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Desegregation

· Separate but “Equal” (Plessy, 1896)

· 1st (whites) and 2nd (blacks) class railroad cars - same price, 2nd car much worse - ^Plessy challenged this, thrown off train and sued

· If you outlaw segregation, you’re forcing the two races together

· You can’t change southern white opinion by a court case

· Schools - not equal in length and teacher salaries, 2% of southern blacks are voting

· Discrimination - Early to Mid 20th Century

· De Facto - Segregation often happens by where people live (black families not shown a house) prejudice, Levittown refuse to sell to black families

· Informal discrimination by owners of hotels and restaurants

· Brown (1954) and Brown II (1955)

· Arguing that separation is inherently unequal regardless of the facilities, labels them as inferior

· The district will determine who segregates/when

· Resistance to Desegregation in North (Mid to Late 50s)

· College level - 1950 - the judge said Del State is NOT equal to UD...until it is students should be admitted

· Any teach who integrates can be fired in some states

· Score raised on the national teacher exam-black teachers would be dismissed or have lower salaries

· Southern Resistance (Little Rock 1957)

· Congress passes southern rights bill - demonstrates some change

· Admitted nine black students (middle class, well behaved)

· The Pace of Change Accelerates (Green, 1968)

· Advocacy of Lyndon Johnson - pushed hard for congress to pass meaningful civil rights amendments

· Civil rights leaders growing tired of nonviolent protests, rise of black power, urban riots sparked by confrontation with police, growing impatience

· Green Case - rural county in Virginia, half white half black, students rode school buses to get to their segregated school, district realized that things are changing, families can choose which school they want to attend, did it in good faith, formerly all white school find some black students have applied and been accepted while all black school has no white students after several years, did not choose the most effective solution has burden of choice was put on families, each school had a clear racial identity which persisted after county adopted freedom of choice, school system remains a dual system, court expects school students to eliminate effects of segregation, uproot the old school system and letting parents choose doesn’t transform identity of those schools, get rid of vestiges of segregation

· Formation of magnet schools to change identity by adding different high schools - STANDARD IS HIGHER

· The “Metropolitan Remedy” (Milliken, 1974)

· Milliken - Detroit was overwhelmingly black and segregated, local judge decided to bus students in suburbs to the city and back, segregation was in the city and never proven suburbs were segregated

· Late 1970s, court said Delaware schools need to take steps to uproot old schools and diminish lingering effects of segregation, Schools need to have similar black/white ratio, non discriminatory basis, workshops for faculty and admin, choose sites for schools non racially, court keeps tracks of statistical indicators, delaware districts go back to neighborhood schools (free choice), drawing district lines on the basis of your neighborhood/convenience and not race

· Busing

· Busing for the sake of integration

· White flight - white families either exited the school system or moved to a predominantly white neighborhood

· Politicians campaigned in the opposition of busing, southern governors encouraged to harm black bus tires

· Massive cross town bussing, forced bussing, neighborhoods destroyed by bussing, Most effective way to change composition of schools

· Many black families are ambivalent about bussing, wanted good schools, sit with the whites and you’ll do better

· Busing lead to violent protests in some cities, Boston - blue collar Irish bussed to ghetto schools

· Sense of resentment when busing fell disproportionate on poor families

· Enduring Challenges

· Long history of hispanic segregation, Asian segregation, range of different groups

· Racialism - ascribing a certain trait to a particular groups, “Black men know how to dance”, what a certain group of people is good or not good at, lumps individuals together

· You can have resegregation of voluntarily, bright spots were sports teams as black and white students came together, many advocates of black pride and black power simply want to be together

· Race also refers to social class - we’ve seen that difference between well off and poor have widened

· Learning and education

Affirmative Action (edge or push given to candidates in terms of minority groups)

· The G.I. Bill (1944)

· Near the end of WW2, the gov’t decided that returning troops would receive far more benefits than after previous wars

· Educational benefit - law decided you would receive up to $5000 in monthly allowance and full ride if you went back to college, designed to avoid another depression

· Suprise how many went back to college and how well they did

· Adopted summer classes to cope with 63% of student population being troops at Del, Housing and faculty were granted priority to servicemen

· Servicemen dropout rate was lower and grades were higher than other students

· Unrestricted dollars helped pay for buildings like STAR campus

· 70% of parents hoped their student would go to college -> 70% expected students to go to college (10 years later)

· Ivy League Admissions - 1950s

· 3 applicants for every spot in college, who will get an edge?

