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29 Ethnography in the Digital Internet Era: From Fields to Flows, Descriptions to Interventions
Annette N. Markham
This chapter only exists in this handbook because we assume there is something unique about the digital, something that distinguishes it from other approaches, tools, venues, or phenomena for qualitative research. Twenty years ago, when I started studying digital social contexts, this distinction was easier to make, since online social presence was a technical outcome of exchanging messages via ASCII text using desktop computers and dialup modems. Then, community, intimacy, and other meaningful experiences seemed amazing feats of virtuality, prompting such statements as, “We have to decide fairly soon what it is we as humans ought to become, because we are on the brink of having the power of creating any experience we desire” (Rheingold, 1991, p. 386).
Now, the interfaces of the internet can seem quite banal, as they’re “embedded, embodied, and everyday” (Hine, 2015). This does not diminish their importance: More and more of our overall cultural experiences are mediated by digital technologies, whether we’re “online” in the classic sense or not. We carry the internet with us in our pockets. It can be woven into our clothing. Information from our voices, movements, and faces can be lifted into what we now call the “cloud” and combined with other data. Once analyzed through automated computational programs, the results are fed back to us, giving us useful information about our blood pressure, sleep patterns, geolocation, or the nearest retail location to purchase that item we were looking at yesterday on the web. Other entities harvest this information to design personalized advertisements, suggest new friends, or just to keep tabs on us. The internet is so ubiquitous we don’t think much about it at all; we just think through it. It’s no wonder the questions have changed. In 2015, we’re more likely to hear things like “I don’t use the internet. I only use Facebook” or “Who should I accept as a friend? Everyone I know or just people I like?”1
How, then, do we academics define and encapsulate the ethnographic study of “the digital”? It’s not just about what happens in social networking sites,
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websites, or immersive video games and virtual worlds. It’s also not just the study of digital technology or the way people use social media. At the same time, it’s not just about everyday life in the postinternet era.
I find a particular uniqueness emerging in the way digital ethnographers pose questions and conceptualize the basic premises and processes of how culture occurs. For well more than two decades, we’ve witnessed massive growth in global networked social forms as well as major transformations in economic, political, and social infrastructures. Everyday lived experience in this decade is affected by the convergence of media, the mediation and remediation of identities, and the stillrising interest in quantification and big data.
Social researchers who have acknowledged these transformations have made adjustments to their epistemological and methodological stances. This complicates almost every aspect of research design: What are sensible boundaries to construct around a cultural context? What constitutes data? What are appropriate ways to collect and analyze cultural materials? Who is excluded and included?
In studies of special interest groups who emerge, grow, and function as stable communities online, scholars like Orgad (2006), Hine (2009), or Gammelby (2014) must continually mark and revise field boundaries. This activity never ends, as the boundaries are built discursively, or through connection, interest, and flow, rather than geography, nationality, or proximity. Despite 20+ years and thousands of studies of such communities, this basic ethnographic task remains a challenge with no easy answers.
Likewise, multiple and simultaneous interaction modalities compel us to reconsider what methods are appropriate for collecting viable information upon which to build an ethnographic study. How does interviewing or observation work in nonlinear contexts of flow, fragmented exchanges across platforms and times, and tangles of connection, all basic characteristics of contemporary mobile and social media use?
What standards or stances should one adhere to when considering the demographic identity or authenticity of participants? Typical criteria and ethical regulations fail to adequately encompass the characteristics, vulnerabilities, and rights of people in an epoch of anonymity, microcelebrity, photo filters, avatars, and selfbranding.
Some of these questions apply to any contemporary ethnographic or qualitative research project, but these and other questions offer particular challenges for digital researchers.
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The goal of this chapter is to raise awareness of the epistemological, ethical, and political challenges for scholars seeking to study social life in the 21st century. Rather than reviewing extant empirical studies in digital or online ethnography or offering extended examples of and suggestions for techniques and tools,2 I focus on persistent as well as emerging premises of contemporary ethnographic practices in light of the contemporary heightened attention on humannonhuman or socialtechnical relations. I admit my aim is broader than just explaining what happens in digital or internet ethnography. Through this chapter, I seek to amplify signals emanating from many disciplines, all indicating a sea change in how we understand and study the social because of the impact of the digital.
Below, I trace certain shifts in how internet research has been conceptualized3 through some basic terminology. I then offer a working heuristic that illustrates research stances toward internet phenomena, which in turn illustrates some of the ways research stances may be shifting. I move to a more concrete discussion of how shifting one’s stance can affect not only one’s methods in the field but also the outcome and audience of one’s inquiry. I conclude by emphasizing the urgent need to recognize that our scholarship matters in the larger sense and to accept the opportunity and ethical responsibility to use our research abilities to not simply describe or explain what is or has been but to speculate about and shape what we ought to become. This is a methodological as well as political decision, which authors of the 2005 and 2010 versions of this handbook have often emphasized.
Terminology Matters
As of 2016, almost every word we might use for the title of this chapter is contested and problematic (even more applicable to the previous version of this chapter, which in 2005 was entitled “The Politics and Ethics of Representation in Online Ethnography”).4 In a social world increasingly mediated by internetbased digital communication, researchers struggle to find or adapt terminology to label the technologies influencing social and cultural life in the second decade of the 21st century, as well as the cultural processes and formations themselves. At the level of method, this same struggle exists as researchers seek appropriate terms to describe the focus of analysis and the overall practice of inquiry in contexts where flow is more relevant than object, physical presence is not necessarily connected to sociality, and time, as a malleable variable, is salient but difficult to isolate, much less comprehend. These issues may have always been relevant, but the
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internet era has highlighted the extent to which traditional notions don’t quite fit anymore.
The terms below only scratch the surface of such debates. I offer these because they are central to discussions of qualitative inquiry in digitally saturated social contexts. The list is selective, emerging from my own background in internet studies, conversations with publishers who struggle with these terms, and trends among the most wellknown international research community talking and writing about such things: the Association of Internet Researchers (AoIR).
Internet
Although “The Internet” classically described the electronic network that connects computers worldwide, the internet in lowercase5 is a shortcut for various capacities, infrastructures, or cultural formations facilitated by digital communication networks. It describes the outcomes of interactions with digital media software, platforms, or devices. Through its ambiguity, the internet remains a persistent umbrella term, covering many different aspects of sociotechnical relations in the era of global highspeed networks. It also avoids persistent false binaries that alternative terms might carry, such as online (offline), virtual (real, actual), or digital (analog).
