Ethical Analysis Paper
Chapter #1
Ethical Perspectives
Organizational Ethics
A Practical Approach,
Second Edition
by
Craig E. Johnson
Organizational Ethics
A Practical Approach,
Second Edition
by
Craig E. Johnson
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Utilitarianism: Do the Greatest Good for the Greatest Number
Utilitarianism is based on the premise that our ethical choices, like other types of decisions, should be based on their consequences.
Utilitarianism is attempting to do the greatest good for the greatest number of people.
Utilitarians consider both short- and long-term consequences when making ethical determinations.
Organizational Ethics: A Practical Approach, 2e by Craig E. Johnson © 2012 SAGE Publications Inc.
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Utilitarianism: Do the Greatest Good for the Greatest Number
Making a choice according to utilitarian principles is a three-step process.
First, identify all the possible courses of action.
Second, estimate the direct as well as the indirect costs and benefits for each option.
Third, select the alternative that produces the greatest amount of good based on the cost-benefit ratios generated in step two.
Organizational Ethics: A Practical Approach, 2e by Craig E. Johnson © 2012 SAGE Publications Inc.
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Evaluation
Utilitarian calculations:
typically drive public policy decisions
Bentham and Mills introduced utilitarianism to provide a rational basis for making political, administrative, and judicial choices
applied in emergency situations; in the midst of devastation
Organizational Ethics: A Practical Approach, 2e by Craig E. Johnson © 2012 SAGE Publications Inc.
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Evaluation
Despite its popularity, utilitarianism suffers from serious deficiencies, starting with defining and measuring “the greatest good.”
Being objective is difficult because we humans tend to downplay long-term risks in favor of immediate rewards.
Ironically, one of the greatest strengths of Utilitarian theory—its concern for collective human welfare—is also one of its greatest weaknesses.
Organizational Ethics: A Practical Approach, 2e by Craig E. Johnson © 2012 SAGE Publications Inc.
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Kant’s Categorical Imperative: Do What’s Right Despite the Consequences
German philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) argued that moral duties or imperatives are categorical—they should be obeyed without exception.
Kant believed individuals should do what is morally right no matter what the consequences are.
Organizational Ethics: A Practical Approach, 2e by Craig E. Johnson © 2012 SAGE Publications Inc.
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Kant’s Categorical Imperative
According to Kant, “what is right for one is right for all.” We need to ask ourselves one question: Would I want everyone else to make the decision I did? If the answer is yes, the choice is justified. If the answer is no, the decision is wrong.
Kant also argued for the importance of “treating humanity as an end,” or respect for persons, which has become one of the foundational principles of Western moral philosophy.
Organizational Ethics: A Practical Approach, 2e by Craig E. Johnson © 2012 SAGE Publications Inc.
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Kant’s Categorical Imperative
Respect for persons underlies the notion of moral rights.
Fundamental moral or human rights are granted to individuals based solely on their status as persons (regardless of culture or social or economic background).
Rights violations are unethical because they are disrespectful and deny human value and potential.
Organizational Ethics: A Practical Approach, 2e by Craig E. Johnson © 2012 SAGE Publications Inc.
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Evaluation
Kant’s imperative is a simple yet powerful ethical tool.
Emphasis on duty builds moral courage.
Recognizing that people are intrinsically valuable is another significant ethical principle.
This standard encourages us to protect the rights of employees, to act courteously, to demonstrate concern for others, and to share information.
Organizational Ethics: A Practical Approach, 2e by Craig E. Johnson © 2012 SAGE Publications Inc.
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Evaluation
Critiques of Kant’s system of reasoning often center on his assertion that there are universal principles that should be followed in every situation.
Complex ethical dilemmas often involve competing obligations. How do we determine which duty has priority? Kant’s imperative offers little guidance in such situations.
Organizational Ethics: A Practical Approach, 2e by Craig E. Johnson © 2012 SAGE Publications Inc.