· Harvard wanted well-rounded students, large number coming private schools

· Looking for future leaders in America, leaders defined as not the very smartest - we want some true scholars, defined citizens (students who are outgoing, a sort of person would easily get elected to office)

· Who the future leaders will be influenced smarts, we need experts in American, inherited wealth, athletic ability, merit and achievement matters more than personal charm

· Balance shifts towards academics

· Quotas, No; Diversity, Yes (Bakke, 1978)

· Bakke Case said reserved certain number of seats for minorities

· Allan Bakke’s medical school - 16 seats saved for minorities, Bakke had better grades than those 16 and was turned down, reverse discrimination

· Harvard did not set quotas for any type of students

· Each applicant must be treated like an individual, background to Grutter Case (Michigan gave edge to minority candidates, did not have hard and fast quotas, used a holistic judgements, educationally beneficial)

· Court said diversity is promoted as educationally good for everyone

· Discrimination Against Asian Americans Now?

· Looks at extracurriculars, distinction, athletics, recruited athletics where Harvard made the move

· Personal traits was most controversial - based on letters of rec, essays, interviews with admissions officers

· 34% of legacies got in - edge of parents donated, edge if parent were faculty or staff at Harvard, Dean’s Interest List - 30-40 students on list

· Z List - 50-60 students told per year they had to defer a year to attend Harvard

· We don’t consider religion, disabilities, financial need

· Claimed number of asian americans have increased over the years

· Concern now that admission counselors in HS could tailor applications

· Families with resources could have edge in college application process

The 1950s

· International Tensions - Half of federal budget is for defense

· By 1960, we had far more atomic weapons than we have today

· Bomb shelters in basement of schools

· Domestic Complacency- Sense of satisfaction, that life is pretty good

· Blue collar incomes were rising, federal taxes were very high, Boom in suburbs

· Interstate highways make it easy to drive to work

· Air conditioning, dishwashers, dehumidifiers, electric blankets

· Baby Boom - 1946-1953, more and more couples have 2+ children, can buy nice house, more than one car, mom stays at home, Divorce is seen as a big failure, Marriage age - young, women drop out of school since men are the breadwinner, Drugs are unheard of, liquor was stolen but no talk about binge drinking, Smoking cigs and driving fast were pushing the limit

· Music, TV, Recreation

· The young have their own taste and preferences in music, Emergence of black girl groups

· The first TVs - big, bulky, expensive, and unreliable

· Millions of americans are able to afford larger TVs

· 20,000 housewives sold Tupperware

· Americans loved to watch shows about cowboys and frontiers

· Dick Clark’s American Bandstand played music the youth enjoyed

· “Life Adjustment” Assailed

· Learn foreign languages, advanced placement courses, recommitment to academic missions of high schools, wanted to be as diligent as Russian students - Popular, practical courses designed to give you life skills

· Driver’s education remains popular, typing classes

The 1960s

· Political and Social protests

· Vietnam war becomes more and more unpopular - “Domino Theory”: if we lose to Vietnam, we lose to all of Southeast Asia

· Over 500,000 deaths per year in the VW, hard to win war in foreign territory

· More bombs than all of WWII

· Student would have sit-ins on campus and take trips to washington DC, draft cards were burnt

· Iowa court case - tinker children wore black armbands to school to display they did not agree with the war