The “internet” accurately focuses on the means by which digital technologies have become a central feature of 21stcentury social life. It describes the actual backbone of transmission, which facilitates the coordination of computers and informationprocessing devices and the growth and complexity of networks. The early internet provided new possibilities for community. The contemporary internet is the foundation for more diverse and naturalized forms of mediatization, transmediation, and remediation than we would have seen prior to the mid1990s, when the World Wide Web made the Internet more publicly available and commercialized. This backbone supports platforms that in less than a decade have combined almost all forms of media production, distribution, and use. Without the internet, digital forms would not have such spread and impact. Whether or not the term internet remains a common and central term in the future, it currently suffices for authors and publishers in the broad area of work that studies the intersections of internet based technologies and social life.
Digital
Digital is almost equally problematic. While we might use analog as the
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counterpoint to digital, this distinction makes little practical sense in an era when these two modalities are tightly interwoven. Even in regions where digital technologies are not used directly, the global fabric of digital technologies and infrastructures influences all individuals, households, and communities.
At the most basic level, the digital is “everything that has been developed by, or can be reduced to, the binary—that is bits consisting of 0s and 1s” (Horst & Miller, 2012, p. 5). In the 1990s, digital emphasized how computers mediated interaction and transactions. Horst and Miller’s (2012) discussion reminds us that mediation is not new but simply takes a different form with the digital: “creating new possibilities of convergence between what were previously disparate technologies or content” (p. 5). Replicability, scalability, and persistence are primary characteristics of these new convergences (Baym, 2015; boyd, 2011). The digital, then, becomes a concept to indicate no more or less than the situation of the contemporary. To understand the complexity of what this might mean, we can draw on Negroponte’s (1995) work, Being Digital. Being digital is more than just living in a situation where these characteristics exist. Being, in a digital era, is a process of becoming through and because of our ongoing “acquaintance over time” with machine agents who understand, remember, and respond to our individual uniqueness “with the same degree of subtlety (or more than) we can expect from other human beings” (Negroponte, 1995, p. 164).
Online
This term was used in the title of the 2005 (Markham) and 2010 (Gatson) versions of this chapter in the SAGE Handbook of Qualitative Research. It was a central term in research of digital media contexts throughout the 1990s and early 2000s. For the past decade, we’ve witnessed more embedded notions of technology, internet, and everything we might have once called “online,” so that the overall lens of ethnography is less and less modified by adjectives like online or virtual (Hine, 2005, 2015; Horst & Miller, 2012; Postill & Pink, 2012). While the online is still relevant, of course, it is not the only site or concern of inquiry in this arena.
Ethnography
This term is complicated, to put it mildly. In this chapter, I tend to use the term to indicate an attitude or mindset that influences how researchers act in the practice of social inquiry. Whether or not scholars call (or are allowed to call) their work ethnography or ethnographic depends on their discipline,
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training, and attitude. I don’t rehearse the details of longstanding debates about what counts as ethnography, what it focuses on, how it is best represented, and so forth. Other scholars represented in this handbook provide excellent detail about the critical, performative, narrative, and reflexive characteristics of what we might call an ethnographic engagement with the world.
Outside those fields where ethnography is a primary and trained lens, it has become a widely used generic label for any study that involves people, interview research, case study research, user interface testing, or qualitative research in general. The subtlety of the practice of ethnography is somewhat butchered when rapid or quick and dirty are acceptable modifiers. The term is thus highly problematic, in that it carries both power and baggage.
I’m currently situated in a European science and technologies faculty and trained in interpretive ethnography. For me, ethnography is an approach that seeks to find meanings of cultural phenomena by getting close to the experience of these phenomena. Like many other ethnographers, I study the details of localized cultural experience, through a range of techniques intended to get close and detailed understandings. I then try to represent what I think I’ve found in ways that resonate with readers or members of that cultural context. Most of us who practice this type of ethnography do it from a standpoint that situates cultural knowledge in particular ways, as feminist scholars have long argued (e.g., Haraway, 1988; Harding, 1986). It involves close engagement and, as Clair (2011) reminds us, drawing on a long lineage of interpretive ethnographers, “the ability of the researcher to be reflexive and sensitive to multiple and changing milieu” (p. 117).6
The ethnographic attitude doesn’t necessarily change when we study the digital. But the digital is transforming what it means to be social and human in the world. As we enter the era of embedded sensors in everyday material objects around us, automated tracking of our every movement, algorithmically determined decisions, and the socalled Internet of Things, it is important to situate ethnography as a worldview, stance, or attitude, rather than a set of techniques or methods. In this way, the sensibility of ethnography can remain while the techniques may adapt. Although many researchers will continue to describe or explain situations through more or less traditional ethnographic notions of emplacement, for example, where the field is a place within which people organize culturally, an anthropology of the contemporary (Rabinow & Marcus, 2008) involves rethinking the elements of ethnographic method to better address the complexity of the emergent, the residual, and the dominant, three categories that form “the
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present as a dynamic phenomenon” (p. 94; see also Budka, 2011). Part of this rethinking, I would argue, requires an intentional effort to move away from thinking about the field as an object, place, or whole (Markham, 2013, p. 438).
An Ecological View
Given the enormous breadth and variety of scholarship that might call itself online, digital, or internet ethnography, we can delineate “ethnography in the digital era” as the study of cultural patterns and formations brought into view as we ask particular questions about the intersection of technology and people in the postinternet age. This ecological view is quite appropriate, in that it explores social and cultural dynamics and personhood in a way that is inextricably intertwined with communication technologies (Anton, 2006). An information or media ecology view7 enables us to think about (eco)systems emerging from interactions and relations across multiple and/or para sites (Marcus, 1995). More broadly, we can use “ecology” as Gregory Bateson did, to be open to dynamics rather than essences of processes of what we end up labeling “self,” “other,” and “the social.”
By wondering how to enter a field that only exists as a shifting flow, we start to experience fields as temporary or momentary assemblages. Scholars in science and technology studies or actor network theory can help loosen the grip on persistent premises that individuals or groups must comprise the object of analysis, that there is such thing as a whole to be described or explained, or that the boundaries of a situation can be identified (e.g., Latour, 2005; Law, 2002, 2004; Mol, 2003).
