Types of Groups

Read: Jacobs, Schimmel, Masson, & Harvill: Chapter 1

Group Counseling: Strategies and Skills

Ed Jacobs

Jacobs, E. (2015). Group Counseling: Strategies and Skills (8th ed.). Cengage Learning US.  https://mbsdirect.vitalsource.com/books/9798214344782

Chapter 1. Introduction

Introduction

If you are a new group leader or a student studying group leadership, you may be thinking that you know very little about groups, especially if you believe you have never been in one. Actually, everyone has had some kind of group experience, be it in classes, orientation sessions, job-training sessions, Sunday-school meetings, staff meetings, or counseling or support groups. Depending on the leader’s ability, some of these experiences have been valuable and some have not.

If studying group counseling is new for you, you may be asking yourself several questions:

What are the advantages of leading groups?

What kinds of groups are there?

What happens in groups?

How do I prepare for leading my group?

What do I do if nobody talks?

What should I do if someone talks too much?

What leadership style should I use?

This book was written to answer these questions. In this book, we provide a wealth of information and practical examples, hints, and techniques that will increase your understanding of group dynamics and enhance your effectiveness as a group leader. We believe that reading this book will improve your ability to lead all kinds of groups, trainings, and meetings. Our emphasis is on skills, techniques, and the art of leading.

In this chapter, we discuss a number of basic considerations: who should lead groups, reasons for leading groups, kinds of groups, group versus individual counseling, use of theories, group counseling in a multicultural context, group leadership styles, leadership functions, what makes an effective leader, ethical considerations regarding group leading, and potential group problems.

Group Counseling Skills Introduction

We encourage you to take a few minutes and watch videos 1.1 and 1.2 (“Introduction”), where we show two brief videos of a group: one being led by a leader without skills, and one being led by a leader with the skills that are highlighted throughout this book. In the introduction, you will hear about our model of leadership and get a preview of what you will be learning in this book.

Who Should Lead Groups?

Knowing how to lead groups is beneficial to anyone in a helping, teaching, or supervisory role. Any helping professional who is looking for an economical and effective means of helping individuals who share similar problems and concerns should use groups. Many counselor educators talk about how counselors no longer have the option of just doing individual counseling (Bauman, 2009; Corey, 2012; Gladding, 2012; Jacobs & Schimmel, 2004). Currently, more and more administrators in schools, agencies, and correctional settings are requiring their counselors to lead groups.

Reasons for Leading Groups

Corey (2012) opens his text on group counseling by saying, “Although there is still a place in a community agency for individual counseling, limiting the delivery of services to this model is no longer practical, especially in these tight financial times. Not only do groups let practitioners work with more clients, but the group process also has unique learning advantages” (p. 2). The American School Counselor Association (ASCA) has recognized the importance of groups. In the ASCA national model, leading groups in schools is promoted (ASCA, 2003).

There are many valid reasons for using a group approach. Two reasons are common to all groups: Groups are more efficient and groups offer more resources and viewpoints. Other reasons for using a group approach include the feeling of commonality, the experience of belonging, the chance to practice new behaviors, the opportunity for feedback, the opportunity for vicarious learning by listening and observing others, the approximation to real-life encounters, and the pressure to uphold commitments.

Efficiency

Having several clients meet as a group for a common purpose can save considerable time and effort. For instance, a school counselor who is responsible for 300 students will barely be able to see each student once during a school year using only one-to-one counseling. However, school counselors can meet the needs of many more students by having groups for advising, values clarification, personal growth, support, and problem solving. Groups provide a framework that promises to deliver services to the largest number of students with the most efficient use of time (ASCA, 2003; Bauman, 2009; Day, 2007; Jacobs & Schimmel, 2004; Van Velsor, 2009). Groups can certainly save time in situations where there is a need to orient residents, patients, or prisoners to policies and procedures (Stohr & Walsh, 2009). If a supervisor finds that her staff members have different opinions about an issue, bringing the people together for one meeting is more efficient than having individual meetings. In most agencies and schools, professionals are incorporating groups into their overall program to help handle the increasing caseloads. They no longer have the luxury of just working with individuals.

Experience of Commonality

Many people have feelings they believe to be unique. Having people get together in a group allows them to discover that they are not the only ones having similar thoughts and feelings. As group members share personal concerns, thoughts, and feelings, they are often amazed that others in the group have similar concerns. Yalom (2005) uses the term universality when he discusses the value of people getting together. Following are some examples of groups where the experience of commonality can be helpful:

Parents whose children have died

Pregnant teenagers

Children new to a school

Recently divorced persons

AIDS patients

Soldiers who have returned from war

Greater Variety of Resources and Viewpoints

Whether they are sharing information, solving a problem, exploring personal values, or discovering they have common feelings, a group of people can offer more viewpoints and, hence, more resources. Group members often relate that one of the most helpful aspects of being in a group is the variety of viewpoints expressed and discussed. When only two people get together, it is possible they will possess similar information, values, or ways of seeing the world. Usually this is not the case in a group setting—members will have a variety of opinions and ideas, thus making the experience interesting and valuable.

Sense of Belonging

Writers in counseling and psychology have pointed out the powerful human need to belong (Adler, 1927; Berne, 1964; Glasser, 2000; Maslow, 1962). Being in a group can satisfy this need in part (Steen, 2009; Trotzer, 2006; Yalom, 2005). Members will often identify with one another and then feel part of a whole. A sense of belonging has proven beneficial in such groups as those for veterans, women, men, ex-convicts, addicts, addicted teenagers, people with disabilities, and the elderly. Members of these groups report that the experience of being accepted was one of the most important features of the group.

Skills Practice

Groups provide an arena for safe practice (Capuzzi & Gross, 2009; Johnson & Johnson, 2012). Members can practice new skills and behaviors in a supportive environment before trying them in real-world situations. The range of new behaviors to explore is nearly infinite; members can practice interviewing for jobs, learning how to make friends, being more assertive, asking for a raise, or talking to significant people in their lives. They may share personal facts about themselves, confront others, talk about difficult subjects, look at others when they talk, cry in front of others, laugh with others, sing with others, or disagree with others. Assertiveness, communication, parenting, marital enrichment, employer–employee relations training, and police riot-training groups are all examples of groups where members might experiment with new behaviors.

Feedback

Groups provide an opportunity for members to receive feedback. Group feedback is often more powerful than individual feedback because when only one person is giving feedback, the receiver can dismiss that person’s viewpoint. When six or seven people are saying the same thing, it is difficult to deny the accuracy of what is being said. In groups where behavior rehearsal is a major component, the suggestions, reactions, and perceptions of others can be valuable.

There are many kinds of feedback and ways of giving feedback in a group. Frequently, members will have the opportunity to hear both first impressions and updated impressions. Because feedback can be such a valuable part of group counseling, we have devoted an entire section to feedback exercises and how to deliver effective feedback (see Chapter 10).

Vicarious Learning

A number of authors have discussed the positive value of vicarious learning in groups (Lefly, 2009; Steen, Bauman, & Smith, 2008; Van Velsor, 2009). Members frequently have the opportunity to hear concerns similar to their own. On countless occasions members have said such things as, “That’s exactly the same problem I have.” Other members have said, “Listening to you has really made me aware of the fears and hang-ups I have.”

Real-Life Approximation

Groups replicate real-life situations better than one-to-one counseling. Different writers have discussed the idea of groups as a microcosm or reflection of society (Hagedorn & Hirshhorn, 2009; Yalom, 2005). Trotzer (2006) calls groups “minisocieties.” Sometimes the group setting becomes a temporary substitute for the community, family, work site, or organization. In the comparatively safe atmosphere of the group, emotions, human behaviors, and attitudes such as confrontation, rigidity, fear, anger, doubt, worry, and jealousy can be identified and discussed. Being exposed to these in a group environment enables individuals to learn methods of relating and coping that may extend into their everyday living.

The social context of the group experience is valuable in many other ways. Not only are maladaptive emotions and behaviors scrutinized and worked on, but members also are given the opportunity to discover how people honestly react to them over a period of weeks or months.

Commitment

Commitment to work on specific concerns often has more strength when made in a group setting. Although people often make such commitments in one-to-one situations (counselor–client, nurse–patient, supervisor–supervisee), the motivation to honor them seems to be stronger when they are made to a number of people. This is one of the most helpful aspects of groups such as Alcoholics Anonymous (AA), Weight Watchers, and groups that help people stop smoking, find a job, or become more assertive. In these groups, members make at least an implied commitment to stop, start, or change certain behaviors. The combination of support, subtle expectations, and the desire not to let down the group is often a powerful motivation for behavioral change.

Kinds of Groups

Some people think the term group refers exclusively to a counseling or therapy group for troubled individuals. In fact, there are many different kinds of groups with a variety of purposes. A leader may form a group to discuss or decide something, to explore personal problems, or to complete a specific task or achieve a specific goal. During your professional career, you will most likely have the opportunity to lead many different kinds of groups. The techniques discussed in this book can apply to all kinds of groups and also to meetings, workshops, classes, and family counseling.

Educators have classified groups differently. The Association for Specialists in Group Work (ASGW), which is a division of the American Counseling Association, sets forth training standards for four kinds of groups: guidance/psychoeducational, counseling/interpersonal problem-solving, psychotherapy/personality reconstruction, and task/work groups. Gladding’s (2012) list of kinds of groups includes group guidance, group counseling, and group psychotherapy, along with some additional traditional and historical categories. Don Ward (2006), former editor of The Journal for Specialists in Group Work, has an excellent article that gives the history and evolution of the different kinds of groups. He states, “it also seems that overlapping and blending of group types in the same group experience often best represents the reality of the evolving practice of group work” (p. 95).

We have created seven categories of groups, based upon their different goals. Some goals reflect what the members gain from the group and others what the members will do in the group.

Categories of Groups

Education

Discussion

Task

Growth and experiential

Counseling and therapy

Support

Self-help

Education Groups

Often, helping professionals are asked to provide clients with information on various topics. The following are examples:

Rehabilitation clients learning how to use a wheelchair

Students learning study skills

People with diabetes acquiring information on nutrition

Women learning how to protect themselves from being raped

Managers learning how to better supervise employees

Fifth-graders learning about the harmful effects of drug use

In each of these groups, the leader provides information and then elicits reactions and comments from the members, thereby serving sometimes as an educator and other times as a facilitator of discussion. It is very important for the leader to conceptualize this dual role. There is no set formula for how much one should be in each role—it depends on the amount of information to be covered, the amount of knowledge the members already have, and the amount of time available. Likewise, there is no set format for the number of sessions or length of meetings. Often, education groups are held just once for 2 to 8 hours. Others meet for a number of weeks, 1 or 2 hours per week.

Examples

This group is composed of eight students who want tips on how to study more efficiently. It is 20 minutes into the first session.

Leader:Okay, let’s talk about the different ways of going about studying a chapter in a text. What are the ways that you do it?

Jerry:Well, I just read the chapter and underline.

Bill:I do the same thing.

Kevin:I try to outline ‘em, but it takes me too long.

Bobbi:I just read it twice and hope for the best.

Leader:Let me give you some ideas. One of the best things you can do is to sit down and skim the chapter for the main idea of what you are going to read. Often, there is a summary at the end of each chapter. Then decide the kinds of questions that the professor might ask. If you can, look over your other tests and try to get a sense of the kind of questions you have been asked before. How does that sound?

Becky:Well, I never thought of skimming the chapter.

Jim:I like that idea.

Chu:Me, too. Would you suggest underlining or taking notes or what?

Leader:I would suggest writing a question that summarizes the topic and then underlining the answer. Most people, however, don’t learn from underlining alone.

Kevin:That’s true for me. It’s not helpful for me to underline. But when I take notes as I read, I remember.

Jim:Yeah, I like that idea. I’ve been underlining too, but it hasn’t helped. I think I’d better take notes.

The leader’s role in this group is to offer helpful suggestions and ideas concerning ways of studying and to get members to share methods of studying that do and do not work for them.

This group is composed of five women who weigh more than 200 pounds. The purpose of the group is to educate the women about behavior modification methods of losing weight. It is the second meeting, and it is 10 minutes into the session.

Leader:Get out your list of things other than food that are reinforcing for you—let’s talk about them.

Rhonda:I realize that I do like to read, although I don’t do it, and there are three or four TV shows that I like. I also put on my list that I have two friends who live back in Missouri that I would like to call but don’t.

Phyllis:Gosh, that’s strange. I also put down that I have some friends who live in California that I would like to call. The other thing I like to do that would be good for weight control is walking early in the morning. I’ll bet I haven’t gone for a good walk in the morning for over a year.

Sally:Oh, I’d go with you! I get up early, but I just sit around and watch the news.

Leader:I hope the two of you will talk after the meeting about doing that. How about others? Margie, what about you?

Margie:My list doesn’t make sense.

Leader:Do you mean that the activities you listed are strange or that you did not do it exactly right? I’m not sure what you mean.

Margie:Well, I’ve got things like sleeping, exercising, washing my car, cleaning my house—you know, dumb things like that.

Leader:I don’t really see those as dumb. In fact, let’s talk more about how you can use your “reinforcer list” to help you. Let me go into a little more theory.…

In this example, the leader is both educating by providing information and facilitating interaction by bringing up topics, clarifying comments, and getting members to share.

Discussion Groups

In discussion groups, the focus is usually on topics or issues rather than any member’s personal concerns. The purpose is to give participants the opportunity to share ideas and exchange information. The leader serves mainly as a facilitator because he does not necessarily have more knowledge than the members do about the subject. Following are some possible examples of discussion groups:

Book club

Current events group

Bible study group

Lifestyle group

Examples

This group is composed of students discussing “how the family is changing.”

Leader:Let’s list all the different forms in which families exist in our town. Each of you make a list. (After a couple of minutes) In looking at your list, what stands out to you?

Lynn:I never realized how many families aren’t just the regular kind—that is, a mom, a dad, and some kids.

Don:You know, I think we need to be more accepting of all these kinds of families.

Hector:I agree, because I’m currently living with just my mom, and I remember that last year I was kidded about it.

Lewis:Yeah, I think there is too much bullying of other kids. How do we stop bullies from having so much power?

Leader:(Intervening) Wait, let’s discuss the different kinds of families today. Maybe some other time we can talk about the bully problem.

Billy:The thing I wonder about is all those single fathers. What do they know about babies?

The leader’s role in this group is to generate discussion on the topic of the changing family. Because it is a discussion group, the leader did not let Lewis shift the focus of the group to dealing with bullies.

