrine System. (n.d.)

Lecture 7: The Skeletomuscular System. (n.d.).