The internet is also embedded in our everyday materiality, most recently through the Internet of Things (IoT), whereby selfhealing mesh networks and microscopic sensors enable everyday objects to be networked data generators and distributers. An ecological perspective can help us recognize and study structures, codes, and networks as part of this ecosystem (Beaulieu, 2004; van Dijck, 2013). Ethnography in a digital ecology positions technology or technologically and digitally saturated interfaces as centrally as other nonhuman elements and humans in shaping the vectors of nontechnological social life.
Much of this influence is embedded and invisible. Drawing on Gillespie’s (2010) idea that platforms can be understood figuratively as performative infrastructures, van Dijck (2013) notes, “A platform is a mediator rather than an intermediary: it shapes the performance of social acts instead of merely
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facilitating them” (p. 29). Particular system elements encode our everyday social activities into “a computational architecture” (van Dijck, 2013, p. 29). Often discussed broadly as “affordances,” these elements can be separated, to see how the architecture is constructed, how these might be tangled in larger ecologies, and thereby what possibilities are afforded to us as we use digital and mobile devices in our everyday lives. We therefore might pay attention to such ecological elements as:
Algorithms
At the most basic level, an algorithm is a sequence of programming code that instructs a piece of software to make a certain decision based on certain inputs. These snippets of code interact with other snippets of code, sometimes adjusting themselves to work more efficiently, in which case they’re called selflearning algorithms. Algorithms “select what is most relevant from a corpus of data composed of traces of our activities, preferences, and expressions” (Gillespie, 2014, p. 168). To put this in more everyday terms, algorithms are the mechanisms that yield personalized results from search engines like Google or Bing, provide specific recommendations on music or videostreaming services like Netflix or Spotify, or result in targeted advertisements.
Protocols
Formal rules script behavior at deep structure levels of any digital interface. We can look at how these protocols are developed by corporate interests, by, for example, looking at Facebook’s policies and design choices. Here, as van Dijck (2013) articulates, the platform will guide users through preferred pathways. Users must “proceduralize their behavior in order to enter into the interactions” (Bolter, 2012, p. 45). Interfacelevel protocols combine with political and economic protocols to “impose a hegemonic logic onto a mediated social practice” (van Dijck, 2013, p. 31), particularly as the mechanization is buried under apparently seamless interfaces.
Defaults
We mostly don’t notice the default settings in interfaces because they are, well, defaults. These entrylevel setups offer userfriendly ways to set up our smartphones, read news on tablets, organize incoming and outgoing communication, define our relationships, categorize information, and so forth. Seamlessly. User interface design in the late 1990s began to standardize
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templates for “good” website design. This includes a top to bottom and left to right orientation, a plain background, and a priority of blue and white. These choices, based on user testing, have become naturalized. Social media platforms likewise standardize the way we see and move through their affinity spaces. Long before this, of course, Apple standardized the way our desktop computers look, with trash cans, arrowshaped pointers, and files that can be dragged and dropped into folders. Standardizing is essential to mechanizing, which is crucial for building effective platforms for us to interact with each other via digital media, from phones to Facebook. Modularity and standardization can help us learn new interfaces rapidly. Default settings also train us to see and think in particular ways, another hegemonic process.
Algorithms, protocols, and defaults are just three of many normative elements we could include as relevant actors in the study of postinternet sociotechnical ecologies. I mention them specifically because they are recent concerns. My broader point is that as we naturalize and neutralize the media/technologies of everyday communication and interaction, different characteristics and features of everyday life become salient for researchers collecting and analyzing materials in situ. Just 10 years ago, the exchange of text was a key characteristic of internet life, and most interactions and transactions occurred at our desktops. In 2016, the internet is everywhere. Mobility and convergence present a visual scene where everybody seems to be looking down at their phones, tablets, laptops, watches, and other smart devices. In such contexts, the crucial activities and layers of meaning are invisible, because they occur across platforms, in a multiplicity of globally distributed and diffused networks, and in time/space configurations that may be impossible to capture (Baym, 2013).
An ecological view can help us get beyond humancentric research design to consider both the social and technical as elements in a complex dynamic. This is very similar to Deuze’s (2011, p. 138) compelling ontological argument that these invisible networks of connection and meaning are essentially a new human condition—one in which reality is experienced through and potentially submits itself to the affordances of media. This challenges ethnographers to find frameworks and techniques that resonate with and work for hybrid contexts of atoms and bits, since these are often contexts that appear either separate or seamless.8
Frameworks of Focus for Internet Inquiry
Much in the same way internet users might think of the internet as a tool,
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place, or way of being (Markham, 1998), social researchers vary in how they frame phenomena that are internet related, which influences how they describe the field, where or on what they focus attention, how they conceptualize ethnographic material as well as what counts as data or nondata (and whether or not they elect to choose the term data to describe what they’re generating or collecting), and what becomes part of their explanations. The following heuristic helps categorize how qualitative internet researchers think about internetrelated contexts. This framework is built on the premise that research design emerges as one defines the boundaries of the project. The boundaries do not preexist but are constructed, through one’s philosophical, logistic, or experiential orientation toward the phenomenon, by the way the phenomenon seems to presents itself to the researcher, or how a researcher’s questions highlight certain elements. This heuristic includes (1) internet as a medium or tool for networked connectivity; (2) internet as a venue, place, or virtual world; and (3) internet as a way of being.
These frameworks do not represent a typology of internetrelated contexts or even a continuum of conceptualization. To provide further caveat, this framework is not extensive and certainly not comprehensive. Still, it is a starting point to identify how internet researchers distinguish their research perspectives, particularly as these intersect with ethnographic approaches.9
1. Internet as tool, medium, or network of connectivity: Ethnographies of networked sociality. Much of the research that falls into this frame focuses on cultural practices in or of internetsaturated contexts. The researcher may be interested in how certain aspects of the internet or the digital influence behaviors, such as how online anonymity might promote bullying or how videoconferencing may help people maintain relationships across geographic distance. Although the studies of “cultures of connectivity” (van Dijck, 2013) may differ wildly in shape and scope, a common thread seems to run through this type of inquiry, one that focuses on the centrality of individual and group practices, social relations, and cultural formations, as these are facilitated by some aspect(s) of the internet.