It is the monthly meeting of the Reading Club. The book being discussed is titled Love and Addiction.

Leader:Let’s do a quick round of 1 to 10. If you liked the book a whole lot, give it a 10; a 1 means you did not like it at all.

Leslie:I’d give it a 7.

Ralph:9.

Steve:10.

Tuyen:7.

Cindy:8.

Lendon:9.

Leader:Because most people did like it, let’s talk about what stood out for you. What were two or three points that really hit you?

Steve:There was just so much in there that helped me to understand the crazy relationship I’m currently in. I felt the authors were talking directly to me. I thought it was really interesting the way they described how people get into bad relationships.

Tuyen:It reminded me of the Bible and some of its passages. Don’t you think the Bible is good for learning about relationships?

Leader:Let’s save that discussion for the end or later. Let’s, for now, focus on this book.

Ralph:I thought the description of kinds of relationships was excellent. It really helped me to think through an old relationship that I’d had. On page 27—everyone look at that for a minute.…

In this group, the leader used the 1 to 10 ratings to generate discussion. Once the discussion got going, she kept members involved and did not let the discussion shift off the main topic, the book the members had read.

Task Groups

The task group is one in which a specific task is to be accomplished, such as discussing a patient on a psychiatric ward, resolving conflicts among house residents, or deciding policies for a school. This kind of group usually meets once or just a few times and ends when the task is completed. Staff meetings, faculty meetings, organizational meetings, planning sessions, or decision-making meetings are examples of task groups. In the field of business, a focus group is a kind of task group that is used to evaluate products or perceptions of products.

The following list should give you a better idea of task groups:

Members of a club choosing a slate of officers

House parents deciding rules and policies

Professionals involved in the treatment of one student (for example, a counselor, two teachers, a social worker, and a special-education coordinator)

Professionals collaborating on a year-end report

Committee deciding on location of a new highway

An agency wanting to do something for returning soldiers

Students or teachers talking about ways to curb violence on the playground

Students or teachers trying to change some policies at their school

The leader’s role in a task group is to keep the group on task and to facilitate discussion and interaction. In some task groups, the members stay focused with little intervention by the leader; thus, the leader’s role is more facilitative. In other task groups, discussion becomes unfocused or conflict breaks out among members. In such instances, the leader intervenes and brings the group back to the task.

Examples

The purpose of the group is to discuss Oswaldo’s living situation. (The child is currently residing in an emergency crisis shelter.) A houseparent, Oswaldo’s mother, a social worker, and a counselor have been brought together. The leader of the group is the social worker.

Mother:I want Oswaldo at home! He’s my boy, and that’s where he should be!

Houseparent:Oswaldo has not been cooperative here, and I don’t think he’s ready to go home.

Mother:(In a condescending voice) I don’t care what you think. I think the program here is terrible. He should be allowed to call home whenever he wants. And the policy about visitations should absolutely be changed. Let’s talk about that!

Leader:(Seeing that they’re off the task) Wait a minute. Let’s get back to our task, which is deciding whether Oswaldo is ready to go home.

Counselor:I have seen Oswaldo for five sessions, and he’s still a very angry kid. My own opinion is he will not do well at home.

Leader:Why don’t you elaborate on why you feel that way and what you think would be helpful for Oswaldo?

The purpose of this group is to select one of three applicants to fill a vacant position in a small community agency. To make the decision, the director has brought together her staff of six to discuss the interviews.

Montel:I feel that we need a female, so I think we should hire Sarah.

Sheri:I agree we need another female.

Tom:(Angrily) Hold on just a minute! That’s a bunch of crap. Why did we interview two guys if we were going to hire a woman? We never said anything about hiring a woman.

Director:(Recognizing a potentially volatile situation) Let’s talk about what we do need. I think both points are well taken. We never did decide we needed a woman. However, all things being equal, I think hiring a woman would be in our best interest. Let’s go over each candidate’s strengths and weaknesses.

Filip:I didn’t like the fact that Sarah smokes. None of us smokes. In fact, I think we should get the secretary to stop smoking.

Tom:Oh, I agree. Let’s do that. Let’s make a policy about smoking. (Turns to the director) How do we pass such a policy? I would like to make a motion.

Director:(Realizing that the group is off the intended task) Wait! We’re here to decide on the three candidates. We need to choose one of them. At the next meeting, we can set policies on smoking or whatever. Let’s go over each candidate, listing strengths and weaknesses.

In each of these groups, the leader made clear what the task was and kept the group working on that task.

For anyone interested specifically in task groups, Making Task Groups Work in Your World, by Hulse-Killacky, Killacky, and Donigian (2001), is excellent. Also Van Velsor (2009) has an article on task groups in a school setting.

Growth Groups and Experiential Groups

Members who want to experience being in a group and who are motivated to learn more about themselves often benefit from growth groups. T-groups, or training groups, were the first popular kind of growth group; the first one was held in Bethel, Maine, in 1947. Sensitivity groups, awareness groups, and encounter groups would all be considered growth groups. Growth groups are conducted in settings such as schools, colleges, community centers, and retreat centers. In these groups, members are given the opportunity to explore and develop personal goals and better understand themselves and others. Goals may include changes in lifestyle, a greater awareness of oneself and others, improved interpersonal communications, and an assessment of values—all accomplished in an atmosphere of sharing and listening. Quite often in growth groups, considerable counseling will take place as different issues come to the surface.

One form of growth group is the experiential group, where the leader designs experiential activities for the members. Often these are conducted outdoors and involve physical challenges, risk taking, and cooperation among members. Perhaps the best known is the “ropes course,” where members are challenged on a number of activities that involve ropes. If you are unfamiliar with ropes courses, we suggest you do an Internet search of the term and read about the different kinds of ropes courses.

Examples

This group is composed of 10 teenagers who are out on the ropes course. They have just completed two activities.

Leader:What have you learned so far?

Buz:That fear is more in the mind!

Eden:I agree. I never thought I could do the “Pamper Pole,” but when I saw Amiel do it, I thought, “I can do it.”

Steve:The group support has been what stood out for me. I was really scared, but everyone kept telling me I could do it. That really helped.

Leader:I want us to talk about the value of group support, but first let me pick up on what Buz is saying about fear often being in the mind.

The purpose of this group is to examine values. (This kind of group could meet in a school, a church, or a community center.)

Leader:Today we are going to take a look at some of the things you value. First, let me have everyone stand up and get in a line behind Serj. (Everyone is now standing in the center of the room in a straight line, with the leader standing in front where everyone can see him.) On the count of three, I am going to ask you to move to the position that is most like the way you are. Toward the wall to your left is “spender,” and toward the wall to your right is “saver.” That is, if any time you have money you spend it, you would move all the way to the wall to your left. If you spend some and save some, you may want to position yourself in the middle, and so on. Everyone understand? (Everyone nods.) Okay, on three: one, two, three. (Everyone moves.)

Leader:Any comments?

Doug:I am glad to see I am not the only spender because my mom says I spend, spend, spend.

Toni:I wish I could spend. I always feel like I must save my money. That’s why I’m up against this wall. Have you spenders always been able to spend?

Leader:(After letting several members comment) The main point of doing this is to see that people are different and to help each of you get a better understanding of why you are the way you are. Let’s now talk about why you are the way you are and whether you want to change.

In each of these examples, the leader initiated activities that focused members on relevant self-exploration and personal growth.

Counseling and Therapy Groups

Counseling and therapy groups are different from growth groups in that the members come to the group because of certain problems in their lives. School counselors often lead counseling groups for students who have various problems at home, at school, or with friends. The leader focuses the group on different individuals and their problems; then, members try to help one another with the leader’s guidance. The leader will, at times, play a dominant role by directing the session to make it more productive.

Therapy groups are for members who have more severe problems. Examples of therapy groups include the following:

Patients diagnosed as having emotional disorders

Teenagers in an institutional setting

People with an eating disorder or some other addiction

People who suffer from panic attacks

People who were sexually abused

It is important to realize that group experts do not agree on how counseling and therapy groups should be conducted. Opinions vary widely on the role of the members, the role of the leader, the appropriate tone, and the use of theory in the group. Some believe that members should be responsible for the majority of the therapy, with supportive probing and encouragement from the leader (Rogers, 1970; Yalom, 2005). Others feel that a confrontational, aggressive approach works best, such as in positive peer culture groups (Vorrath, 1974). Some believe that individual therapy by the leader, while the majority of the group observes, is very beneficial (Dyer & Vriend, 1980; Perls, 1969). Some leaders strictly follow one of the theoretical models, such as rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT), transactional analysis (TA), or behavioral theory. Others use none of the individual counseling theories as their theoretical base: instead, they believe it is the power of the group interaction—sharing, involvement, and belonging—that serves as the main agent for change (Yalom, 2005).

Our leadership model for counseling and therapy groups is based on impact therapy (Jacobs & Schimmel, 2013), which is an active, creative, multisensory, theory-driven approach to counseling. In our approach, the leader is primarily responsible for making sure that individuals working on issues get the best help possible. The leader will do whatever is most helpful—sometimes using other members’ input and sometimes conducting therapy while the other members listen, watch, and periodically share. Later in this chapter and throughout the book, we discuss how to use an impact therapy approach and why this approach is well suited for most group counseling situations.

Examples

This group consists of five women whose husbands routinely physically abuse them. It is 20 minutes into the second session.

Leader:A number of you have talked about your poor self-concept. Rather than us just talking about self-concept, I’d like for someone to volunteer to work on her self-concept.

Katelyn:I will because I feel terrible about myself, but I’m sort of scared.

Leader:I think all of us understand your fear. Why don’t you start by telling us more about how you felt growing up?

Katelyn:I always felt like a nothing. My parents definitely favored my brother and sister. They even told me that if they’d known I was going to be so much trouble, they would have never had me. (Starts to cry)

Jodi:My cousin who lives in Cleveland told me she felt the same way. The other day she told me this story. She said …

Leader:(With a kind voice) Jodi, let’s stay with Katelyn. How many of you have felt like Katelyn? (All four raise their hands.)

Sue Lin:Katelyn, I cried myself to sleep every night.

Katelyn:You did? So did I. I always felt everything was my fault.…

This group consists of five teenagers who all recently attempted suicide. It is 15 minutes into the third session, and the members have been discussing their relationship with their parents.

Carl:At least your parents care! Hell, my old man hasn’t been to see me since he brought me here. When he left, he said to me, “I’m done with you!”

Dione:At least you have a dad. My mom has all these men over all the time. I can’t stand it.

Leader:(In a caring tone) Look, we could sit here and talk about how bad things are, but I am not sure that is the most helpful thing. What do the rest of you think?

Trudy:I think we have to learn to feel good about ourselves no matter what our parents say and do. Like you said last time, we all need to learn how to cope with our feelings.

Leader:Let’s focus on the feelings you have about yourself and talk about how you can change your feelings by changing some of the negative “self-talk” that is in your head. I want each of you to think of the negative things you tell yourself throughout the week. I am going to write your thoughts here on the whiteboard and then show you how you tell yourselves all kinds of negative things that are not true.

In the first example, no specific theory was demonstrated, although the leader was most likely thinking in terms of Adlerian, REBT, or transactional analysis. In the second example, the leader was using impact therapy (writing on the whiteboard) and REBT to help these teenagers examine their poor self-concepts. (If you are a beginning student, you may not be familiar with the approaches mentioned. This is not important at this point. The crucial point is that the leaders of counseling or therapy groups should use some kind of theory and not just “wing it.”)

Support Groups

A support group, which consists of members with something in common, meets on a regular basis—every day, once a week, once a month, or twice a month. In this type of group, members share thoughts and feelings and help one another examine issues and concerns. Support groups enable members to learn that other people struggle with the same problems, feel similar emotions, and think similar thoughts. The following are examples of support groups:

Victims of a natural disaster, such as a flood or tornado, who share feelings about the loss of loved ones, loss of property, or survivor’s guilt

Elderly people confined to convalescent centers

Those whose loved ones are dying

Individuals with a disability coming together to share their feelings and fears

People with AIDS, hepatitis C, cancer, herpes, or some other disease

Stepparents who find it helpful to share the specific difficulties experienced in a stepfamily

Teenage mothers who are still in high school

The role of the leader in a support group is to encourage sharing among participants. Ideally, the interactions are personal, and members speak directly to one another. It is important for leaders of these groups to keep in mind that sharing is the group’s purpose and goal. It cannot be achieved if the leader or any one member dominates.

Examples

This group is composed of community members who have recently experienced a disaster. A fire in a local movie theater killed 50 people. Of the 10 members present in the group, some were in the theater and managed to escape, and some lost loved ones in the fire. It is 45 minutes into the third session.

Leader:How are you sleeping?

Joe:I’m still not sleeping through the night. I have this anger at God, and I don’t know what to do with it.

Sherita:I have the same feeling. I haven’t been to church since the fire, and I don’t know if I’ll ever go back.

Leader:(Seeing that Bill is shaking his head “no”) Bill, you seem troubled by what Sherita and Joe said.

Bill:(In a tentative, gentle manner) Well, I am troubled. I guess my faith in God has been the thing that has pulled me through this. I don’t know why it happened, but I guess He had a reason. I wish Sherita and Joe could see their ways clear to go back to church.

Leader:Does anyone else want to comment on that?

Jack:A priest gave me a book to read that helped me cope. The main point in the book was that you just have to go on and not ask “why.” I guess that book really has helped, and I did sleep last week for the first time.

At this point, the leader’s purpose is not to work therapeutically with the members’ anger toward God but rather to facilitate interaction and let people hear how others are coping. Now the leader invites another member into the discussion.

Leader:Zach, what has helped you the most?

Zach:I’m staying busy. I’m back at work, and at night I’ve made it a point not to be alone, at least in the early evening. I’ve arranged to eat meals with friends and family. I’ve also planned weekends well, and I’m making myself do things even though they don’t seem to have much meaning. A friend of mine said, “Zach, you’ve just gotta start living again.” He was right!

Joe:You know, hearing you say that is helpful. I think that’s what I need to start doing. I guess I haven’t really thought about it, but I’m not trying to live in the present; I’m just staying in the past.

Hein:Joe, I hope you’ll start living now because it’s true for me, too. Just a week or so ago, I started living again, and it really made all the difference. I really do believe that as long as we’re here on earth we’ve got to focus on our life and not on why it was our husband or son or loved one who died. (Pauses and says with pain) But believe me, it’s not easy.