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Rawls’s Justice as Fairness: Balancing Freedom and Equality
Harvard philosopher John Rawls developed a set of guidelines for justly resolving disputes that involve the distribution of resources.
His principles are designed to foster cooperation in democracies.
Rawls’s standards honor individual freedom—the foundation of democratic cultures—but also encourage more equitable distribution of societal benefits.
Organizational Ethics: A Practical Approach, 2e by Craig E. Johnson © 2012 SAGE Publications Inc.
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Rawls’s Justice as Fairness
Rawls rejected the use of utilitarian principles to allocate resources.
He believed that individuals have rights that should never be violated no matter what the outcome.
He asserted that seeking the greatest good for the greatest number can seriously disadvantage particular groups and individuals.
Organizational Ethics: A Practical Approach, 2e by Craig E. Johnson © 2012 SAGE Publications Inc.
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Rawls’s Justice as Fairness
Rawls argued that we should follow these principles of justice:
Principle 1: Each person has an equal right to the same basic liberties that are compatible with similar liberties for all.
Principle 2: Social and economic inequalities are to satisfy two conditions: (a) They are to be attached to offices and positions open to all under conditions of fair equality of opportunity, and (b) they are to be to the greatest benefit of the least advantaged members of society.
Organizational Ethics: A Practical Approach, 2e by Craig E. Johnson © 2012 SAGE Publications Inc.
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Rawls’s Justice as Fairness
Principle 1: principle of equal liberty, states that certain rights are protected and must be equally applied to all.
These liberties include the right to vote, freedom of speech and thought, freedom to own personal property, and freedom from arbitrary arrest.
Organizational Ethics: A Practical Approach, 2e by Craig E. Johnson © 2012 SAGE Publications Inc.
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Rawls’s Justice as Fairness
Principle 2a, the equal opportunity principle, asserts that everyone should have the same chance to qualify for offices and jobs.
Job discrimination based on race, gender, or ethnic origin is forbidden.
All citizens ought to have access to the training and education needed to prepare for these positions.
Organizational Ethics: A Practical Approach, 2e by Craig E. Johnson © 2012 SAGE Publications Inc.
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Rawls’s Justice as Fairness
Principle 2b, the difference principle, recognizes that inequalities exist but that priority should be given to meeting the needs of the disadvantaged.
Organizational Ethics: A Practical Approach, 2e by Craig E. Johnson © 2012 SAGE Publications Inc.
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Rawls’s Justice as Fairness
Rawls introduced the concept of the veil of ignorance to support his claim that his principles should guide decision making in democratic societies like Great Britain, the United States, and Canada.
Rawls argued that individuals standing behind the veil of ignorance would adopt his moral guidelines because they would ensure the best outcomes even in the worst of circumstances.
Organizational Ethics: A Practical Approach, 2e by Craig E. Johnson © 2012 SAGE Publications Inc.
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Evaluation
Rawls’ system for distributing resources and benefits encompasses personal liberty as well as the common good.
Individual rights are protected.
Talented, skilled, or fortunate people are free to pursue their goals, but the fruits of their labor must also benefit their less fortunate neighbors
Rawls’ principles would have a significant positive impact on the moral behavior of organizations
Organizational Ethics: A Practical Approach, 2e by Craig E. Johnson © 2012 SAGE Publications Inc.
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Evaluation
Skeptics note that the theory’s abstractness limits its usefulness.
Rawls offered only broad guidelines, which can be interpreted in a number of different ways.
Definitions of justice and fairness vary widely, a fact that undermines the usefulness of his principles.
By trying to reconcile the tension between liberty and equality, Rawls left himself open to attack from advocates of both values.
Organizational Ethics: A Practical Approach, 2e by Craig E. Johnson © 2012 SAGE Publications Inc.
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Confucianism: Building Healthy Relationships
Confucius (551–479 B.C.), believed that the ideal society is based on series of harmonious, hierarchical relationships (starting in the family and extending all the way up to the pinnacle of government) marked by trust and mutual concern.