The field site is not necessarily online but is in some way mediated by the capacities of the internet. More or less stable sociocultural formations may emerge through shared interest (online special interest groups), common use of certain platform (e.g., Twitter users), or certain discursive tendencies (e.g., Reddit). Networked sociality is a recent term used by many scholars to describe such cultural formations, which emphasizes how technocultural microsystems of meaning coalesce through the convergence of many elements, including content, technological infrastructures, and use patterns
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(e.g., Castells, 2009; Papacharissi, 2011; van Dijck, 2013).
As conceptual frameworks for networked sociality have grown over the past two decades, we see both traditional and experimental methods applied to the study of these social formations. These might combine methods conducted online and offline. The online/offline is less important than interactions among people whose lives are connected to or touched by these networks.10
Built discursively or through the act of following communication interactions across multiple sites, “the field site transitions from a bounded space that the researcher dwells within to something that more closely tracks the social phenomenon under study” (Burrell, 2009, p. 195). Postill and Pink (2012) say this might be discussed as internetrelated ethnography, rather than internet ethnography, since the “research environment is dispersed across web platforms, is constantly in progress and changing, and implicates physical as well as digital localities” (p. 125). Researchers may focus attention to that which occurs offline, or online, or a mix of both. As Burrell (2009) notes, the idea of a “field” may be best reconceptualized as a network, whereby research interests are sited (p. 196).
Regardless of how the study is sited, the focal point in this frame centers on how the internet is conceptualized as a tool or medium for communication and connection, or how the social is mediated or impacted by one or more capacities of the internet.
2. Internet as place or world: Ethnographies of immersive environments. Especially in the early 1990s, researchers focused on Cyberspace, a view that emphasized the internet as cultural spaces in which meaningful human interactions occur. Despite the absence of physical architectures, the internet can be experienced viscerally as a place, wherein one has a sense of presence, whether this is sponsored and facilitated by a platform such as a game or virtual world or through one’s discursive activities and movements. Ethnography translates well to immersive environments facilitated by the digital internet. As Boellstorff, Nardi, Pearce, and Taylor (2012) note, ethnography has always been “a flexible, responsive methodology, sensitive to emergent phenomena and emergent research questions” (p. 6). Fieldwork and associated methods are carried out in similar ways to nonvirtual environments.
This frame of “internet as place or world” describes work by researchers who consider the dimensionality or placeness to be an important feature for the community under study—and for most if not all of researchers in this
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category, there is a fairly welldefined lifeworld to be studied. To make this statement, I draw on some of the most prominent researchers in this area, Boellstorff, Nardi, Pearce, and Taylor (2012), who note that certain “specificities of these spaces prompt their own set of considerations” (p. 4). They emphasize four key characteristics: First, virtual worlds are “object rich environments that participants can traverse and with which they can interact” (p. 7). Second, virtual worlds are multiuser in nature, whereby the nature of the world thrives through coinhabitation with others. Third, “they are persistent; they continue to exist in some form even as participants log off” (p. 7). Fourth, virtual worlds “allow participants to embody themselves as avatars” (p. 7), represented textually, visually, or otherwise.
Importantly, within this framework of virtual worlds, “the ethnographic research paradigm does not undergo fundamental transformation or distortion in its journey to virtual arenas because ethnographic approaches are always modified for each fieldsite, and in real time as the research progresses” (Boellstorff et al., 2012, p. 4). If we take these distinctions to heart, “networked environments” are not the same as “virtual worlds,” since social networking in itself does not carry the characteristics of “worldness” or “embodiment.” As they acknowledge, platforms may contain virtual worlds within them, like Farmville inside Facebook. Also, firstperson shooter games might seem like an immersive world to certain users. But unless there is a defined sense of place and persistence of the world when one is offline, the category of virtual worlds would not apply.
Although it might seem easy at first to mark the boundaries of the field along the level of the platform, such as Second Life or World of Warcraft, a narrower demarcation is necessary to understand the specificities of the cultural formation under study. First, these immersive environments are large and complex, with membership in the millions. Second, these environments house innumerable cultures and subcultures.
Contexts that are less immersive, such as Facebook or blogs or emailing lists, pose different difficulties. A researcher may find strong cultural formations, or a sense of place may be strongly felt and understood by members, but the construction and maintenance of this community may cut across many different platforms. The choice of where to focus attention can only be determined contextually, in concert with those participants whose interactions shape cultural boundaries over time. Importantly, the experience of something as a place, in the sense that Meyrowitz means (1985, 2005), does not necessarily correspond to any online/offline or real/virtual distinctions, which are separate matters.
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As a consequence, while some researchers may envision the world to be “standalone” and therefore carry out inquiry specifically within the virtualized parameters or regions of the environment, like an island on Second Life, other researchers might find it necessary to study the people of a particular game space both online and offline. In her studies of guilds, for example, Taylor (2006) defines the boundaries of the field within a game environment but talks to the cultural members in a range of locations, whether through text based chat in the game space or in person at a gaming convention.
3. Internet as a way of being: Ethnographies of the contemporary social world in a digital age. Following early internet studies focused on cyberspace or virtuality as separate from “real life,” scholars began to study how internet media are “continuous with and embedded in other social spaces, that they happen within mundane social structures and relations” (Miller & Slater, 2000, p. 5). I developed the heuristic of the internet as a “way of being” in 1998, to emphasize the way that the internet seems to disappear when there is a very close interweaving of technology and human, receding into the basic frame for how we see the world. Horst and Miller (2012) articulate that digital anthropology “finally explodes the illusions we retain of a nonmediated, noncultural, predigital world” (p. 12). Or as Hine (2015) notes, the internet becomes an almost unremarkable way of carrying out our interactions with others because it is so “embedded, embodied, and everyday.” But its influence on the possibilities for interactions and relations is more profound than ever.
If the presence of technological mediation is taken for granted, the only way to distinguish “the digital” or “internet” as a category of inquiry might be the type of questions the researcher asks. For many researchers who take this into consideration, there are paramount questions about how people feel—and feel about—these mediations in their social relations. For other researchers, there may be questions to ask at a level of basic conceptualizations of social life: How should we integrate such a ubiquitous mediator as the internet successfully into our ideas of friendship, authenticity, celebrity, public sphere, and other common categories of meaning and cultural experience?