· Least popular war - retreat from war in 1973

· Escalation of troubles over civil rights, wanted to be more outspoken, “Black Power”, protests by hispanics, native americans, rise of Gay liberation, groups speak out in wake of Vietnam

· Polarization - more people go to liberal and conservative

· The “Counter Culture”

· Young and adults who turn their back on social norms and change the definition of happiness - we want a lot of something now rather than over the span of 70 years

· A sense that a life of more freedom was very appealing

· Music was changing in the 60s, The Beatles, people defined themselves by the music they listened to, targeted to the young

· The rise of readily available, inexpensive weed

· Hair and clothes are changing - people wanted to grow their hair long, bell bottom shirts, tye-dye shirts, beards

· Reliable birth control - less anxiety of shame about pregnancy outside of marriage, Greater sensitivity to feelings - therapy is nothing to be ashamed of, less censorship in movies,

· Hippies and Yippies, protested american politics by being a little funny and goofy, wrote “nobody” on ballot, threatened to put LSD in major water supply

· More people begin to think twice about previous aspirations and values

· Women

· Playboy - women seen as sex objects in the 1960s, satin outfits

· Helen Brown - “Good girls go to heaven; bad girls go everywhere”, got married at 37, took advantage of men, people had a problem with her manipulation of men

· Gloria Steinem - don’t call adult women “girls,” one of her many differences with Helen Brown,

· More of the single sex schools became coed, fear of admitting fewer men

· UD in the 60s/70s

· Traditional campus in early 1960s

· Clear rules about when you had to be back in the dorms, security was alerted and would notify parents if you weren’t found by 2 a.m, dress code in Club Morris, all new faculty had to take a loyalty oath that was notarized

· 1970s- reps of black students demanded more black faculty should be hired

· Concerned about our own education, fewer requirements and more choice, phys ed was dropped, new majors with fewer requirements, honors program, winter session, introduction on coed dorms, needed notarized document to live in Harrington

· The wife of president Trabant got married at 20, decided to go back to earn masters in 60s, 2nd master in 70s, accepted full time job as social worker

The Shopping Mall High School

· Variety, Choice, & Neutrality

· How many schools responded to the high school protests

· Integration in many communities, special ed program, more willing to celebrate diversity, want students to be happy

· Variety in a shopping mall -> amazing array of courses and programs in high schools, pick the english class you want senior year, rise of alternative schools (schools within a school, 75-100 students together most of the day, particular theme, decision making)

· Variety in the sense of different course levels, ability grouping, 3-4 levels of the largest courses, extracurriculars (co-curriculars) could earn credit for graduating

· Social services - sense that it was harder growing up, there are more risks/dangers in front of the young, schools added health center and a daycare facility so young mothers could attend, program to rehabilitate teenage prostitutes, enough variety so everyone could feel they succeeded

· Choice - let’s let students pick and choose, many states eased up on required courses to graduate, colleges eased up on entrance requirements

· Neutrality - schools are reluctant to say what is better than another thing, protests were about clothing/hair length, schools backed off dress code since students took them to court, implemented smoking areas, we can celebrate diversity

· Specialty Shops

· Advanced placements began to expand, Special ed increased due to legislation and court cases, Extracurriculars - female sports took off due to Title 9, Vo-Tech - was it a split day? Located in the HS? Benefited from donations from private industries, Troublemakers

· Admission procedures to get into these five shops, you’ve been chosen, outside allies or advocates

· Teachers - Part of their professional identity, what they’re proud of having accomplished, feel special, Less of the wide open choice from the rest of the “mall”

· The “Unspecial”

· Treaty/understanding between teachers and students - Mrs. Austin, does not require students to do any serious writing, she allows students to eat in class and comb their hair (keep it in bounds, relaxed), she is not a passionate advocate of literature, using your mind is optional and it’s ok to zone out

· Engagement is optional, live and let live treaty

· Purpose, push, personal attention

· 80% of 18 year olds are graduating at this time

· Purpose - faculty would share the purpose of the school, reinforced by peer pressure as it was ok to study,