Leader:You know, I do have to agree with Hein and Zach that focusing on the present and future is really the way to go. Does anyone else want to comment?

The leader is doing an excellent job of leading the group by allowing members to share and learn from each other. Notice that the leader is not overly involved in the discussion. Many leaders make the mistake of talking too much, which prevents members from sharing.

This third session is composed of eight elderly people living in a convalescent center.

Carl:Nobody came to visit me this weekend.

Three Members Simultaneous ly:They didn’t?

Carl:(Dejectedly) They called at the last minute and said something else came up and they weren’t going to be able to come.

Claude:That’s too bad. I didn’t check on you this weekend because I thought you were gone.

Wayne:I wish you had come down to my room. I certainly would have spent time with you.

Bob:We oughta set up a system to check on each other during the weekends. You know, they’re the hardest.

Bertha:Boy, that’s for sure.

Jim:I guess I’m beginning to count on this group more than on my family.

Claude:I enjoy this group because you all care. It’s not that my family doesn’t care; it’s just that it’s a burden for them to come here. Yeah, I do like this group.

Leader:(Realizing that Leona hasn’t talked) How about you, Leona? Are you feeling better about the group? I know the first couple of times you weren’t sure if you were going to like it.

Leona:Oh, I think I like it. We just talk. I guess I was afraid people were going to tell me what to do. It feels good here.

The leader understands that the purpose of this group is to generate member-to-member interaction so that they feel cared for by other members. Because this appears to be happening, he is staying out of the discussion except to draw out comments from quiet individuals or generate discussion if the interaction starts to decline. Eventually the leader may initiate discussion of Bob’s suggestion that they develop a system to check on each other during weekends.

This second session is composed of eight teenage girls who all are at least 6 months pregnant.

Leader:Let’s talk about two things today. First, the reaction you’re getting from peers and family; second, any decisions you have made regarding keeping the baby or giving it up for adoption.

Julie:Can I start?

Leader:Sure.

Julie:Well, the decision is so hard. I thought I knew for sure that I was going to keep the baby, and then I saw a show on TV about a teenager giving up her baby. Did anyone see that movie?

Paige, Linda, and Rebecca:I did.

Julie:The movie got me thinking about giving up the baby.

Linda:I want to give up the baby, but my mom is like the mom in the movie. She doesn’t want me to give it up. She thinks giving up the baby would be a horrible thing to do. (Turns to leader) What do you think?

Leader:No doubt the decision is a tough one, especially when your family is putting pressure on you one way or another. I hope that what we can do is take a look at all the forces that come into play in this decision and then try to help each one of you. I hope you realize that although each of you is in the same situation, you must make your own decision. I hope what we do in the group will be helpful and supportive.

Cindy:But what do you do when you have pressure from your mom and dad? They want me to keep the baby, but I really don’t want to be reminded of this period of my life. This has been horrible for me. There are lots of people wanting to adopt babies, and I don’t want a baby.

Leader:(Knowing that Cindy is a fairly strong person, she decides to spend a little time with her, believing the others will benefit.) Cindy, what is the thing you are most afraid of if you give up the baby?

Cindy:I’m afraid of how mad my parents are going to be. Other than that, I see it as a good idea for me. I’m not saying you all should do this.

Leader:Okay, can you deal with your parents being mad at you—and how mad would they be?

Cindy:Well, they would be real mad, and I am not sure if I could handle their anger. I feel so bad when they are mad at me.

Leader:Cindy, I want to help you and everyone understand more about where feelings come from. (Leader teaches Cindy and the rest of the group that thoughts can cause feelings.)

This vignette is an example of how one kind of group will sometimes overlap with another kind. Even though some education and counseling is taking place, it is mainly a support group.

Self-Help Groups

The last kind of group we want to discuss is the self-help group, which is now very popular. Laypeople with similar concerns as those at the meeting generally lead self-help groups. Millions feel that attending AA meetings, which is probably the most well-known self-help group, has changed their lives. Many other self-help groups follow the AA model, using the Twelve Steps. We realize that these groups cannot help everyone, but we do believe that all counselors should be aware of these groups, because they have been of tremendous value to so many people throughout the world. Students of ours are required to attend AA meetings as part of a course on addictions. They report that the experience was one of the best learning activities of their entire master’s program.

Because these groups have no permanent, professional leader, and the purpose of this text is to improve group leadership, we will not focus on self-help groups. However, if you are not familiar with these groups, we encourage you to attend some meetings and read about them.

Group versus Individual Counseling

Many people ask us, “Which is better, group counseling or individual counseling?” This is difficult to answer because people and situations are so different. Sometimes one or the other is best, and sometimes the combination of individual and group counseling produces the most benefit. For most people, groups can be quite valuable. For some people, group counseling is better because members need the input from others, plus they learn more from listening than talking. In many instances with teenagers, group counseling is better than individual counseling because teenagers often will talk more readily to other teenagers than with adults. For those stuck in the grief process, groups have been found to be very valuable (Humphrey; 2009; Worden, 2009).

Although there are many advantages to group counseling, it is important to realize that group counseling is not for everyone (Corey, 2012; Yalom, 2005). Administrators often do not understand this and, consequently, force members into groups. Individuals who do not want to be or are not ready to be in a group can disrupt it or be harmed because group pressure may cause them to take some action or self-disclose before they are ready. Also, sometimes an individual’s problems are not addressed adequately in a group setting due to constraints of time. When group leaders recognize that a member needs more than what group counseling can provide or that the member is going to be disruptive, they should encourage the member to consider the option of individual counseling instead of group counseling.

Use of Theories

Many of our students have asked us if there are any specific group counseling theories. The answer is no. Although labels have been given to many groups—encounter, T, sensory awareness, here-and-now, psychodrama—these names simply describe what takes place in the groups and are not specific group counseling theories. However, this does not mean that a leader does not use theory when working with growth, support, or counseling/therapy groups. Theories originally developed for individual counseling—such as REBT, cognitive behavior therapy (CBT), TA, client-centered, Adlerian, or reality therapy—have been successfully adapted for groups.

Throughout this text, we mention various counseling theories in many of the examples. In the chapter on counseling and therapy, we discuss how theory can be used. Also we devote an entire chapter, Chapter 13, to the use of counseling theories in groups. If you desire further information about specific theories as they apply to group work, see Corey (2012) or Gladding (2012).

We cannot stress enough the importance of being able to use counseling theory when leading counseling, therapy, or growth groups. Those who do not have a good working knowledge of at least one theoretical perspective often lead a very shallow group; that is, the group never goes below surface interaction and sharing. If the members do become more involved, the leader who does not have a theoretical base is usually overwhelmed. Ideally, group therapy leaders will have multiple theoretical models in order to provide richness and diversity for conducting groups (Gladding, 2012).

On the other hand, certain kinds of groups do not require the use of counseling theory. Discussion, education, and task groups require that the leader possess a variety of basic leadership skills to monitor and direct the flow of conversation and interaction. For human relationship–training groups, there are some organization and development theories that may apply. Johnson and Johnson (2012) discuss these and present a strong argument for the use of theory with training groups.

Our Approach to Groups: Impact Therapy

Our approach to groups is based on the principles of impact therapy, which is a multisensory approach that recognizes that change or impact comes not only from verbal but also visual and kinesthetic exchanges (Jacobs & Schimmel, 2013). “Impact therapy is an approach to counseling that shows respect for the way clients learn, change, and develop. The emphasis is on making counseling clear, concrete, and thought provoking, rather than vague, abstract, and emotional” (p. 1).

Impact therapy is a theory-driven approach using primarily REBT, TA, Gestalt, Adlerian, reality therapy, and many creative techniques from Creative Counseling Techniques: An Illustrated Guide (Jacobs, 1992). The following are four core beliefs of impact therapy:

People don’t mind being led when they are led well.

Counseling should never be boring.

Counseling should be clear and concrete.

The counselor is primarily responsible for the therapy but not ultimately responsible for the outcome.

The impact therapy model encourages leaders to be active, creative, and multisensory.

As we do workshops all over the country, many participants express how relieved and thankful they are to hear that it is okay to be active when leading groups. We believe the counselor should feel in charge and actively lead most groups using theories and techniques that make the sessions interesting and productive. Also, by being creative and multisensory, the leader has a much better chance of engaging more members. Throughout the book, we use many theory-driven, multisensory examples to give you a good idea of the impact therapy model and to give you permission to use your own personality and creativity to make your groups enjoyable and beneficial. Group Counseling in a Multicultural Context

More counseling programs are emphasizing multicultural counseling; many are requiring courses on the subject. Certainly in today’s society, understanding cultural differences is a must, especially for counselors who are leading groups with diverse populations. Corey (2012) states, “Multicultural group work involves strategies that cultivate understanding and appreciation of diversity in such areas as culture, ethnicity, race, gender, class, religion, and sexual orientation” (p. 17).

Because this book is about an active leadership approach, we want to emphasize that the leader must always consider the different cultural backgrounds of the members. For instance, counselors working with Asian students and students from many other cultures will need to be aware that these members may be quiet at first out of deference to authority figures. Using nonthreatening questions in the beginning may be very helpful (Anderson, 2007). The leader needs to be aware of issues pertaining not only to cultural matters but also to gender, age, and sexual orientation. Ethically, we have an obligation to acquire the knowledge and skills necessary to work in a multicultural context (Corey, 2012; DeLucia-Waack & Doingian, 2004; Sue & Sue, 2013).

The ASGW has an approved set of guidelines—“Principles for Diversity-Competent Group Workers”—that can be found online at the ASGW Web site, http://asgw.org/. These guidelines outline what a group leader needs to know in regard to counseling diverse populations. If you feel you are not well versed in multicultural issues and counseling considerations, we strongly encourage you to seek out coursework, workshops, readings, and life experiences that will broaden your understanding. Two excellent books with which to start are DeLucia-Waack and Donigian’s book The Practice of Multicultural Group Work (2004) and Salazar’s Leading Multicultural Groups (2009). Also, several excellent articles on multicultural counseling can be found in The Journal for Specialists in Group Work. In Chapter 17 on special populations, we address many of the issues regarding group work with a multicultural population.

Group Leadership Styles

Much has been written regarding leadership style (Capuzzi & Gross, 2009; Corey, Corey, & Corey, 2014; Johnson & Johnson, 2012; Posthuma, 2002). The style or role of the leader will always depend on the kind and purpose of the group. As Gladding (2012) states, “Most effective group leaders show versatility” (p. 76). However, some people are taught only one style of leadership regardless of the kind of group they are leading. Many model their group leadership style after the style of a group leader they had in graduate school. This may not be a good idea because the groups in graduate programs may differ greatly from those in a public school, rehabilitation, prison, or mental-health setting.

The major leadership debate seems to center on how active, directive, and structured the leader should be. Until recently, many group educators were hesitant to tell students to be active and directive. A similar situation existed in the 1960s regarding individual counseling, when educators debated the relative merits of directive and nondirective counseling. Now most educators encourage their students to be active and reasonably directive in their individual counseling.

For group counseling, our position is that an active style of leadership works best for most groups. We strongly believe what we stated earlier: People don’t mind being led when they are led well. Most members of most groups need some structure, organization, and direction. In fact, most members expect and want the leader to lead. This is especially true in schools, hospitals, prisons, mental-health facilities, and rehabilitation centers and with issue-focused groups such as those concerning divorce, abuse, incest, or addiction.

Leader-Directed versus Group-Directed Approaches

A related question regarding leadership style is whether it should be a leader-directed or group-directed approach. Many writers express concern regarding the leader-directed approach (Capuzzi & Gross, 2009; Posthuma, 2002). One concern is that the members will have to cater to the leader. The opposite is actually true. Effective leaders who follow the leader-directed model never demand that the members follow them as if they were gurus; rather, they lead in a manner that is valuable for the members. The leader-directed style of leadership does not mean that the leader is on an ego trip or that the group has to serve the personality of the leader. It simply means that the leader has an understanding of the members’ needs and structures the group to meet those needs.

Leaders using the group-directed approach often turn the group over to the members and have the members determine the direction and content. This can be quite valuable for some groups. However, there are times when this approach wastes much time, especially for a group that is meeting only once or for only a few sessions. Often the members don’t know what they need. For example, parents of teens in a drug-treatment center or victims of some kind of disaster often attend a group to find help, but they are not at all clear as to how the group can be helpful. A leader-directed style can be of great benefit by providing structure, thought-provoking questions, and group exercises.

The question is not really whether the approach is group-directed or leader-directed but rather who is primarily responsible for the group—the leader or the members? We believe the leader is responsible for the group. As Trotzer (2006) states,

Leaders, because of their training and professional commitment, are remiss if they do not exercise their responsibility to prevent negative consequences in the group. Leaders can share responsibility to a very large degree, but they can never abdicate their responsibility. Doing so completely undermines the nature of the helping profession and is detrimental to positive therapeutic intervention. Leaders must be willing to divert topic and conversational trends that seem to be shaping into negative and damaging content (Blaker & Samo, 1973). They must be willing to intervene to protect members and to serve as a reality check if the group does not do so. As Lakin (1969) noted, responsibility must be consciously exercised and modeled by the leader if the group is to qualify as a professional therapeutic venture (p. 218).

Even though the leader is responsible, the amount of leading will depend on the kind of group and the composition of its members. For certain groups, the leader may primarily want the members to direct the group; for other groups, the leader will want to assume much of the directing. It is important for the leader to remember that the amount of active leading can vary according to the stage of the group. In the middle stage of many kinds of groups, the members are fully aware of how the group should flow and, therefore, should be actively involved in choosing the topics and the direction.

Interpersonal versus Intrapersonal Leadership Styles

Another way to view leadership style is as a continuum; some styles focus on the group as a whole, and some styles focus on the individuals in the group. Corey (2012) states that the interpersonal oriented leader “emphasizes the here and now, the interactions among the members, the group as a whole, the ongoing group dynamics, and the obstacles to the development of effective interpersonal relationships within the group” (p. 82). The intrapersonal oriented leader focuses primarily on the needs and concerns of the individual members.

Understanding both styles of leadership is very important. Leaders must be able to adapt a style along this continuum, depending on the kind of group, the needs of the members, and the dynamics occurring within the group. You might want to think of the continuum as a 1–10 scale: When the purpose of the group is to improve relationships among members or to accomplish a task, the leader will probably use an interpersonal leadership style within the 2–5 range. For growth groups, the leadership style will depend on the purpose of the group—some growth groups benefit from a 2–5 range and others benefit from a 6–8 range.