Embracing this framework allows one to study characteristics of relations as these are—and perhaps always have been—embedded within the sociotechnical. Bakardjieva (2011), for example, emphasizes the interconnectedness of internet with numerous other practices and relations. She identifies this shift from a notion of a separate “cyberspace” to the notion of the “everyday” as a “marker of the second age of the medium” (p. 59). This becomes possible through an ontological shift, whereby we understand social
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reality as fully mediated: “Media benchmark our experiences of the world and how we make sense of our role in it. A media life reflects how media are both a necessary and unavoidable part of our existence and survival” (Deuze, 2012, p. xi).
As mentioned at the outset of this section, a framework of tool, place, and way of being may be a useful heuristic but should not be read as a typology. It’s also not allinclusive. I do not include many types of internet inquiry. For example, one can use the capacities of the internet to study topics unrelated to the internet specifically. Many people conduct ethnographic interviews online or collect ethnographic material from sites where groups or individuals interact (e.g., Twitter, Facebook), upload audiovisual material (e.g., YouTube), or present their ideas in some way (e.g., blogs, comment threads, discussion boards). If the researcher positions the internet more incidentally than centrally, it’s not really a part of this framework. I also don’t mention recent terms such as netnography, technography, or trace ethnography, since these are presumed to be included in the framework above as specific approaches or techniques.
Let me finally note that this framework works best as a rough guide or a conversation starter within a broader ecological perspective about the relationship among humans and their technologies in a digital era. This particular iteration is based on my own earlier frameworks for thinking about how we make sense of the internet and therefore live through it or study it as researchers (e.g., Markham, 1998, 2003, 2011). These, in turn, were remixes of categorizations offered by Chris Mann and Fiona Stewart (2000) and the frameworks that emerged from the curated volumes by Steve Jones in 1995 and 1997. We can see many such conceptual frameworks in progress, each with slightly different perspectives and ways of cutting into the connections and relations between technology, computers, digital media, and humans.11
Making Impact: Political and Ethical12 Intervention on Our Digital Futures
When I consider the aims of qualitative inquiry in the digital era, I can’t help but return to the fundamental reason most of us get into this business to begin with: to change the world. I’m much more convinced this is possible now than it was even a few years ago. If we consider how such units of cultural knowledge travel and function in the broader ecosystem, we can begin to recognize that our audiences are no longer just our students or colleagues. Our ideas are much less likely in the 21st century to sit quietly in books on library
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shelves. Our research matters, in that every action we take to focus on a phenomenon and then somehow transform our witnessing into something else through the interpretive ethnographic filtering process “reconfigures the world in its becoming” (Barad, 2007, p. 396). If this is the case, how can we make a difference that makes a difference?
This is an interpretive challenge at one level: If one accepts that digital internet interweaves with all of social life in ways that cannot be untangled, qualitative inquiry of these phenomena requires shifting one’s lens to better attend to fields as flows and networks, where selfother relations and social forms are temporary informational assemblages. This is not a matter of reinventing the wheel by ignoring or dismissing best practices of qualitative research. Rather, it’s a conceptual turn that looks both above and below method to find innovation.
This is more difficult than it sounds, because it requires a constant shifting between medium and meaning, as well as the more typical iterative oscillation between closer lived experience and more distant conceptual framing. To get closer, in Geertz’s sense of “experiencenear” ethnographic understanding of digitally complicated contexts, scholars like Waltorp (2015, in press) or Mollerup (2015) find they must return again and again to the basic premises of their projects, to reflect on why and how they’re doing what they’re doing. Above method, this is a critical reflection on the political, economic, and disciplinary influences on our research practice, most easily but not exclusively at the level of epistemology. Below method, this is a close attention to the details of how we accomplish our studies through habitual, instinctive, and playful action of the embodied mind.
I witness this as a moment of turning away from method in order to find it again, in a different way. As we read the works of scholars who do this, it’s not necessarily obvious that they’ve made this move because what we read in the end may not look any different from a typical ethnographic account.
In Mollerup’s (2015) work on the Egyptian resistance in 2011, for example, the jarring experience of watching the same video documentation in different times and places prompted her to pay attention to how the persistence and portability of digital media can change the actuality of the experience. Over a period of disjunctive moments, she realized her own shifting experiences of the phenomena didn’t align exactly (or at all) with her physical location or embodied sense of time. This might seem a minor glitch, but it causes her to reflect on how this interpretive disjuncture might be a result of the wrong lens or, more important, that the details of the situation are operating in ways that
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the traditional method and welltrained gaze cannot comprehend. As she notes, the problem of shifting “presence” may be common in anthropology, but this is complicated further by the digital. For her, studying with media creates a “necessity of distinguishing between our presence elsewhere and the presence of distant (or not so distant) theres with us” (Mollerup, 2015, p. 123). Playing off Geertz’s notion of thick description, she introduces the concept of “thick presence” to highlight different aspects of presence: “co location,” “the presence of there here,” and “our presence there.” She argues that “the more we are able to engage the different legs of the triad, the thicker our presence becomes…. Thick presence takes time and many different ‘heres’ and ‘theres’ to nurture” (p. 123).
In a similar way, Waltorp (in press) found herself encountering many glitches in her studies of Muslim women living in Copenhagen, which made it clear that a traditional fieldwork approach to interviewing or prompting conversation wasn’t working, despite her close relation with participants and a longterm immersion in the community. As she recalled to me, “These women didn’t just play along. They were not interested in participating in the way that I anticipated, but changed the rules” (personal communication, 2016). She was speaking of a particular technique she had tried, which included a collaborative exhibition with their photographs. “First of all, few of the participants found the particular aesthetic or process of the analogue disposable photos appealing. They instead brought the (smart)phone with them and showed the pictures, they had taken—they had it on them all the time anyway, and they preferred the instant editing that a digital camera affords” (p. 9). This was not the first hint of the importance of the digital, but in this study, making sense of the cultural context required close attention to those moments when social media became salient, how various devices or platforms were being used, and how people related to their technology— individually, as a group, in different ways in different moments.