· Push - people are looking over your shoulder and expecting you to work, school rules on HW rather than teacher’s choice, requirement to play sport even if you’re terrible as being a spectator is a sign of being unspecial, giving teachers enough free time to tutor students after class

· Personal Attention - you could be faceless in the “mall” but opposite in private schools due to small size of schools, avg class size smaller of 15 kids, advisory groups, send home narrative report about student, most important form was college counseling

School Improvement 1980s-Now

· Accomplishments in the 1970s

· Equity - women’s sports multiplied, bilingual schools

· Schools are orderly and safe, parents still concerned about discipline as teachers were more relaxed and informal with students, Academics were not as a high of a priority, Fewer outstanding undergraduates wanted to be teachers

· The shopping mall high school was an ingenious display of diversity, too many of young are not prepared for college and the economy, inflation hit 12%

· Alexander Hamilton was the first secretary general

· Students can do the basics, but not complicated tasks. Students could not figure out tip from bill in a multi-step problem, couldn’t summarize main argument from a longer news article.

· “A Nation at Risk” (1983) - Diagnosis and Remedy

· Academic focus - students not being pushed hard enough, the general track (unspecial) has a lot of students that don’t lead to a specific career.

· Other countries have high expectations as their school years are longer

· Recommendations to states and localities: increase grad requirements to three years of a course, foreign language required, colleges to increase entrance requirements, teachers to assign more HW

· Tone of we need to buckle down and be more serious

· Didn’t talk about costs and teaching methods and what type of science/math, steered away from details of curriculum

· States began to supply more money for education as teacher salaries went up, made education a central political issue, Who’s speaking and how is education compared to the other topics

· Salience - how visible is an issue?

· Better teachers? Restructured schools?

· Raise teacher salaries and hire teachers with degrees in education

· Teach For America - modeled after Peace Corps, identified students to go to six week institute, mid career programs to offer support and advice

· Up the standards for teacher education

· Modeled on other professions - board certified (fellow specialist) you meet our standards, peer review that says certain teachers are excellent

· Tenure, Student-teacher ratio lowered, students need certain number of credits to graduate, curriculum has barely changed

· Restructured - need to rethink old traditions, show certain skills and competency, require senior project, restructure class length, teams of teachers that work together (English+History=American studies), high school partnered with community college to earn credits

· Standards & Assessments

· You make crystal clear what students should learn and then you engage, stipulate in detail what you should know,

· If you monitor how students are doing, you’ll be able to see the black/white differential, marketplace competition, professor Cuban

· Big Hairy Audacious Goals - everyone can bring up their performance, some subjects had no agreements on the standards (history), history classes focused on what divided us (KKK), not enough names, dates, and facts

· Federal gov’t supplied money to draft voluntary standards, backed off from initial draft

· To what extent should you be allowed to use a calculator? Word problems? Blocks and sticks to learn math?

· How does a 5 or 6 year old learn how to read?

· Some people said that schools with less money doesn’t have the same opportunity to reach these standards

Choice

· Catholic Schools, 1950s-Now

· 1950s- 40% of catholic children went to catholic schools

· Small, modest in appearance, keep cost down, single sex to not encourage dating, first period class was about memorizing catholic doctorate, large classes as catholics prided themselves on being able to educate 40+ students at one time, did not try to offer a wide range of tracks and programs, teachers upheld morals and felt free to use corporal punishment

· Half of the factory are lay teachers, lower than public school salaries

· More co-ed by the 1990s, quarter of families are not catholic, course about ethics and caring, discipline was not as harsh but clear schools rules and you can’t be expelled, fear is not as obvious as it was, common effort to create a sense of community, curriculum is narrower than a public HS, more room for discussion, school uniform makes perfectly good sense

· Charter Schools (1990-Now)

· Public school that receives taxpayer money, faith in the free market, not required to have a particular emphasis in your school, some focused on business and technology, public safety, arts