On the continuum, for most counseling and therapy groups, leaders should use a style that falls between a 6 and an 8. The intrapersonal model (6–8 on the continuum) is better because members in most of these groups have intrapersonal conflicts (conflicts within themselves) they need to deal with. In most therapy groups, the members need to address issues such as unfinished business from the past, problems with parents or lovers, sexual abuse, abandonment, low self-esteem, fear of failure, guilt, shame, or need for approval. The intrapersonal perspective seems better suited for helping clients obtain a better understanding of these issues. The intrapersonal oriented leader will address these issues directly, whereas the interpersonally oriented leader will wait until the issues emerge and then may focus on them only as they apply to the here-and-now experience within the group. For these reasons, we find the interpersonal leadership style somewhat limited.

In using a style ranging from 6 to 8 on the continuum, the leader will primarily encourage members to share with the group their personal issues, concerns, and feelings. Once a member discloses a concern, the leader would use techniques and theories to help the disclosing member. She would involve the other members in many different ways when focusing on a member or an issue. Those leaders operating at a 9 or 10 on the continuum usually do only one-on-one counseling while other members watch (Perls, 1969). Leaders using a style in the 2–4 range focus more on what is happening in the group in the present moment and less on pressing personal issues or the past. The following would be an example of this:

Joe:(angrily) Mary, you always contradict what I say. My parents used to always do that to me! I always felt put down by them and by teachers and other kids in the school.

Leader:Joe, you seem angry now here in the group.

There are times when this leadership style is helpful; however, for most counseling and therapy groups a style of 6 to 8 on the continuum is best. We say this with caution because at all times the leader must be flexible. There will be times when the leader will need to focus on the group dynamics and interaction rather than on an individual’s personal problem.

It should also be pointed out that some experts (Carroll, 1986; Rogers, 1970; Yalom, 2005) believe strongly in the interpersonal model (1–3 on the continuum) for counseling and therapy groups. Group leaders who follow this model place strong emphasis on the stages of the group and on the members being the primary agents of change.

Another important point is that, for some groups, the leadership continuum will be of little importance. For instance, leaders of education and discussion groups will primarily use various leadership skills and techniques to generate discussion and not be concerned about the group having either an interpersonal or intrapersonal focus.

Leadership Functions

Another way to view leadership style is to consider leadership functions. Yalom (2005) states that the leader may provide emotional stimulation, caring, praise, protection, acceptance, interpretations, and explanations. The leader also may serve as a model through self-disclosure and as a person who sets limits, enforces rules, and manages time. In other words, depending on the kind of group, the leader may perform many different roles and functions. In a middle-school group on transitioning to high school, the leader serves as the person with information and ideas on how to make the transition easier. In a crisis group after a suicide, the leader’s function is to be very supportive, reassuring, and facilitative. In a group for going over rules in a residential setting, the leader is the authority on what is expected of the residents. In a group on information for cancer patients, the leader is the expert.

What Makes an Effective Leader?

Numerous writers have described what makes an effective counselor and group leader (Brown, 2009; Corey, Corey, & Corey, 2014; Egan, 2010). Among the characteristics discussed are caring, openness, flexibility, warmth, objectivity, trustworthiness, honesty, strength, patience, and sensitivity. Each of these characteristics is important, and we suggest you refer to the works cited or to any other beginning counseling text if you desire further clarification of ideal helper characteristics.

Additional leadership characteristics include comfort with oneself and others; a liking for people; comfort in a position of authority; confidence in one’s ability to lead; and the ability to tune in to others’ feelings, reactions, moods, and words. Another very important characteristic of an effective leader is sound psychological health. Leading is so demanding that personal issues are likely to surface if they have not been resolved. Corey (2012) and Yalom (2005) both strongly suggest that leaders be actively involved in their own personal growth (outside the group they are leading).

Leading groups successfully requires a great deal from the leader. Often people lead groups when they simply do not possess the necessary leadership characteristics. Aside from those already mentioned, six other traits warrant further discussion.

Experience with Individuals

Effective leaders have spent considerable time talking with all kinds of people, not just those like themselves. The broader the leader’s range of life experiences, the greater the chances for understanding the diverse members of a group. More and more groups have a multicultural membership for which the leader should be prepared (Day, 2007; DeLucia-Waack & Donigian, 2004).

The effective counseling or therapy group leader has not only general experience with people but also considerable experience in one-to-one counseling. This is necessary because all types of situations arise while leading these groups, and the more experience the leader has working with individuals, the easier it will be to work with an individual and the group simultaneously. Without individual counseling experience, one would very likely find leading counseling and therapy groups very difficult.

Experience with Groups

In the development of any skill, practice and experience increase one’s effectiveness. Effective leaders have led many groups. Beginning leaders can learn from their mistakes with each group experience and should not be overly self-critical. When possible, it is advisable to begin by leading education, discussion, support, or task groups, restricting the number of members to four or five. Once comfortable, beginning leaders can increase the number of members or try a growth group centered on topics familiar to them. When novice leaders feel they can comfortably facilitate growth groups, they might try co-leading several counseling or therapy groups before leading one on their own.

Planning and Organizational Skills

Effective leaders are good planners. They can plan a session or a series of sessions in such a way that the group is interesting, beneficial, and personally valuable. When leading discussion, education, task, or growth groups, effective leaders give considerable thought to relevant topics and to activities and exercises that pertain to those topics. Effective leaders organize sessions in such a way that the topics are covered and there is a flow from topic to topic.

Knowledge of the Topic

In almost any kind of group, the leader who is well informed will naturally do a better job of leading than the one who lacks information. The leader can use information to stimulate discussion, clarify issues, and share ideas. Too often, unfortunately, leaders are asked to lead groups on topics for which they have very little knowledge or understanding.

A Good Understanding of Basic Human Conflicts and Dilemmas

A group leader must be prepared to deal with a number of human problems and multicultural issues (Brown, 2009; Corey, 2012; Salazaar, 2009). This is especially true in growth, counseling, and therapy groups—issues such as guilt, fear of failure, self-worth, parents, anger, love relationships, and death often emerge in such groups. Effective leaders have an understanding of these issues and know several ways to help those who are struggling with them.

A Good Understanding of Counseling Theory

Even though we discussed this earlier, it is important enough to briefly comment again on the importance of knowing a theory. Knowledge of counseling theory is the key to understanding people and the world in which we live. Theories of therapy—such as REBT, TA, reality therapy, Adlerian, and behavioral therapy—help counselors understand why people behave the way they do in their lives and in groups. Theories offer group leaders a variety of ways to comprehend what people are saying and doing. Corey, Corey, and Corey (2014) state, “Group leaders without any theory behind their interventions will probably find that their groups never reach a productive stage” (p. 7).

Ethical Considerations

Along with all of the above, an effective leader must be aware of ethical considerations. Over the last 20 years, much has been written about ethics in counseling and ethical behavior in group work (Corey, 2012; Gladding, 2012). Most ethical problems and situations deal with therapy and growth groups, although ethical standards apply to leaders of all kinds of groups. Unethical behavior on the part of leaders usually consists of leaders not being competent to lead the groups they are leading or leaders not caring properly for their members.

Ethical Standards

All professional associations, such as the American Counseling Association (ACA), the National Association for Social Workers, and the American Psychological Association, have ethical standards regarding working with clients in groups. Aside from these organizations, there are special organizations that consist of professionals who do group work—the American Group Psychotherapy Association (AGPA) and the ASGW. These associations have their own codes of ethics. It is very important that you become familiar with the standards of any organization with which you affiliate. We have found that many people who lead groups are unfamiliar with these organizations and therefore do not realize that any ethical standards exist. The Best Practice Guidelines of the ASGW can be found at www.asgw.org.

Lanning (1992) discusses ethical codes as guidelines for responsible decision making. He talks about counselors using a “systematic process of ethical reasoning” (p. 21). We agree with Lanning that many ethical situations are not so cut-and-dried as some make them out to be. In the following discussion, we try to present a realistic view of ethical behavior and situations that occur for group leaders.

Leader Preparation and Qualifications

The fundamental ethical principle for leading groups is found in ASGW’s Best Practice Guidelines (2008): “Group counselors do not attempt any technique unless thoroughly trained in its use or under supervision by a counselor familiar with the intervention.” Just as it is unethical to practice dentistry or surgery without training, it is unethical to practice any kind of counseling without proper preparation. Helpers must realize that it is unethical to lead groups, especially therapy groups, without proper preparation. ASGW spells out in great detail excellent standards for the training of group leaders. If every group counselor had this kind of preparation, there would be no question as to whether the person had been properly trained. Unfortunately, most group leaders are not prepared at this level; yet many feel qualified to lead groups because they have a degree in one of the helping professions.

We want to emphasize that an advanced college degree alone does not make one qualified to lead groups. We have talked with many therapists with master’s or doctorate degrees who are leading groups but have no understanding of what it takes to lead an effective group. It is the ethical responsibility of any group leader to understand group dynamics, group process, group leadership skills, and group development. Also, the leader needs to have thorough knowledge of the subjects being discussed in the group. So often we have heard leaders at our workshops say they did not realize there was so much to leading groups. They thought you just “went in and did a group—just let the members take charge and go with the flow.” This is unethical leadership!

Leaders in private practice should understand that they must have the necessary skills for conducting any group they establish. Although the same standard applies in agencies, this is not as clear as it may first seem. Confusion results because administrators in agencies, hospitals, schools, and prisons force their employees (the helpers) to violate the ethical standard of being properly prepared by mandating that the helpers conduct group counseling even though they lack the qualifications and knowledge to do so. Often, the helpers have never been trained in group work or have had only minimal training. Every day, counselors, nurses, social workers, and drug and alcohol therapists are required to conduct groups even though they are not qualified. This is unethical according to the standards of all the professions mentioned above.

If you are asked to lead groups and do not feel qualified, you should make sure you get training before you start. If you are currently leading groups without proper training, it is important that you seek training immediately. Also, if you are not properly trained, you need to be aware that you and your agency are at risk of being charged with an ethics violation. More and more clients are becoming aware that therapists have ethical standards by which they should abide; thus, an increasing number of clients are challenging the ethical behavior of professional helpers.

Knowledge

It is unethical to lead a group without having a good grasp of the material being discussed. Too often, we hear of leaders who have little or no knowledge of the subject of the group they are leading, such as groups on eating disorders, panic attacks, anger, or grief. In each of these groups, there exists the potential for members to get into some deeply emotional material. It is the leader’s ethical responsibility to know how to deal with such material. The leader cannot count on the members to know how to help other members with such complex issues as these.

Another area of knowledge that is crucial is the understanding of the cultural and gender issues of the members. It is unethical for a helper to lead a group when she is not familiar with issues that may be unique to the members due to their cultural background.

Personal Growth

Leaders should not use groups for their own personal growth. We see the need and value for therapists to experience personal growth through groups, but this should not be done in the group that the person is leading. We have heard of numerous instances of leaders drawing attention to themselves and using the group for their own therapy. This is unethical.

Dual Relationships

Even though ACA no longer uses the term “dual relationships” in the Code of Ethics, we did want to address this since it has been a concern of group leaders. For group work, we define a dual relationship as a relationship that exists in addition to the therapeutic relationship established between the leader and the members. Dual relationships are not harmful in and of themselves; many dual relationships can be very beneficial to group members. We feel that dual relationships often cannot be avoided because helpers have more than one relationship with their clients. For instance, a group leader may also be the group members’ residential house counselor or the staff person who takes residents to the movies, on hikes, or on bike trips or plays on the same sports team. There are times, especially in small towns, when group leaders find themselves at the same party as members of their group. We do not feel that the leader is being unethical if he socializes with a member of his group as long as the leader is aware that potential problems could arise. It is the leader’s responsibility to make sure that the therapeutic relationship is not being jeopardized.

Any dual relationship should be entered into with caution, and any exploitative dual relationship is unethical and should be avoided. By exploitative, we mean any relationship where the group leader exploits a group member in any way. The dual relationship that creates the most concern is that of a sexual or romantic nature. Other dual relationships that can be exploitative involve social or business relationships between the leader and group members. Any time a leader enters into a dual relationship, the leader must proceed with great caution to ensure that it is not harmful to the member or the group.

A different kind of dual relationship exists when the group leader sees a member for individual counseling. Some argue that group leaders should not conduct individual counseling with members of their therapy groups. We disagree with this position; in fact, we think it is unethical not to provide therapy if it would be in the best interest of the member. The purpose of group therapy is to help clients get better, and if individual therapy aids in the client’s improvement, then it should be seen as a valuable tool in the therapeutic process. Many times groups are formed as a result of clients being in individual counseling with the leader and the leader deciding that a group would be beneficial. For a more detailed discussion of dual relationships as they relate to group work, see Herlihy and Corey (2006).

Confidentiality

There are two issues regarding confidentiality that any group leader should understand: the leader’s ethical responsibility for keeping material confidential and the leader’s lack of total control regarding members keeping matters confidential.

It is unethical for the leader to divulge information to anyone about any member of the group except in the cases of child and adolescent group members. Leaders must be very careful not to give a member’s friends, family members, or business associates any information, including whether or not the person is a member of the group. There are exceptions to this rule. Breaching confidentiality is required by law when a member is threatening harm to himself or others. Also, in certain institutional settings, the leader may be required to write notes in a file that is open to other staff members. The best way to deal with such a situation is to inform the members of what is required of you by the law and the administration so that the members understand from the beginning what your requirements are regarding confidentiality. Corey (2012) states, “Generally speaking, you will find that you have a better chance of gaining the cooperation of group members if you are candid about your situation than if you hide your disclosures and thereby put yourself in the position of violating their confidences” (p. 58).

Regarding members keeping what is said confidential, it must be understood that leaders cannot guarantee complete confidentiality because they have no control over what members say once they leave the session. The best way to prevent any breach of confidentiality is to stress its importance and discuss the subject whenever it seems necessary (Corey, 2012). In cases where one member is found to repeatedly discuss group material outside of the group setting, it will be necessary to ask that member to leave the group if possible.

Informing Members about the Group

Prospective members have the right to know the purpose of the group and how it will be conducted. The Best Practice Guidelines (ASGW, 2008) clearly state that members should be informed of any possible risks they might encounter, such as a heightened awareness of unpleasant events from their past or the desire to make decisions that could lead to stressful consequences, such as getting a divorce. For voluntary groups, informing the potential members will give them a chance to decide if they want to join a group where such activities and explorations will occur. It is best, whenever possible, for the leader to use a screening interview to determine if a person should be a member of the group and to have an open exchange about the risks involved. For nonvolunteers, explaining what is going to happen and what is minimally expected prevents any disgruntled member from saying he was never told how the group was going to be conducted or what was expected of him.