I film lips. Smoke is inhaled and exhaled. Zoom in on a coca cola can. Nour grabs her phone and says: “Come, we do a selfie.” We move closer together, eyes to the tiny lens on her smartphone. The picture she takes is quickly decorated with a few emojis and sent as a Snapchat to girlfriends who are not there with us in the moment. Other pictures are arranged in montages of pictures of the cakes, the fruit that is arranged on the table, and us smiling to the camera. A filter is added and the photo is put on Facebook, receiving comments from friends and acquaintances. On these pictures, the hijab is worn. (Waltorp, in press, p. 11)
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In one moment, Snapchat extends their party to distant locations. The photo disappears only a few seconds after being received, so it’s deemed safely private. In the next moment, these same women wave away the smoke, focus the camera on the food rather than the water pipe, cover their hair, and share a very different habitus in what they consider the public sphere: Facebook. The ethnographer notes the seamlessness with which they shift from one social media platform to another, the ease with which it is integrated into their social gathering.
At a different moment, Waltorp notices one of the women is playing with her smartphone, flipping it over and over in her hand. It lights up. The woman quickly glances down, then up again. She cuts her eyes both left and right before looking down again. As she reads a message, her face softens. She types rapidly on the phone. A small smile lights up her eyes as she glances up. Glancing left and right again, her expression shutters and the moment ends. Familiar with this ritual within this and other groups of Muslim women she knows, Waltorp recognizes a clandestine conversation between the woman and a man. Her boyfriend, likely. A highly unsanctioned relationship, not exclusively online, but aided by the constancy and privacy of text messaging.
For Waltorp, the study of Muslim women is not about technology but about negotiation of morality. But at the same time, it is all about technology, in that it is through mobile devices and their affordances that these women experiment with the contradictions present in their own lives, as Muslims in a Danish culture inhabiting a composite habitus of different ideals, traditions, and norms (Waltorp, 2015).
These examples illustrate far more than a high degree of contextual integrity based on reflexive and careful attention to details. It is the result of several years of experimentation with different modes of fieldwork to try to both inhabit and capture the simultaneous centrality and invisibility of “the digital.” Even the most subtle and sophisticated qualitative methods are not designed to grapple with the personalized experience of time and place, the multiplicity of identity, or the simultaneity of global and local in a single moment when a participant swipes her finger across a screen and feels multiple locations, brings the “there” into the “here,” or takes the here somewhere else. As many digital ethnographers have found over trial and error, much of what happens in the field of the 21st century is elsewhere, impossible to witness. Activities and behaviors might be tracked, quantified, or otherwise archived, but the presence and persistence of “data” should not be confused with sensemaking or experience, which are quite different matters.
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At a level beyond the interpretive challenge, the political importance of such innovation emerges when we recognize our ability to make social change through our efforts to understand what matters in postinternet social ecologies. This ethical challenge involves rethinking why the work of qualitative inquiry gets done in the first place. Here, the political foundations and goals so well developed by early feminist scholarship can help us think differently, to perhaps shift to a different set of strategies.
This can happen on a finegrain scale in our individual work. For the past 4 years, for example, I’ve been training young people (in their 20s and 30s) in Denmark, the United States, and Estonia how to become autoethnographers of their everyday lived experience, focusing on the way that digital media, specifically social media platforms, play a role in their performance and negotiation of identity. The project began as an experiment with methods; I was trying to figure out how to get more granular detail of lived experience by tweaking interview strategies and by using selfreflection exercises to get at more, and more nuanced, layers of meaning about how people experience everyday life in digitally saturated social contexts. I honestly didn’t anticipate that I would be conducting consciousnessraising workshops in the classic feminist tradition. That was the most interesting outcome. Every participant who did these experiments became more critical and conscious of their own tendencies.
I have collected over 1,200 multimedia accounts, rich with detail and thick description in the classic Geertzian sense. As these young people learn to dig into their own lived experience with a range of ethnographic and qualitative analysis techniques, they uncover behaviors, attitudes, and patterns they didn’t or couldn’t notice previously. They gain clarity about how they’re being tracked and monitored in a vast and complicated surveillance society. They look curiously at how their intense social engagement online is often accomplished with a silent body and a zombielike facial expression. They analyze their own performances and experiment with different techniques of enacting networked sociality. They trace how the self can travel through various networks and be transformed by other people or platforms, with or without their permission or control.
The methods that emerged could be described as phenomenological, within a larger autoethnographic framework. To begin, I didn’t frame their inquiry as ethnography. I didn’t use the terms data, data collection, field, field notes, or analysis. Instead, I used various “as if” prompts. I encouraged the participants to explore their own lived experience as if they were aliens. I asked them to build accounts of their experiences as if they were doing lived histories. I had
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them build visual representations of their lives as if they were curating a museum exhibition. I asked them to think about their own social media use as if they were Karl Marx or Mark Zuckerberg. They then take a futureoriented perspective to build archives of their own lived experience as if these would be material for future data scientists or archaeologists to explore what life with social media was like back then, in 2012, or in 2015. Armed with the tools of remix, they’ve produced multimedia accounts of everyday lived experience with social media, highlighting and ultimately embracing the complexity of the phenomenon, rather than trying to resolve it.
The outcome? First, I won’t use much of the data, although I have enormous archives of intimate and rich portraitures of everyday life. The accounts are simply too intimate, too visual, and too full of personally identifiable information, which makes them impossible to make publicly available, unless in radically altered form.
Second and more important, I have come to realize the research is not about any “findings,” at least not for me. It’s for them. In all cases, the participants have become critically conscious of their own social media behaviors, habits, and predilections. Take these statements gleaned from various diaries, video logs, and blogs:
I have a continuous reminder that tells me: “hey, I’m here, you have a life also here on me, OPEN ME!” And you are going to obey to it EVERY SINGLE TIME. Scary, in my opinion.
I keep almost opening to look for notifications. Why am I reflexively doing this without my own mental consent? They are like little red buttons of evil. I don’t want to look at these notification buttons on my screen. I am sitting in my class. I feel temptation and frustration. Make them go away! Why do I feel this frustration?
I want to save Instagram for when I’m all tucked in in bed. It’s so cosy, I love it. It’s my alone time, where I can dream of all the pretty things I want to make and get inspired by nature pictures.
I edit everything. Even if just a comment, I’ll edit it at least 8 times. If I don’t come up with the exact phrase, I’ll delete it. What a waste of time!
My phone is like an infant. If it cries, you can’t just leave it sitting there. You have to check it.
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I didn’t realize I was so shallow.
I look like a zombie!
Scary! I didn’t accomplish anything for an entire hour I just sat there like a zombie and stared at the screen. I know I was chatting and socializing but I don’t look like I was doing anything alive at all!