· Most charter schools were brand new and not converted from previous schools, not affiliated with other schools, some parts of national chains,

· Small, average size of 300, far fewer teachers in CS belonged to unions, get certain amount of flexibility from states

· Particular/clear goals and focus, high expectations of everyone, no excuses culture, faculty works hard and wants to be there, putting in more time on task

· If you have a sibling in the school, have to show interest in field of study,

· Safety and happiness are top two considerations

· No tenure, no unions, one year contract for everyone

· Home Schooling (1980s-Now)

· Arises due to small groups that say public schools are no good, homeschooling defies public schools rules and regulations, public schools no longer emphasize values

· Slow, steady growth in homeschooling, state matter,

· Biggest variable is cost, can you give up income to teach at home

· Will it become easier to homeschool with technology since ¾ of parents have no training as teachers?

· The Expansion of Federal Activity in Education

· Education tucked inside the department of interior, national groups that had no connection to the gov’t

· Women’s Christians Temperance Movement pushed to teach values of abstinence and negative effects alcoholism

· School lunches helped farmers, money for native american children’s education, however budget was small

· 1960s- LBJ urged federal gov’t to help impoverish districts by giving a boost to those who need resources, equity and fairness

· Head Start - designed for children in low income families, enriched daycare that targets academics and health

· Loans to college students - avg debt of $28,000

· Fair amount of money available for research, 10-20 special programs to test new ideas and reforms

· Many programs revolving around drug-free schools, educational technology

· State Dept. in Delaware funded by federal dollars

· SAT and ACT are non profit- exert a national influence on education

· No Child Left Behind (2001) & Race to the Top (2009)

· State gov’t stepped in, but federal gov’t set requirements. State gov’t set standards, grades 3-8 and once in high school tested in reading and math every year, test scores to be looked at and shown to particular groups (stats by race), law about equity and Bush campaigned that he was fighting the soft bigotry of soft expectations, have to make yearly progress, weaker schools can be restructured as teachers could lose their job and students can receive free tutoring or transfer to other schools, Schools need to base research on scientific laws, more emphasis on statistics

· Race to the Top - expectation is that achievement gap will be narrowed, discrepancy is narrowing over time, interventions for the weakest schools

· The History of School Lunch

· Even poor kids had to pay for lunch at first but it is now free

· Free and reduced lunch - income of 27,000 (free), 30,000 (reduced)

· Discrepancy about what counts as a fruit, vegetable, junk food

· ⅓ of american children overweight, 40% of calories eaten at school

· Michelle Obama - double vegetable, milk fat free, cup of fruit, less sodium and salt, Gov’t supplies beef to the schools, Example of growth of popular federal program

R17 - Brown v Board of Education

· Reading question: What evidence did the Court rely on to overturn Plessy (1896)

· The decision declared that separate educational facilities for white and African American students were inherently unequal. It thus rejected as inapplicable to public education the “separate but equal” doctrine

R18 - Green v. New Kent County

· Reading question: Why was freedom of choice rejected as a way to end segregation

· Only a few African American students transferred to New Kent and no white students transferred to George W. Watkins.

· Did not successfully integrate the school systems and segregation was still very much prevalent.

R19 -

· The University of Michigan would not have won the Grutter case if its admission office had done the following:

· Not had a race-blind admission

· Advise a bright Asian-American 16-year-old what s/he should do to maximize the chances of getting accepted by Harvard:

· They could pick a major not as popular, focus on athletics/extracurriculars that you would succeed in.

R20 - Blooming: A Small-Town Girlhood

· more differences between the 20’s and 50’s as ignorance seemed to be promoted, and sex education and risky behavior were not as prevalent as they were in the roaring 20’s

R22- Tinker v. Des Moines

· The Supreme Court held that the armbands represented pure speech that is separate from the actions or conduct of those participating in it.

· The Court also held that the students did not lose their First Amendment rights to freedom of speech when they stepped onto school property. - R23- Unspecial were just “average” so they took average classes