During the first session of therapy groups or any groups where emotional material is going to be discussed, leaders should discuss the various potential risks. Members should be warned about the danger of disclosing too much too soon and the tendency to feel pressure to disclose. Members should be reassured that they do not have to disclose anything that they are uncomfortable talking about. Members should also be warned about the danger of demanding that significant people in their world act like the group members who may be warm, accepting, caring, open, or attentive. In other words, it is unethical not to inform the members about how the group will affect them both during the session and in their daily lives. Any concerns about these matters should be thoroughly discussed during the early sessions.

The Ethical Use of Exercises

Leaders should keep several ethical considerations in mind when using structured activities or exercises during a group session. Most ethical problems involving exercises result from a lack of expertise or sensitivity on the part of the leader. Leaders may use exercises that generate reactions they are unable to handle because of their lack of experience and theoretical background. Any leader who goes beyond his skill level in this respect is operating unethically.

The following are examples of operating without adequate skills:

Conducting an exercise on death, such as writing your own epitaph, and then not being able to deal with the pain and other emotions that arise

Conducting an exercise on guilt and shame and then not being able to deal with the material that surfaces, such as incest, child abuse, or affairs

Conducting a feedback exercise and allowing one member to be viciously attacked by the rest of the group

Additional leader behavior that is considered unethical includes the following:

Not informing members of what they are about to experience if they participate in any group exercise. Any potential risk must be pointed out.

Forcing a member to participate in any exercise. If, for whatever reason, a member states she does not want to take part in a given activity, the leader must allow the member this right. (It is not unethical to encourage participation.)

Demanding continued participation. Members must be allowed to stop participation at any time. For agencies that require members be present in the room, it should be recognized that these members should not be forced to participate.

Tricking a member into revealing something personal that the member might not want to reveal. For example, an exercise called “Secrets” involves members anonymously writing on an index card a secret that might be hard for them to tell others. These cards are then shuffled, and the leader or each member picks a card and presents the issue as if it were her own. If the leader lets members identify their secrets, by elimination, everyone can figure out a member’s secret.

Using exercises that lead to heavy emotional material without leaving adequate time for processing. It is unethical to “unzip” members and leave them “unzipped.”

The Leader’s Role in Making Referrals

It is the ethical responsibility of the group leader to make sure members are made aware of proper follow-up treatment possibilities. The leader may see members for follow-up counseling or refer members to other therapists. Follow-up is important because very often in therapy groups, members need additional individual, group, or family counseling. Too often, this ethical standard is violated in that no follow-up treatment is outlined.

Closing Comment on Ethics

We close this section by saying that, without a doubt, the most frequent unethical practice in group counseling occurs when untrained or ill-trained leaders conduct groups. We often hear from workshop participants and from our students who are observing groups in their internship sites about very poorly run groups. We hope this book is helpful in giving you the skills you need to lead groups, and we strongly suggest that you do not lead groups unless you feel you have the skills and knowledge to do so.

Legal Issues

Group leaders can become involved in lawsuits if they do not use due care and act in good faith. Therefore, as a leader, you will want to be sure to practice within your limits of expertise and not be negligent in performing your duties as a group leader. A leader who uses techniques and practices that are very different from those commonly accepted by others in the profession may be considered negligent. It is your obligation to make sure members are not harmed by you, the other members, or the group experience. Paradise and Kirby (1990) list the obligation to protect the client and other members as one of the main legal issues in group work. The most important point to remember regarding legal issues is to know the laws in your state regarding counseling, clients’ rights, and the rights of parents and minors. Also, it is important that you do not practice outside your level of training and that you at all times demonstrate care and compassion for your group members (Corey, Williams, & Moline, 1995).

Potential Group Problems

So far, we have discussed basic issues that pertain to the general field of group work. Groups offer complex dynamics: you saw some in the first video. Also, we have compiled a partial list of challenges. Some of these challenges occur in certain kinds of groups; others, in all kinds of groups. This list of problematic member behaviors and situations further illustrates the need for learning effective leadership skills. Group members might do any of the following:

Skip from topic to topic

Dominate the discussion

Be “chit-chatty” rather than personal and focused

Attend sporadically

Be shy and withdrawn

Get angry at the leader

Get angry at one another

Pressure (force) others to speak

Preach their personal morality

Be resistant because forced to attend

Dislike other members

Stop attending the group

As you can see, leaders must be able to deal with all kinds of members and situations. In the remainder of this book, we teach ways of approaching not only these situations but many more.

Concluding Comments

Counselors, psychologists, social workers, ministers, teachers, and others who work with people should learn to lead groups. The advantages of group work include efficiency, viewpoint variety, belonging, feedback, vicarious learning, and practicing in a setting that is close to real life. There are seven kinds of groups: education, discussion, task, support, growth, counseling/therapy, and self-help. It is important for leaders to identify what kind of group they are leading so that the purpose is clear. There are many approaches to leading groups but no actual group theories. Understanding leadership style is very important. It is essential to understand the difference between an interpersonal and intrapersonal group leadership style. A leader should be flexible because different kinds of groups have different purposes and require leaders to adjust their style accordingly. Our approach to group counseling is very much in line with the impact therapy approach to counseling, which is an active, multisensory, theory-driven approach. Throughout the book, many of the topics covered in this chapter will be elaborated on, so if you are feeling overwhelmed by the material, relax and enjoy the rest of the book. By the end, you will have a good understanding of kinds of groups, leadership styles, and group leadership skills and techniques.

Activities

Think of a setting in which you plan to work. List the different kinds of groups you might lead in that setting.

Within the different kinds of groups generated from Activity 1, list names of groups that would fall under each kind, such as an anger-management group, which could be education or therapy or both. A group for children of divorce could be supportive or counseling. Compare your list with those of fellow students. You’ll find that the lists can be almost endless.

On What Makes an Effective Leader? there are six skills listed. On a 1–10 scale, rate yourself on these skills (10 being excellent at the skill). If you are not an 8, 9, or 10, what is your plan for improving on the given skill? (You may want to skip the skill of knowledge of the topic because that will depend on the topic.)

Chapter 2 Stages of Groups, Group Process, and Therapeutic Forces

Introduction

The literature on group counseling frequently addresses three aspects: stages of group, group dynamics or group process, and therapeutic forces. In this text, the terms group process and group dynamics refer to the attitudes and interaction of group members and leaders. Writers sometimes define these terms differently, but all agree that they are similar. We agree with Posthuma (2002) who states, “Because of this concurrent, intimate, and ongoing relationship between the two, the two terms can be used interchangeably to mean the same thing” (p. 7). Therapeutic forces are the factors that influence the group dynamics. In this chapter, we discuss the importance of understanding each of these aspects of group counseling and how they are interrelated.

Stages of Groups

Much has been written regarding the stages of groups, the characteristics of each stage, and how much time each stage takes (Corey, 2012; Gladding, 2012; Yalom, 2005). However, some of the literature can become confusing when the more detailed description of stages is applied to certain groups, such as discussion, education, or task groups. Our description of stages applies to any kind of group.

All groups go through three stages, regardless of the type of group or style of leadership: the beginning stage; the middle, or working, stage; and the ending, or closing, stage. Whether a group meets for one session or fifteen sessions, it will go through these stages; it is important that the leader attend to each.

The Beginning Stage

The beginning stage refers to the time period used for introductions and for discussion of such topics as the purpose of the group, what to expect, fears, group rules, comfort levels, and the content of the group. In this stage, members are checking out other members and their own level of comfort with sharing in the group. For some groups, such as certain task, education, and discussion groups whose topics or agendas have not been predetermined, this is the period when the members determine the focus of the group.

The beginning stage may last part of the first session, the entire first session, or the first couple of sessions. It is common for the members of certain groups to take more than two sessions to feel enough trust and comfort to share beyond the surface level. For instance, it may take groups in a prison or residential treatment center for teenagers as many as three sessions to develop an atmosphere that lends itself to productive group work. For groups in a residential setting, “agendas” between members must sometimes be resolved before the group can proceed to the working stage. For groups with a culturally diverse membership, the beginning stage may need to last a couple of sessions or even longer because members may initially be very uncomfortable and awkward when sharing in front of people who are very different from them.

For some groups, the beginning stage lasts only a few minutes because the purpose is clear and the trust and comfort levels are already high. For example, members who meet to share feelings about a recent suicide, death, or disaster can move through the beginning stage in just a few minutes. School counselors leading groups in an educational setting may find that because of the students’ comfort levels with the school counselor, the beginning stage can move more quickly. Oftentimes, leaders spend far too long on this stage, conducting icebreakers and talking about group rules and the purpose of the group when these kinds of activities are not needed. A leader who provides very little structure tends to create a group that stays in the beginning stage for several sessions, creating dynamics that could be avoided. On the other hand, we have seen leaders move too quickly into the working stage, causing members to feel uncomfortable and even become angry.

The Working Stage

The middle, or working, stage is the stage of the group when the members focus on the purpose. In this stage, the members learn new material, thoroughly discuss various topics, complete tasks, or engage in personal sharing and therapeutic work. This stage is the time when members benefit from being in a group. During this stage, many different dynamics can occur because the members are interacting in several different ways. The leader must pay particular attention to the interaction patterns and attitudes of the members toward each other and the leader. This is the time when members decide how much they want to get involved or share. If multicultural issues exist in the group, the leader needs to pay close attention to group dynamics because others may misunderstand the members’ actions in the group.

The Closing Stage

The closing, or ending, stage is devoted to terminating the group. During this period, members share what they have learned, how they have changed, and how they plan to use what they have learned. Members also say goodbye and deal with the ending of the group. For some groups, the ending will be an emotional experience, whereas for others the closing will simply mean that the group has done what it was supposed to do. The length of the closing stage will mostly depend on the type of group. Most groups need only one session for this stage.

Other Models of Sequential Stages of Group Development

In the literature, a number of writers have conceptualized the stages of group in different ways. As outlined earlier, our model is a three-stage model: beginning, working, and closing. Corey (2012) offers a six-stage model: formation, orientation, transition, working, consolidation, and follow-up. Corey’s first and last stages have to do with leadership functions such as preplanning, screening, and giving follow-up questionnaires to monitor members’ development within the group. We agree with Corey that in many groups there is a transition stage. According to Corey, the transition stage is the period when the beginning stage is over but members are not yet ready to share on a highly personal level. Members contribute and interact, but they are still checking things out. Many counseling, therapy, support, and growth groups go through a transition stage. It is important for a leader to recognize that the group is going through a transition stage and refrain from pushing the group ahead too quickly, thereby causing discomfort. An example of the transition stage would be any group in the second or third session where the members are still feeling out the other members. During the transition stage, members talk and share but nothing goes very deep or personal. We call the sharing done during the transition stage “safe sharing.”

The transition stage is important in most counseling and therapy groups. A good example of the leader not recognizing the need for the transition stage is bringing up the topic of sex in the second or third session, when the members are still getting comfortable being in a group and sharing personal matters. This topic would be much better received once the members are in the working stage.

Johnson and Johnson (2012) suggest a seven-stage model that explains members’ development within a group:

Defining and structuring procedures

Conforming to procedures

Recognizing mutuality and building trust

Rebelling and differentiating

Committing to and taking ownership for the goals, procedures, and other members

Functioning maturely and productively

Terminating

The Johnson and Johnson model is an expansion of probably the most well-known sequential stage theory, which is put forth by Tuckman (Tuckman, 1965; Tuckman & Jensen, 1977). Tuckman reviewed studies of group development and found that there were five stages: forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning. It is important to point out that almost all the studies reviewed by Tuckman were studies where the leader was mainly using an interpersonal, passive leadership model (Johnson & Johnson, 2012). We agree that in groups where leaders offer little structure, groups most likely will go through these stages, but we want to emphasize that most groups should have enough structure to eliminate the need for going through a storming stage.

The forming and norming stages that Tuckman describes fall within what we are calling the beginning stage—the period where members get comfortable with being in a group and figure out what is expected and what is going to happen. Cohesion and commitment increase during the norming stage (Johnson & Johnson, 2012). The storming stage (which is also in our beginning stage and in Corey’s transition stage) occurs in groups where there is tension due to the makeup of the group, the commitment of the members, the purpose of the group, and/or the approach of the leader (Gladding, 2012). Many education, discussion, growth, and counseling groups do not have this kind of tension, so there is no need for a storming stage. Leaders who provide too little structure often see their groups go through a storming stage because the members are frustrated due to lack of leadership on the part of the leader. In our view, the more skilled the leader, the less likely there will be a storming stage, because the leader will do what is necessary to reduce the tension in the group. However, in groups where members are forced to come or in groups where the goal may be team building or learning to get along, the storming stage will most definitely be present. Sometimes leaders want the members to learn to work together, such as in certain task groups and some residential groups, so they more or less precipitate a storming stage by not providing much direction during the early stage of the group.

Corey (2012) and Gladding (2012) describe in detail some of the dynamics that occur during the storming stage. One sign of the storming stage is conflict between members. Testing the leader is often a characteristic of the storming stage. Resistance is another sign that the group is going through a storming stage. The key for leaders is to recognize what is happening. Leaders who use an active, creative approach to groups usually do not create a storming stage. Skilled leaders curtail many of these occurrences by making sure the members clearly understand the purpose of the group, and by making the group valuable, relevant, interesting, and meaningful.

In certain kinds of groups, particularly task groups, there are times when storming is a desired or necessary stage, especially when there are powerful personalities and some disagreement as to how things should be done. Great skill is required to guide the unpredictable interactions among members through the storming period so that members can work together.

Group Process

Group process refers to the interaction and energy exchange between members and leaders, how the leader reacts to the members, and how the members talk to one another and the leader. Sociologists, social psychologists, therapists, and researchers have studied group process. If you are interested in a discussion of the sociological view of group dynamics and a brief history of the study of group dynamics, see Johnson and Johnson (2012).

Dynamics of Interaction Patterns

One of the most important group dynamics to observe is who talks to whom and how often each member speaks. It is usual in the beginning stage of a group for a couple of members to try to dominate. If this occurs, the leader should alter the pattern by using cutting-off and drawing-out skills. Sometimes members fall into the habit of talking only to the leader or selected members instead of to the entire group. The leader will usually want to change this dynamic and get members to address the entire group, because talking only to the leader or a few other members will not lead to group cohesion.