I nervously touched his chest and the screen opened up on his profile. Should I? Why would I want to do this?
I spend literally hours every day on Tinder. It’s worse than being addicted to television because there’s not even a storyline.
I sleep with my smartphone and laptop on the bed. How pathetic.
The first thing I do every morning when I wake up is roll over and check my notifications. No, not my girlfriend who is in the bed with me. But on Facebook. That’s scary. And Stupid.
I spend the most time clicking on stupid videos. In the past three days, I never once clicked on a news story. I don’t know if that’s always the case. Probably is.
I didn’t know I did that! I obviously know my phone better than the back of my hand because I always pick it up without even looking away from what I’m doing and then when it’s exactly in the right position ready to view I look at the screen.
These verbalized expressions only scratch the surface of the participants’ reflexive analyses. By being allowed to produce data and analyze them for themselves in creative ways without calling it “method” or “research,” these participants find results meaningful to themselves. This is the outcome of a decade of experimentation to try to find methods that get closer to the lived experience in a digital context. I’ve finally accepted that I simply cannot see enough of it myself. The goal of my research necessarily has transformed to helping people find and analyze their own lived experience through a critical ethnographic lens, using phenomenological methods, autoethnographic strategies, situational mapping, rhetorical criticism, discourse analysis, visual analysis, and whatever else might work. I learn from this, through their narrative accounts of themselves. Of course, on another level, I hope they later come to recognize their own blind spots in analyzing and making
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assessments about the behavior of others they observe. Through this ongoing series of studies, I’m not trying to produce publishable findings as much as I’m trying to intervene, to contribute to building new literacies about how digital media function in our everyday lives, and with what possible effects on us, personally and culturally.
Resisting Datafication and Making Change
Let me shift to an even broader level, where our small choices as individual researchers add up to a paramount political challenge. Throughout this chapter, I’ve focused more on attitude than technique. This is a deliberate choice for two reasons. First, the task of comprehending the massive changes wrought by whatever we deem “the digital” requires ethnographers to return to the premises of anthropology and ask questions about why classical anthropologists invented particular methods in the first place and how we might find appropriate methods in globally entangled information flows. This requires attention to the basic premises and strengths of qualitative, interpretive approaches.
Relatedly and second, we find ourselves in a troubling and swiftly moving worldwide trend toward datafication of human experience. Funding is channeled toward “evidencebased” research design, and taxpaying publics demand measurable solutions to real problems. Qualitative researchers everywhere are pressed to respond by changing their vocabulary to match this rhetoric, changing their methods to meet positivist criteria, or doing nothing, which risks further marginalization. The grounds for any alternative response to these three impossible options must be planted at the epistemological level.
Despite the strategic value of claims like “ethnographic data have always been big,” “there’s value in small data,” or “big data need thick data,” the fact of the matter is that the strength of ethnographic inquiry is not about data, in any sense of the word used by computational scientists, statisticians, or economists. Of course, we count things. Of course, we can use large data sets to help us think about the cultural formations we study. We use computers to help us sort and manage the materials we get from our fieldwork. But interpretive ethnography is not a data science, and the act of interpretation is —no matter how much it might be aided by machines and machine learning —a humanbased set of decisions about what matters or what a wink of a wink means (Geertz, 1973). Especially as the trend toward treating humans (and their data) as data continues, the epistemology that grounds interpretive ethnographers is an important antidote. This requires refocused attention to
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one’s mindset, attitude, and reason for doing research. This doesn’t mean we have to avoid the term data, but it does require us to remember to walk a fine line between using the term strategically and using positivist epistemologies that undergird this concept in the first place.
As the past two issues of this handbook have emphasized, the broader goal of qualitative research involves stepping beyond the interpretive goal of deep understanding and consequent thick description to address such questions as the following: What is our role in the larger scale and scope of things? What are we producing as part of our intellectual energies and output? As the walls of the academic industry seem to continue to crumble all around us, we find ourselves in the amazing position of speaking to multiple audiences. Resisting the rhetoric of quantification and datafication may seem a small move. It’s not. The ethnographer’s understanding and depiction of cultural complexity both counters and strengthens the statistical abstraction of computational analysis. Ethnography is distinctive, in that its methods enable us to hear the voices of individuals, learn about intensely localized meanings, and comprehend culture in a visceral and sensory way.
The ethnographic mindset is instrumental in helping those who design our future interfaces and infrastructures understand the complexity of the human experience. How do our methodological and epistemological assumptions about qualitative research encourage particular ways of knowing or ways of approaching and analyzing social problems? How might our products be used as interventions rather than just descriptions, to encourage different structures for social practice? Silverstone (2007) contends that our moral challenge is to get better at seeing the way our research interweaves in larger structures of meaning. This translates directly into an ethic of future accountability. In other words, we don’t simply use ethics as something we’ve learned from past mistakes. We also produce the ethics of the future as we go about our everyday academic lives of producing research (Markham, 2015).
Ethnography provides an excellent framework to grapple with complex cultural phenomena, to help us build thick descriptions of “what is going on here.” Our findings become frameworks that can shape how users, designers, and other researchers conceptualize the sociotechnical ecologies within which we are saturated. The impact is tangible and real: Qualitative internet scholars like Nancy Baym and Mary Gray with Microsoft or Genevieve Bell with Intel have influenced the way computer scientists design user interfaces, or the way computational biologists might conceptualize and mark racial categories in DNA sequences. Digital scholars like Jenna Burrell, Tricia Wang, and danah boyd take an active, highprofile, and critical role in social media, using their
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ethnographic studies as an academic foundation for realtime responses to public issues, crises, and controversies. These are not just examples of applied research, special outreach efforts, or accidents. These are scholars who have made a deliberate choice to find ways to do research that is read by different publics and composed in formats that can be disseminated quickly and understood by people across many expertise areas.
Conclusion
At least at present, ethnography in postinternet era is in a stage where many are rethinking the processes and products of inquiry. While strong traditions and legacies ground the best work in this area, innovation and interdisciplinarity continue to remix methods so researchers can grapple with flows and global networked sociality. Within this transformative time, an ecological perspective can help scholars remain flexible and adaptive.