Ideal leaders govern by setting a moral example.
Organizational Ethics: A Practical Approach, 2e by Craig E. Johnson © 2012 SAGE Publications Inc.
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Confucianism
Confucius argued that humans don’t exist in isolation but are social creatures connected to others though networks of relationships.
It is critical that these connections be based on trust and benefit all parties.
Organizations must also establish relationships with other organizations.
Organizational Ethics: A Practical Approach, 2e by Craig E. Johnson © 2012 SAGE Publications Inc.
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Confucianism
Confucianism emphasizes that policies, norms, procedures and rituals—referred to as etiquette, or li—maintain relationships within and between organizations.
Confucian thought puts a high priority on personal virtues or character because virtuous behavior is essential to maintaining healthy relationships and fulfilling organizational duties.
The most important Confucian virtue is that of humaneness or benevolence.
Organizational Ethics: A Practical Approach, 2e by Craig E. Johnson © 2012 SAGE Publications Inc.
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Confucianism
In addition to benevolence, the key virtues of Confucianism are honesty, trust, kindness, and tolerance.
Virtuous people put the needs of others above their own.
Finally, Confucians recognize the reality of status and power differences in society as well as in organizations.
Organizational Ethics: A Practical Approach, 2e by Craig E. Johnson © 2012 SAGE Publications Inc.
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Evaluation
Confucianism highlights the fundamental truth that organizations, economies, and societies are built on relationships.
Confucian thought also recognizes that the leader shapes the ethical climate of the organization by setting a moral example.
Organizational Ethics: A Practical Approach, 2e by Craig E. Johnson © 2012 SAGE Publications Inc.
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Evaluation
The strengths of Confucianism can become weaknesses if taken too far.
Placing too much emphasis on hierarchy and submission to the collective good can foster authoritarian paternalism, where employees have little freedom but blindly submit to authority.
Organizational Ethics: A Practical Approach, 2e by Craig E. Johnson © 2012 SAGE Publications Inc.
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Altruism: Concern for Others
Altruism is based on the principle that we should help others regardless of whether or not we profit from doing so.
Advocates of altruism argue that love of one’s neighbor is the ultimate ethical standard.
Care for others appears to be a universal value, one promoted by religions the world over.
Organizational Ethics: A Practical Approach, 2e by Craig E. Johnson © 2012 SAGE Publications Inc.
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Altruism
Researchers use the term organizational citizenship behavior to describe routine altruistic acts that increase productivity and build trusting relationships.
Caring behaviors also break down barriers of antagonism between individuals and departments. Communication and coordination increase, leading to better overall results.
Organizational Ethics: A Practical Approach, 2e by Craig E. Johnson © 2012 SAGE Publications Inc.
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Altruism
Altruism provides the foundation for the ethic of care:
Emphasize the importance of acting on abstract moral principles, being impartial, and treating others fairly
The ethic of care incorporates both attitude and action.
Organizational Ethics: A Practical Approach, 2e by Craig E. Johnson © 2012 SAGE Publications Inc.
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Evaluation
Concern for others is a powerful force for good.
Following the principle of caring helps prevent ethical abuses.
Altruistic behavior, as we’ve seen, promotes healthy relationships and organizations.
Altruism lays the foundation for high moral character.
Adopting an ethic of care would make our workplaces more humane and provide caregivers with the rewards they so richly deserve.
Altruism is inspiring.
Organizational Ethics: A Practical Approach, 2e by Craig E. Johnson © 2012 SAGE Publications Inc.
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Evaluation
Altruism suffers from serious deficiencies:
well-intentioned attempts to help others can backfire
is not an easy principle to put into practice
the ethic of care often conflicts with the ethic of justice
care and justice often clash in the legal system as well
Organizational Ethics: A Practical Approach, 2e by Craig E. Johnson © 2012 SAGE Publications Inc.
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