Silent members may or may not create negative group dynamics. In most groups, participation of all members is desirable. When a member is mostly silent, some of the others usually become uncomfortable, especially if this pattern continues for several weeks and the group is a counseling, therapy, or support group. In certain education, discussion, and task groups, the silent member may not produce a negative dynamic because in these groups the members are not usually as sensitive to the silence.

Another pattern for which the leader should watch is that of one member speaking, followed by the leader, then a second member, then the leader, then a third member, then the leader—rather than member-to-member interaction. The leader should avoid establishing a pattern of responding after each member’s comment. Group dynamics may also be affected by members’ expectations. If members have been in other groups, it is always a good idea to get some sense of how their groups were conducted because they may expect the current group to be the same as their previous one. Also, the leader should be aware at all times of any cultural or gender issues that may be affecting group dynamics.

Example

In this example the leader makes the mistake of responding to each member’s comment. A more skilled leader would have let more members comment before commenting herself.

Sam:I like my mother, but I don’t feel close to her.

Leader:I hope that gets better for you.

Bill:My mom and I fight all the time. I can’t talk to her about anything.

Leader:So it is hard for you to talk to her.

Nan:I feel that my mom favors my brother but she won’t admit it. We have a terrible relationship.

Leader:So you feel hurt by your mom’s favoritism.

Other patterns that the leader wants to look for include the following:

Members “ganging up” on other members

Members arguing with each other

Members discounting each other’s suggestions

Members presenting problems and others trying to rescue them

Members presenting a problem and the rest of the group giving advice (It is important for the leader to realize that groups are not advice-giving sessions.)

Example

The following example demonstrates how allowing members to give advice from their own frame of reference is often not helpful. Sometimes advice and suggestions are beneficial, but often leaders mistakenly let the group turn into an advice-giving session. In this example, the leader should intervene and redirect the discussion.

Larry:… so I don’t know whether to call her or not.

Steve:I don’t think you should call her for at least a week. I like to keep them guessing.

Nancy:I don’t know. I think you could wait a week and then send her a nice card.

Sandy:Why not a funny card? I like funny cards from guys.

Craig:I personally think you should let her make the next move. Let me tell you what happened to me.…

Group Dynamics of Different Kinds of Groups

Any discussion of group dynamics has to take into consideration the kind of group and the leadership style. If the leader does not play an active role, someone in the group will usually try to take the leadership role. Even with an active leader, there can be a bid for control by one or more members. Members may challenge the leader’s authority or competency. Throughout the book, we discuss skills for handling these dynamics if they arise. In this section, we discuss dynamics unique to the seven kinds of groups described in Chapter 1.

Education Groups

In an education group, the leader is usually presenting some information. Although the members will probably interact with each other, this is not the most important dynamic. Often, those attending education groups are eager to learn the material being presented. In some education groups, however, the members are not interested in the topic because they have been forced to attend, such as those attending a DUI (driving under the influence) group. In these groups, if the leader does not plan well or is not energetic, the group sessions will, more than likely, not go well.

The dynamics for an education group become difficult when members are at different levels of understanding regarding the subject matter or when some are much more comfortable with the topic than others. The leader of a sex education group must be aware that some members will be more open and comfortable than others. In a group with a diverse population, multicultural issues may create some powerful group dynamics. It is important for the leader to observe how the members are relating to the material and devote extra time if necessary to process any cultural issues.

Education groups usually will not go through long beginning or closing stages. The leader does, however, have to plan for these stages. The middle stage of an education group includes delivery of the content and discussion of the material. As members get to know each other, they usually become more comfortable and willing to share their reactions, questions, and feelings. The closing stage of an education group usually includes a summary of the material covered.

Discussion Groups

Discussion group leaders primarily need to be aware of any member who tries to dominate or distract the group. Leaders also should pay attention to how comfortable members are in sharing, because if many are not comfortable, only a few members will contribute and a good discussion will not occur. Discussion groups are often led in conjunction with a workshop or class and are, therefore, onetime experiences that last anywhere from 15 minutes to an hour. The tone set at the beginning of a discussion group is usually crucial—the leader should try to set a positive, interactive tone. If possible, the leader should try to get everyone to share something in the first few minutes. This gets members involved and gives the leader an idea of each member’s energy for the topic. The closing usually consists of a summary of what was said.

Task Groups

In a task group, the ways in which members interact may be the most important dynamic to monitor. This is especially true if the leader’s task is one of team building. Often, task groups accomplish little because the members cannot get along well enough to work together. If this is the case, the leader must do some conflict resolution work or team building before getting to the task of the group. The leader must also be aware of the formation of cliques and plays for power and control.

The beginning stage of task groups is usually brief—the task is clarified and the members move to the working stage. Ideally, most of the group’s time is spent in the middle stage—working on the task. When a task group experiences power plays or tension between members, or the members disagree with the stated task, the leader must be skillful in getting the members through the storming stage. The leader may need to use cutting off, structured activities, and maybe sit in on some pairs of members who are in conflict to help ease the tension. The closing stage of a task group can be very brief, sometimes coinciding with accomplishment of the task. However, some task groups require a longer closing stage.

Growth and Experiential Groups

Growth and experiential groups vary greatly. In groups whose purpose is values clarification or self-exploration, the most important dynamic is how the members feel about one another, because they will be sharing their thoughts and feelings. Also, members might become jealous of other members’ growth or become angry with the leader and blame her for what they are learning about themselves. In some growth and experiential groups, individual members’ needs and expectations can vary so widely that negative forces are created. If this occurs, the leader should focus on issues and concerns that are relevant to the majority of the members. The leader should also look for members who are not appropriate for the group—members who would be better served in some other group experience or individual counseling.

Struggles for leadership can occur in some experiential groups where the purpose is team building and cooperative interaction. Also, members may form cliques that create antitherapeutic forces. Competition among members may arise and can be a detrimental dynamic. If these dynamics occur, the leader may want to talk to members privately or bring it up in the group. The proper method of dealing with this depends on the dynamics, the intensity, and the purpose of the group. When conducting group exercises, members will sometimes angrily turn on other members or on the leader as a result of frustration with the activity.

The beginning stage of a growth or experiential group usually lasts only one or two sessions, because the leader will probably engage the members in some activities during one or both of these sessions. Most members will get more comfortable as the group progresses, and the working stage will be reached fairly quickly. The closing stage usually lasts no more than one session and consists of people sharing what they have learned about themselves and how they have grown.

Support Groups

In a support group, the leader should create a safe environment where members can share. The leader should also make sure that members feel they have opportunities to share their ideas and concerns with the group and that one member does not dominate. Trust, commitment, and genuine caring of members for one another are important dynamics for this kind of group. When members do not trust one another or there are members who are at odds with each other, the support group is not effective. If these dynamics occur, they must be worked through for the group to succeed, either in private or in front of the group, depending on the nature of the problem. The leader may even need to screen out some members if they are detracting from the supportive purpose of the group.

One other dynamic that is important to watch for is lack of commonality. For instance, a leader might form a group to help students who recently moved to the area and are new to the school. Most of the members probably welcome the support, but a member who is new to the school because she could not get along in her other school and was forced to come to the new school would probably not be a good member of such a support group. A member who is new to the school because he is just returning from a 1-year drug treatment facility may not be good for a support group—his needs may be too great, and individual counseling plus a counseling group or a group for recovering students might be best. For a support group to work, members must feel a common bond.

The beginning stage of a support group usually lasts one to three sessions. During this stage, the sharing is usually not as personal as in the middle stage, when sharing is more intimate and caring is greater because the members now know each other. The closing of a support group can be an emotional experience for its members. Some may even feel frightened by the loss of the group as a support system. Because of this, the leader must allow plenty of time for terminating the group—maybe as much as two entire sessions.

Counseling and Therapy Groups

In counseling and therapy groups, the leader must be keenly aware of how members feel about each other and the leader. Members may resent others for being too quiet, too open, or too “together.” Because members of these groups vary in their degree of mental health, the chances for complex dynamics are much higher than in any other group discussed. To prevent the occurrence of some of the complex dynamics, we advocate screening through individual interviews of potential members whenever possible.

Some leaders mistakenly ignore the dynamics and lead the group as if everyone were comfortable with everyone else. This often results in members being not willing to share personally due to their lack of trust in other members, the leader, or both. Also, one negative or hostile member can create impossible dynamics unless the leader does something to neutralize the effect of this member. The leader can do this privately, which is usually best, or in the group if she sees value in this kind of intervention.

Much skill, knowledge, and courage are needed to lead an effective counseling or therapy group. Because members are dealing with personal issues, attacks on the leader are common. Unfortunately, sometimes the attacks are justified because the leader does not have the knowledge or skills necessary to lead the group but is doing so because it is part of the job. As we say throughout the book, leaders should not lead groups they are not trained to lead.

The beginning stage of a counseling or therapy group can last one, two, or three sessions. Although some therapeutic discussion or work will probably be done during these sessions, the members usually will still be warming up to the idea of sharing their problems with others. Depending on the members, the counseling or therapy group may go through a transition stage, in which members are sharing but are still not going into serious personal issues. The leader needs to be aware of these dynamics so that he does not push too much for sharing that is beyond the comfort level of the members; at the same time, the leader will want to make sure the group is productive.

During the working stage, the leader needs to be aware that some members may become uncomfortable because watching others work on personal issues gets them in touch with the pain they are trying to avoid. The leader will want to try to make the group safe but also not so comfortable that members bring up only superficial concerns. Members may also have the tendency to draw attention to other members’ issues in order to avoid focusing on themselves.

The closing stage usually lasts one session, although there may be occasions when the leader sees a need to allow more time. The leader should pay careful attention to members’ feelings about ending the group, especially if being in the group has been a very emotional, supportive experience for some members.

Self-Help Groups

Many different dynamics can occur in self-help groups, and without a leader to resolve these dynamics, some groups will not be productive and can even be harmful. We strongly believe in the self-help group and feel that generally these groups are very helpful and supportive. However, we recognize that usually few restrictions exist in these groups and that all kinds of dynamics can arise among the members as a result. If you are involved in setting up self-help groups, you should be aware of several dynamics. Members may attack each other or may try to take over the group. Cliques often form, causing other members to feel excluded. Members may need individual therapy in addition to or instead of a self-help group.

Once self-help groups have formed, they usually are ongoing, with new members coming and others leaving constantly. There is usually no trained leader designated in self-help groups. If you are in charge of establishing a self-help group, you may want to attend the first couple of meetings to ensure that the members get off to a good start. We suggest that you then drop in periodically to see if the group is being productive. Sometimes the groups have strayed far from their intended purpose and need to be redirected. Certain self-help groups, such as AA, have a good deal of structure that has evolved over the years.

Therapeutic Forces

It is important for leaders to realize that they must attend to much more than just the verbal exchange among members. Hansen, Warner, and Smith (1980) describe the “group dynamicist” as a person who closely observes the “potent group currents” that influence the members. Some of these currents are lack of trust, lack of commitment, power plays, conflicts between members, strong alliances between members, and attention-seeking behaviors. Awareness of these forces is essential for good leading. Ohlsen, Horne, and Lawe (1988) describe a number of the forces present in almost any group situation. Members want to

(1)

feel accepted by the group,

(2)

know what is expected,

(3)

feel they belong, and

(4)

feel safe.

When these forces are absent, members tend to be negative, hostile, withdrawn, or apathetic. Negative forces create dynamics that require the leader’s attention.

The leader can tune in to some of the group dynamics and therapeutic forces by considering the following questions:

How does each member feel about being in the group?

Do the members seem to know what is expected in the group?

Is each member clear about why he or she is in the group?

How does each member deal with being in the group?

Do the members seem to like one another?

Do the members seem comfortable with one another?

Do the members have a sense of belonging to the group?

Do the members seem comfortable with the leader?

The answers to these questions can be very helpful to the group leader in understanding how members are feeling about the group and the leader.

Yalom’s Curative Factors

Probably the best-known list of therapeutic forces is set forth by Yalom (2005). He discusses therapeutic forces in terms of curative factors operating in groups. Yalom studied counseling and therapy groups based on his interpersonal style of leadership and came up with 11 therapeutic factors that he felt needed to be present for a group to be successful:

Instillation of hope (feeling hopeful about one’s life)

Universality (realizing others have similar concerns)

Imparting of information (gaining information about healthy living)

Altruism (giving to other members)

Corrective recapitulation of the primary family group (opportunity to experience dynamics similar to early childhood experiences)

Development of socialization techniques (learning social skills)

Imitative behavior (modeling positive behaviors from other members)

Interpersonal learning (learning to interact with others)

Group cohesiveness (closeness among members)

Catharsis (expressing feelings never expressed before)

Existential factors (accepting responsibility for one’s life)

Of these factors, we agree that most are essential for a therapy group to be productive. The one that may not always occur is the re-creation of early family dynamics. In our more intrapersonal style of leadership this sometimes occurs, but often it does not. Members do, however, work on personal issues pertaining to their childhood. Yalom’s groups were more here-and-now groups, so the re-creation of family dynamics often did occur in his groups.

Jacobs, Schimmel, Masson, and Harvill’s 15 Therapeutic Forces

Following are descriptions of 15 forces that we feel the leader should attend to. These forces can be either positive (therapeutic), neutral, or negative (antitherapeutic). Groups that are not successful have one or more antitherapeutic forces operating. As a way to understand this, think of any group you have ever led or been a member of; then go through the 15 therapeutic forces, considering if the force was positive, neutral, or negative for that group. You will find that, if the group was successful, most of the forces were positive or neutral. If the group was not successful, one or more of the forces were negative. Sometimes a single antitherapeutic force can destroy a group. The 15 forces are as follows:

Clarity of purpose for both the leader and the members

Relevance of purpose for the members

Size of the group

Length of each session

Frequency of meetings

Adequacy of the setting

Time of day for both the leader and the members

The leader’s attitude

Closed or open group

Voluntary or nonvoluntary membership

Members’ level of commitment

Level of trust among members

Members’ attitudes toward the leader

The leader’s experience and readiness to deal with groups

Coleadership harmony

Clarity of Purpose

The single most important therapeutic force is clarity of purpose; that is, the leader and the members must clearly understand the purpose of the group. In unsuccessful groups, the leader often is unclear as to the purpose and, thus, confuses the members. For instance, a leader might say the group is educational but spend most of the time doing therapy, or the leader might say the group is for support but spend the majority of the time focusing on one person or on one topic that is not relevant for most of the members. Unfortunately, groups where members are unsure of the purpose are an all too common occurrence. It is important that both the leader and members clearly understand the purpose of the group. Much of Chapter 3 deals with clarity of purpose.