As much as we might feel the pressure to adapt our rhetoric if not our very methods to current trends toward quantification and datafication, however, this has never been the strength or goal of ethnography. Ours is a vital epistemology to preserve as more and more explanations of humans rely on data science. Baszanger and Dodier (2004) remind us that ethnography cannot be deduced from codified elements collected at the time of the study. This is not a small point. Indeed, it may be one of very few wrenches we have at our disposal to throw in the machinery of data analytics, which produce astonishingly accurate representations of our likes, dislikes, and predilections. The success of predictive modeling points to a near future whereby computational power and automated data gathering can yield new insights about disease, which is a good thing. But it has also resulted in the disturbing rise of predictive policing (Brayne, 2015). This is only possible in a society that believes that lived experience and humanness can be captured in discrete units of information and analyzed through computational means. Especially in this environment, it is crucial to resist and counter the inevitability of this trend. We can only do this by highlighting the basic sensibilities of the ethnographic approach.
Of course, not everyone who does ethnography in the 21st century wants to or even should confront the political challenges mentioned throughout this chapter. But as I mentioned at the beginning, this chapter exists because there is something unique about the digital. Certainly, digital technologies influence the shape and practice of what we call culture. But more to the point of a chapter aimed toward researchers thinking about their methods: Our research
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can and will shape the ethics of our future social structures and practices. We play a critical role in defining what counts as human experience, how it is accounted for, whose stories are told, and how people are represented in these tellings. Whether or not we intend or seek this political function, our decisions about how to frame and enact our small research projects matter. To me, living in a time when the entire world continues to hurtle unchecked into technological transformations that affect everyday social life at both intimate and global scales, this responsibility to make a better future is both a burden and a gift to embrace.
Notes
1. This latter statement was made by a U.S. teen talking about Facebook with researchers danah boyd and Alice Marwick (2011). The first statement is not actual but based on numerous surveys around the world that indicate many Facebook users don’t know they’re on the internet (Mirani, 2015).
2. For a starting point to learn about key issues faced by ethnographers in digital internet contexts, read the contributors to Internet Inquiry, edited by Markham and Baym (2009). For perspectives more directly situated in anthropology, see Digital Materialities, edited by Pink, Ardevol, and Lanzeni (2016). Also see the framework and cases in Digital Ethnography, coauthored by Pink et al. (2015). For more nutsandbolts discussions of tricky issues for a range of digital research projects, see the collaborators in Digital Research Confidential (Hargattai & Sandvig, 2015). For inspirational recent examples of experimental fieldwork techniques, consult Criado and Estelella’s (in press) Experimental Collaborations.
3. This traces only one possible trajectory of internet studies over the past 20 years; others might write this account differently. I and many of my colleagues have witnessed important shifts away from discipline or method driven inquiry, which is illequipped to grapple with materiality that is not object oriented, time/spaces that can shift radically and continuously from moment to moment, and distributed personae that cannot be located in a single body of information or isolated as static entities.
4. I also have completely rewritten the chapter, so readers should also consult the version by Sarah Gatson (2010) and my original (2005) version.
5. There’s a persistent debate about whether or not to capitalize Internet as a proper noun, which I won’t detail here. Many of us have deliberately used lowercase for years to minimize the extent to which we end up “granting the
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internet agency and power that are better granted to those who develop and use it” (Markham & Baym, 2009, p. vii).
6. This is a vast oversimplification of ethnographic engagement. My point is meant to be quite general, since ethnography is less a focus in this chapter than the technological/digital. In this particular statement, Clair draws on Geertz (1973), Denzin and Lincoln (2005), Clifford and Marcus (1986), Richardson (1994), and Van Maanen (1988), among others. Readers should consult other chapters in this handbook for better detail and nuance.
7. For an indepth discussion of a contemporary media ecology perspective, see Fuller (2005).
8. For example, the conceptualization of digital as separate from analog tends to play out in the persistent (and wrong) distinction between online and offline. While there may be two distinct venues within which information flows, this distinction mostly oversimplifies the actual situation. At a different part of the spectrum, we can also witness studies that don’t pay enough attention to the ways digital technology influences situations, since the digital is often an invisible element or agent in the situation.
9. To note, very few frameworks or classifications for qualitative internet research exist; this is still a young field that cuts across virtually every scientific discipline. Also, many of us who have been working in this area since the beginning have deliberately avoided compartmentalization, in the interest of diversity and crossover.
10. For some classic pieces that explore the internet as a tool or medium that mediates social interaction or grounds cultural experience, see, among others, Baym (1999), Hine (2000), Kendall (2003), Markham (1998), Orgad (2006), or Sunden (2003). For more recent works from a range of perspectives and across digital platforms, see boyd (2014), Marwick (2013), Miller (2011), or Senft (2008). One might also find inspiration from the work of Stone (1996).
11. I am inspired by many different frameworks developed over the years. Christine Hine (2005, 2015), who, along with other science and technology studies (STS) scholars, have thought about sociotechnical blurrings for much longer than I have (e.g., Suchman, 1987). Excellent frameworks have been discussed by Sarah Pink and John Postill (2012), as well as the strong research collective following the work of Daniel Miller and Don Slater (2000), including Heather Horst, Jo Tacchi, and Mirca Madianou.
12. In this chapter, I discuss ethics as a political and interventionist attitude,
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instead of the more traditional notion of ethical decision making within philosophical, regulatory, or political spheres. There are numerous resources for broader discussions. The Association of Internet Researchers curates a list of resources, available at ethics.aoir.org. For guidelines of best practices in ethical decision making in internet research, see both the 2002 and 2012 versions of the AoIR ethics reports (Ess & The AoIR Ethics Working Committee, 2002; Markham & Buchanan, 2012).
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Bakardjieva, M. (2011). The Internet in everyday life: Exploring the tenets and contributions of diverse approaches. In M. Consalvo & C. Ess (Eds.), The handbook of Internet studies (pp. 59–83). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Blackwell.
Barad, K. (2007). Meeting the universe halfway: Quantum physics and the entanglement of matter and meaning. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
Baszanger, I., & Dodier, N. (2004). Ethnography: Relating the part to the whole. In D. Silverman (Ed.), Qualitative research: Theory, method and practice (2nd ed., pp. 9–34). London: Sage.
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Baym, N. (2013). Data not seen: The uses and shortcomings of social media metrics. First Monday, 18(10).
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Beaulieu, A. (2004). Mediating ethnography: Objectivity and the making of
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