Relevance of Purpose

Not only should the members and leaders be clear regarding the purpose, but also the purpose must be relevant for the members. For members in prison, talking about their future jobs would not be relevant if the members had another 5 years on their prison sentence—a more relevant topic would be getting the most out of prison or getting along with others in prison. For those on the verge of dropping out of school, it would not be relevant to discuss how to study for math and history tests. A better topic would be attitude about school and their plans should they drop out of school. Some leaders have to use prepared materials and there are times when these materials are not relevant for the members.

Group Size

Group size can definitely affect group dynamics, so the leader should pay close attention to the decision of how many members to have in the group. The size of the group will depend in part on its purpose, the length of time of each session, the setting available, and the experience of the leader. We suggest 5 to 8 as the ideal number of members for most groups. For groups with members from very diverse cultural backgrounds, the leader and members may be more comfortable with groups of no more than 5.

If the group is going to meet for 1 hour or less, the leader should keep the group relatively small (no more than 6), unless it is an education group. Education groups usually have from 5 to 15 members; discussion groups usually have from 5 to 8. Ideally, personal growth, support, and counseling or therapy groups have from 5 to 8 members, although there can be as few as 3 and as many as 12.

The size of the group can definitely be antitherapeutic. If the group is too large, members very often hesitate to share or do not have time to share. Leaders form large groups out of necessity without realizing that an antitherapeutic force is being created. Groups that are too small can cause members to feel too much pressure to participate, creating an equally negative force. On the other hand, some small groups (two or three members) with a specific focus, such as on members who attempted suicide or members who had been raped, can sometimes be quite valuable.

Length of Each Session

For members to feel invested in the group and in one another, enough time must be allotted for each session. If a group session is not long enough, members may feel they did not get their chance to share. Another problem that arises when insufficient time is allowed is that the group never really accomplishes much and the sharing never gets very personal. For education, discussion, and task groups, the usual session lasts from 1 to 2 hours; it can be longer in certain instances. Groups in schools usually last a class period, which is 40 to 50 minutes. For groups composed of younger children, the length of time may be much shorter; 30 to 45 minutes is usually a good duration. For therapy, support, and growth groups, at least 1½ hours—and usually not longer than 3 hours—is advisable. However, there may be times when the leader and members decide to meet for a more extended period—5 or 6 hours or for as long as 16 hours.

Frequency of Meetings

The number of meetings per month depends on many different factors, the most important being the purpose of the group and the composition of the members. Groups in residential settings often meet daily or two to three times a week. Most outpatient groups meet once a week or once every 2 weeks. Support groups usually meet once or twice a month. The key to the frequency of meetings is that they not be so frequent that they become boring and not so infrequent that each meeting is like a first session. A leader should pay attention to the effect of the interval between sessions and, if at all possible, adjust the frequency so that it is a positive rather than negative force.

Adequacy of the Setting

There are a number of things to consider regarding where the group meets. One is convenience. Members will tend to come regularly if the location is easily accessible. Of course, the choice of location is not always within the leader’s control; but when it is, the leader should consider the convenience factor.

Another consideration is the privacy of the meeting room. Ideally, the group will meet in a room that is closed to any other traffic during the meeting time. Sometimes, especially in schools and some institutions, this is not possible. When faced with an inadequate setting, the leader must do as much as possible to ensure privacy, recognizing that an antitherapeutic force is operating.

The leader should also continue impressing upon the administration the importance of having a private room for group work. We say this because, unfortunately, the setting for groups is often very poor—be prepared to deal with terrible spaces for conducting groups.

Other things the leader needs to consider about the setting are whether the room is comfortable, what the wall decorations are like, what the lighting is like, and whether the seating arrangements and chairs are comfortable. Any of these can affect the therapeutic forces. The relative size of the chairs must also be considered. It is best when they are approximately the same size, especially in a counseling/therapy group, because members sitting at various heights may create a negative group dynamic. An option in such a case is to have everyone sit on the floor. The leader would want to do this only if there is a comfortable carpet to sit on and the members agree. More than likely, a leader would not use the floor for education, discussion, or task groups. In most group situations, it is best that the chairs not be lounge chairs because members tend to simply relax and not get involved in the process. Another consideration is whether or not to use tables. In most cases, it is better not to, because tables tend to serve as barriers between members. But there will be times when the leader may want to have tables, particularly in certain education and task groups.

Once these details are taken care of, the leader still has some other factors to consider. Usually the best seating arrangement is a circle, so that all members can see one another. The leader will want to make sure that the vision of all members is free of obstruction so that no one feels excluded. A tighter circle often creates a more intimate feeling, and members may tend to share more.

Time of Day

The time the group meets can be a negative force. If the group meets right after lunch or late in the day, the leader and the members may be tired. When setting up a group, the leader should choose a time that seems best for the majority of those involved. This may seem like a simple matter, but often leaders find themselves leading a group where the members have little energy because of the meeting time.

The Leader’s Attitude

The leader’s feelings about leading a group definitely affect how the group will go. During workshops on group leadership, it is common to hear group leaders express their inability to control negative members, which results in their disliking the group. If the group contains hostile, nonvoluntary members, the leader should try to find a way to get these members involved; however, if the members are completely resistant and negative, the leader may need to remove them from the group. Otherwise, the leader will end up with a negative attitude regarding the group.

Another possible reason for the leader having a negative attitude is that the leader is being required to lead a group with people he does not like or on a topic in which he has little or no interest. If the leader cannot avoid leading the group and cannot change his feelings about the members or topic, he may try adding a coleader. If that is not possible, the leader should spend extra time planning the sessions in the hope that the exercises and activities will help make the group more interesting for both the members and leader. If the leader does not do this, the group surely will go poorly. If you ever find yourself in this situation, remember that trying to make it interesting is certainly to your advantage.

Closed or Open Groups

An important decision for the leader is whether the membership will be open or closed. Many groups are conducted as closed groups—that is, no new members are admitted once the group is established. Closed groups can be time limited and goal oriented. Many groups are also conducted on an open basis—members join and leave periodically. The purpose of the group and the population being served usually dictate the leader’s choice. In most cases, especially for support and counseling or therapy groups, a closed group is better because the members develop trust and comfort as the group evolves. The only time a closed group becomes a detriment is when the group is getting stale and additional members would add new life.

In some settings, such as hospitals or residential treatment centers where there are new arrivals weekly, groups with an open membership are mandated. This does not have to constitute a negative force if the leader’s style is adjusted for this dynamic. The leader must keep in mind that the group will not evolve through various stages because members will always be at different places in their feelings about the group. When introducing new members, the leader will want to develop methods that do not detract from the flow of the group. A common mistake made by leaders of open groups is to spend too much time introducing and orienting new members, thus creating a negative force.

Voluntary or Nonvoluntary Membership

Perhaps the most basic force to consider is whether the members are voluntary or nonvoluntary. Naturally, it would be nice if all groups could be held on a voluntary basis. However, the courts and settings such as correctional institutions, residential treatment centers, and schools often mandate group participation. When a leader must conduct a group where there are nonvolunteers, it is important to adapt to this dynamic. Both Yalom (2005) and Corey (2012) state that negative attitudes about being in a group can be transformed by the leader’s ability to prepare members for the group. Corey further states that the leader also has to believe in the group process. Often some nonvoluntary members change their negative attitude if the first couple of sessions go well. To make the first sessions successful, the leader must plan the group on the assumption that there will be negative attitudes. The following are three examples of what a leader might say to nonvoluntary members during the first session.

There will be times when, no matter what the leader does, some members remain negative and antitherapeutic. When faced with this situation, the leader should accept that the group will not go as well as desired. It is sometimes a good idea, when possible, to divide the group and let those who are totally negative sit out of the circle of the group and do something else, such as read, rest, or sit quietly. Another strategy is to meet with the entire group for less time and then excuse the negative members and have those who are really interested remain. If you have nonvoluntary members, remember to plan for the negative group dynamics at the beginning of and perhaps throughout the sessions. Planning interesting and creative sessions is essential!

Members’ Level of Commitment

One of the forces to consider when thinking about the group is the members’ level of commitment. By commitment, we mean desiring to be cooperative rather than resistant, disruptive, or hostile. A group made up of members with commitment will be much easier to lead than one with members who have little or no commitment. Members lacking commitment are those who are forced to attend, as well as those who want to direct the group or be the center of attention. When commitment is low, members tend to get off track, show little interest, contribute very little, display disruptive behavior, argue with the leader, or attack each other. In other words, all kinds of negative group dynamics occur when there is little commitment.

How do you know if there is commitment? One way to assess commitment is to conduct pre-group interviews to gauge where the members are in reference to being a member. If screening is not possible, the best way to assess this is simply to observe your members. You can nearly always tell how they feel about being in the group. If you are not sure, bring the topic up for discussion. Simply ask, “What is your feeling about being in the group?”

Level of Trust

In groups whose members have commitment, trust will usually develop over time if the group is moving in a positive direction. Problems of trust often occur when members have very different points of view. If the group consists of members who do not like each other, the leader can try to change this by bringing it up in the group or by meeting with some members privately to see if their differences can be resolved. The leader may even ask one or more members to drop out of the group. If the lack of trust does not change and, because of administrative policy, the members cannot be asked to leave the group, the leader will have to accept the fact that leading the group will be very difficult.

In counseling or therapy and growth groups, there is always the chance that some members will make some hurtful and judgmental comments to another member after some disclosure of an intimate detail of her life such as an affair, abortion, or sexual orientation. The leader’s first concern needs to be for the disclosing member and to show that members will not be attacked for sharing comments or details of their lives. The leader needs to discuss these critical comments in such a way as to be supportive of the member under attack and, at the same time, not alienate the critical member or members.

Example

Jodi:(With her head down and in a sad voice) I don’t know how this happened. I didn’t think this happened to people in their 50s. I thought only young people had affairs. Karl and I have nothing in common, and now with the kids being off at college, I am lonely. This guy at the place I work started eating lunch with me; and over the last six months, we have shared a lot. One thing led to another; and last week, we spent the afternoon at his place. Now, I feel so guilty and confused.

Bud:Jodi, I can’t believe you would do that to your husband! You should have controlled yourself and not been so selfish. What about Karl?! I think …

Leader:(Using a firm but soft voice) Bud, I want to stay with Jodi and help her with her pain. I want us to try to help her deal with her feelings and not be judgmental about her behavior. That is not what this group is for. Jodi, why don’t you say some more and then we’ll hear from others. I know that many can understand your feelings. (Heads nod, indicating they understand)

If the leader allows negative statements to go by without clarification, trust becomes an antitherapeutic force and the members will probably tend not to disclose much personal information for fear of being criticized. Ideally, the leader can address the issue of being judgmental in the group and help members be more open-minded and less critical. Sometimes, leaders get sidetracked and focus on the “judgmental” member or the topic of not being judgmental first instead of focusing on the disclosing member who is in pain.

Members’ Attitude Toward the Leader

The attitudes of the members toward the leader have to be considered when leading any group. Do they like him? Do they respect him? Do they trust him? Do they respect his group leadership skills? In most groups, members will have a variety of feelings toward the leader. Sometimes all the members may have negative feelings about the leader. In such a case, the leader needs to examine this dynamic, because it may have something to do with leadership style or ability.

Often only one or two members harbor negative feelings. One person who is out to “get the leader” can definitely interfere with positive group dynamics.

Example

Leader:I would like to take a few minutes to discuss how you are feeling about your progress in reaching the goals you set for yourself.

Melvin:(Angrily) Why do you always ask us that? Let’s do something different. This isn’t helpful.

In this situation, the leader would not want to focus on the negative member, especially if she knows that the member is mainly out to “get” her. The leader can deflect the negative dynamic by saying, in a soft, firm voice, something like this:

Leader:Melvin, I think most find this helpful and a way to think about their goals. (Turning to the rest of the group) How are all of you feeling about your progress?

The most important thing for leaders to realize is that negative attitudes about them as leaders definitely affect the interaction and disclosures in the group.

The Leader’s Experience in Leading Groups

For those who are just starting out, the therapeutic force of experience needs to be mentioned. A beginning leader may be an antitherapeutic force because the leader lacks skills, may be nervous, and will make mistakes. If the leader is nervous, it is important to recognize this and, if need be, mention it to the group. Along these same lines, in a counseling or therapy group, an antitherapeutic force will be present if the leader does not have much individual counseling experience. For a good therapy group to occur, the leader must be experienced in individual counseling and have knowledge about counseling theories.

Ideally, beginning leaders would work with a more experienced coleader for a few groups before leading by themselves. If you find yourself leading without the benefit of prior experience, do the best you can and learn from the experience by discussing your group with your supervisor or colleague.

Coleadership Harmony

Coleading can be a very positive or negative force when leading a group. If the two leaders are in sync with each other, then it is almost always a positive force. When the leaders view group leading in two different ways, then coleading can serve as an antitherapeutic force. In Chapter 6, we discuss in detail the pros and cons of coleading.

Process and Content

We, along with Corey, Corey, and Corey (2014), Geroski and Kraus (2002), Gladding (2012), and many other writers, stress the importance of paying attention to the group process. Posthuma (2002); Hulse-Killacky, Kraus, and Schumacher (1999); and Sonstegard and Bitter (2004) discuss the need for balancing process and content. The term process includes stages of group, group dynamics, and therapeutic forces. Content refers to the purpose or task of the group. The leader always needs to be aware of both the content and process and focus the group on each, depending on the purpose and what is needed at the time. Hulse-Killacky and colleagues (1999) state, “process and content are mutually interactive and operate as two threads of one string” (p. 117). Geroski and Kraus (2002) found in their study of psychoeducation groups that experienced group workers were unable to agree on what constitutes process and content in the specific groups studied.

Leaders make mistakes when it comes to how much emphasis should be placed on process and content. Some put too much importance on content and some put too much importance on process. Some leaders focus so much on what is going on and making sure everyone speaks that the group never achieves any meaningful depth. Other leaders focus so much on individual counseling that they miss the tremendous value of members interacting and hearing from others and struggling at times with relationships within the group. The skilled leader is always monitoring the content and the process during any session.

Group Counseling Skills Process and Content

Watch videos 2.1 and 2.2. You will hear a discussion of the balance of content and process and see the leader focusing on process in 2.1, and balancing between content and process on 2.2.

Concluding Comments

In this chapter, we discussed the stages of groups, group process, and therapeutic forces that leaders must be aware of to be effective. All groups go through at least three stages: beginning, working, and closing. Some groups will go through additional stages. It is important that leaders be aware that groups go through these stages even though the amount of time for each stage depends on the kind of group and its purpose. Group process (also called group dynamics) refers to the attitudes and interaction of members and leaders. It is also important for the leader to be aware of both process and content during any session. Therapeutic forces are the many different elements operating in a group, such as its size, its setting, the time of day it meets, its member composition, the trust and commitment levels of its members, and its leader’s attitude and experience.

Chapter 3 Purpose of Groups

Introduction

Being clear about the purpose of the group is perhaps the most important group leadership concept to be learned. All the other skills and tasks discussed in this book—such as planning a group, holding and shifting the focus, and cutting off and drawing out members—are based on the leader’s clear understanding of the purpose of the group. Because we consider this concept so important, we discuss clarity of purpose in this separate chapter and continue to mention it throughout the book. Purpose refers to why the group is meeting and what the goals and objectives are. (We sometimes use the terms goals and objectives in place of purpose.) When the leader fully understands the purpose of the group, it is easier for him to decide such things as its size, membership, session length, and number of sessions (Brown, 2009).

The purpose of the group serves as a map for the leader. Members and leaders must be clear about both the general purpose of the group and the specific purpose of each session (Hulse-Killacky, Killacky, & Donigian, 2001). Sometimes the purpose is obvious, such as losing weight, quitting smoking, overcoming a phobia, or learning study skills. Often, however, members’ needs are not so specific. Leading groups of people with various needs means that the leader must help the group decide which needs are reasonable and possible to address. Clarity of purpose helps the leader keep the members on course by suggesting relevant activities, asking relevant questions, and cutting off irrelevant discussions.

When the Leader Is Unclear about the Purpose

As we said, groups are often confusing, boring, or unproductive when the objectives are not well-defined or the leader does not follow the stated objectives. The following are examples where the purpose is either unclear or is not adhered to by the leader. We follow each example with a discussion of what the leader could have done to ensure clarity of purpose.

Examples

Purpose: Learning to Survive the Pain of Divorce

It is the first meeting. Members have been talking about their loneliness, self-doubts, and fears. Alan interrupts abruptly and starts talking about his thoughts about changing jobs. The leader says to the group, “What are your thoughts on how Alan should go about making this career decision?” For the next 30 minutes, the group gives Alan suggestions on how to handle the situation, with much of the talk centering on what salary he should request.

This leader made a mistake by asking for comments on what Alan was saying. The stated purpose was support and therapy to survive the pain of divorce, so the leader should not have focused the group on Alan’s concern about his career. Rather, the leader should have halted the discussion and redirected the group to a discussion of the members’ feelings about their divorces.

Allowing the group to continue the career discussion probably resulted in some members becoming bored and frustrated. Members may also have become angry and left the group or cut in on the discussion and attacked Alan or the group. Such responses could have been prevented had the leader been clear about the purpose and then used her skills to redirect the group. For example, the leader could have said something like, “Alan, that’s an important topic; however, it does not fit with the purpose of the group at this time. If you feel the need to talk about this, let’s schedule an appointment or you may ask members after the session ends for their input.”

Purpose: Orientation to Prison Life

The group starts with the leader going over the procedures for meals, visits, and weekend passes. One man brings up the prison’s policy of no passes for the first month. Another inmate chimes in about the lack of places to be alone when he has visitors. Another asks the group what they think of that situation. Different members offer their opinions and ideas about it. Following this, the leader brings the discussion back to the policies and procedures by discussing mealtime procedures. One inmate mentions that he is a vegetarian, and two others ask him a number of questions about why he doesn’t eat meat. Another inmate says he thinks the meals are terrible. The leader asks what other members think about the meals. Two inmates then start complaining about the food, the heating in the rooms, and the lack of television sets on the units. The group ends with very little having been said about procedures in the prison.

Because this leader did not stick to the purpose and was more worried about whether people would talk, he let the group wander. There is a good chance that some members will be resistant at the second meeting because the first one was boring and irrelevant. The leader should have halted the discussion on the side issues and brought the group back to its intended purpose by saying kindly but firmly, “The purpose of this group is to discuss the rules and procedures of the prison. I’d be more than happy to arrange a time to discuss these other matters. However, for now let’s get back to the topic—let’s talk about the procedures for having a visitor.”

Purpose: Adult Sunday School Discussion Group on Church-Related Issues

It is the fourth session, and the topic scheduled for discussion this week is “Ways the Church Can Be More Responsive to the Changing Family—The Single-Parent Family and the Stepfamily.” The discussion has been interesting and relevant. Then a member asks, “Why is the divorce rate so high now?” The leader mistakenly throws the question open to the group and, for the next 25 minutes, four of the nine members argue about the many reasons. When the group returns to the original topic of the church being responsive, the other members have lost interest and have little energy for the original topic.

Again, the leader’s lack of clarity caused this group to go awry. If the leader had been clear about the purpose of this meeting, she would not have let the members discuss the causes of divorce. Rather, she would have said something like, “That might be something we could discuss after the meeting. However, let’s stay with the topic for this week.”

Purpose: Dealing with Fears of Going to Middle School Next Year

It is the second session and members are talking about their different fears. One student talked about her fear of changing classes. When the leader asks if others share the same fear, Tommy jumps in and starts to talk about how he is afraid of the dark sometimes. The leader asks members if they are afraid of the dark. Carlos says he is a little. The group then discusses fear of the dark for the rest of the session.

The leader allowed this group to deviate from the purpose of the group. If she had been clear on the purpose, she would not have focused on Tommy’s concern because his concern had nothing to do with going to middle school next year.

In each of these examples, the leader does not stick to the purpose, which causes the group to be superficial. Awareness of the purpose is very important for any group situation.

Group Counseling Skills Clarity of Purpose

Go to the videos on Clarity of Purpose (3.1, 3.2, and 3.3) on the Group Counseling Skills videos to see how important clarity of purpose can be. Watch a discussion and three clarity of purpose demonstrations, one of a group leader without clarity of purpose, and two demonstrations of a group leader with clarity of purpose.

Determining the Purpose of the Group

When setting up a group, the leader must assess the potential members’ needs and then decide which kind of group will be most helpful. For example, a leader working with a group of mentally challenged teenagers might decide on an education group covering such topics as sex, money, and job hunting or a counseling or support group to help them explore their feelings. Gathering information about the members’ needs, deciding which needs can be met by the group, and then conceptualizing the kind of group that will ideally meet those needs clarifies the purpose for the leader. The next example illustrates the process of clarifying the purpose by determining the kind of group.

Example

A therapist has been asked to lead a group for pregnant teenage girls. She gathers information about the members’ ages, length of pregnancies, attitudes of their parents, and reasons for wanting to be in a group. She finds that there are five girls ranging in age from 14 to 17. They are all at least 4 months pregnant, and all plan to keep their babies. They’ve volunteered to be in the group because of conflicts at home and a desire for information. The leader also discovers that their needs range from dealing with their peers, handling guilt associated with religious beliefs, needing nutrition information, parenting skills, coping with pregnancy, planning for the baby, and needing information regarding the effects of drugs, alcohol, and smoking on the fetus.

Given these needs, an education and support group would be beneficial to educate the girls on various aspects of pregnancy, as well as to facilitate personal sharing in an effort to establish support among members.

During the first session of any group, the leader needs to clarify the purpose with the members. By doing this, the leader ensures that the purpose is clear and hopefully coincides with what the members want or expect. Sometimes it is the leader who determines exactly what is to happen in the group. This is true for such groups as DUI or certain task groups. Other times it is the members who have much to say about the purpose. No matter who is determining the purpose, the important point is that the purpose is clarified during the first session.

Common Questions about Purpose

Certain questions often arise regarding the purpose of groups. Although some of them may seem similar, each one addresses slightly different issues.

Can the Group Have More than One Purpose?

Yes. Many groups may have multiple purposes, such as providing support, information, and therapy. The pairing of values clarification with counseling or drug information is compatible and can set the stage for an effective and interesting group experience. For example, a group for people just released from an in-patient psychiatric treatment center could have at least two purposes: to provide support and to provide information on such subjects as budgeting and how to interview for a job. A group for teenagers who are in gangs could also have multiple purposes—conflict mediation, counseling, and providing information about alternatives to gangs.

Example

The group consists of six teens in an alternative school. The purpose is to help them improve their attitude about school, to focus on problems at home, and to help them get along better with others.

Scott:I didn’t do any schoolwork for the last week.

Leader:Is there a reason for that?

Scott:I think algebra is hard and I don’t like to read.

Eric:I did what we said about doing the work even if I didn’t like it and then rewarded myself by playing some video games.

Leader:What are others of you doing in regard to studying?

Dennis:I get real frustrated when doing those stupid math problems.

Leader:I have a better idea. Instead of talking about studying, let’s talk today about something that applies to school and to life in general. It is called low frustration tolerance….

In this example the leader shifts from more of an educational purpose to a counseling purpose in teaching low frustration tolerance from REBT theory.

Sometimes leaders mix purposes in incompatible ways. For example, an unskilled leader in a group on child rearing might mistakenly use 30 minutes of the group’s time to do counseling with a woman complaining about her husband. Ideally, the leader would meet with the woman at the end of the session or the next day, but not during the group because the other members have come for a totally different purpose. In residential settings such as halfway houses, juvenile centers, or prisons, incompatible purposes often emerge. In these settings, leaders sometimes try to deal in a single session with issues such as problems with parents, tensions between residents, house rules, and disciplinary procedures. The issues should be separated into two or three different meetings, because each has a tone and agenda that does not really mesh with the others.

The first session of any group is another example of a multiple-purpose group session. The leader always has at least two purposes in mind. One is introducing the general content of the group (such as study habits, communication skills, increasing marital happiness), and the other is getting members clear about the group and how it will be conducted.

Examples

It is the first session of a cancer support group. The leader has two purposes—one is to help members get comfortable being in the group. The other is to encourage members to share their thoughts and feelings about their illness and to provide valuable information and support for each other.

It is the first session of a high school group for gay, lesbian, and transgendered students. Given the sensitive nature of this group, the primary purpose is to get members to feel comfortable being in the group, especially if the members are not familiar with each other. The other purpose is to introduce some of the difficult issues that will be discussed in subsequent sessions.

It is the first session bringing two gangs together to resolve their differences. The leader’s primary purpose is to make sure things do not heat up and that a positive tone is set. The leader also wants members to begin a dialog about how they can coexist with each other and to break down the rigid boundaries that each gang has set for itself.

There are also multiple purposes for the final session: covering content relevant to the group and spending time helping members gain closure since the group is ending.

Examples

It is the last of six sessions of a group at a women’s shelter. The leader has three purposes—one is to deal with any unfinished business or issues that are still not resolved. The second purpose is to help members reinforce what they learned and share hope and encouragement with each other. The third purpose is to have members say goodbye to the other members, have members feel they are not alone, and encourage contact with each other for support.

Because it is the end of the school year, it is the last session of a group for teenage loners. One purpose is to try to get members to commit to connecting with people over the summer. The leader would most likely focus on each person’s plan to be with other people for the summer. The other purpose is to say good-bye and share what they have learned from the group.

The main thing to consider when developing multiple purposes is whether or not they are compatible.

Must Each Session Have a Purpose?

Yes. A good group leader should have in mind the purpose or purposes of each specific session. So far, our discussion of purpose has mostly centered on the content of the group and the overall purpose. Purpose can be looked at more specifically. One purpose might be to clarify what the rest of the sessions will be like. Other purposes can be to give feedback to each other; to get to know each other better; or to discuss a specific topic such as religion, sex, or the need for approval. Sometimes the leader, the members, or both will decide beforehand what the purpose of the next session will be. The following is a list of possible purposes for a session or a part of a session:

To have fun

To be informative

To build trust

To increase commitment

To be thought provoking

To discuss group process—that is, what is happening between members

To discuss gender, race, or other cultural issues that exist in the group

To accomplish a task

To work on personal issues

Each of these may serve either as part of a multiple purpose or the sole purpose for one or more sessions. For instance, a leader who discovers that the group lacks trust or commitment would probably want to focus part of the next meeting on those issues rather than on the overall purpose, such as personal growth, getting out of prison, living with cancer, or learning assertiveness. Following are some examples of the specific purposes of group sessions.

Examples

This is a growth group consisting of three women and five men. The leader starts the session by saying:

Leader:Tonight I thought it might be helpful to discuss something that I have observed in the group. Ever since Gloria shared that she is a lesbian, there has been an underlying tension or something, and I think the group could benefit from talking about this.

In the fifth session of a therapy group, Sandy starts rambling again. The leader decides that the group is far enough along to start giving feedback to one another. He says the following to the group and to Sandy:

Leader:Sandy, I want to pick up on something that I think will help you and the other members of the group. I want to do a feedback exercise where we tell each other how we experience them in the group. That is, for the next 45 minutes, we are going to give each other feedback. Here’s what I’d like you to do.

It is the third session of a support group composed of juveniles in a detention center. The leader notices that there is no energy, even though the group began only 10 minutes ago. She decides, therefore, that the best purpose for this session is to work on commitment and trust and says to the group:

Leader:On a 1 to 10 scale, with 10 being a lot and 1 being none, how much commitment do you have to this group?

After the information is gathered, the leader focuses the remainder of the session on why members are not committed and what would increase their commitment.

It is the third in a series of five sessions of an educational group whose overall purpose is to teach nursing supervisors new ways to deal with their staff. The leader starts by saying:

Leader:Today, we are going to focus on nonverbal behavior. I want to go over some of the latest research, which I found to be quite useful; then I’ll ask for reactions and comments. Jefferson and Smith studied the nonverbal behavior of 22 nursing supervisors and found …

A therapy group in its third session is composed of mental-health patients. The leader opens the group by saying, “Who has something to bring up tonight?” Two of the seven members respond. Joe says he wants to talk about his mom and her desire to control him. Molly mentions her anxiety at work. The leader says to the group:

Leader:Tonight, we’ll focus on Molly’s and Joe’s concerns, and then during the last hour we’ll spend time talking about learning to control our feelings by paying attention to the things that we tell ourselves.

As you can see, a leader can establish the session’s purpose in a variety of ways. The simple, direct approach is often a very good way to make the purpose clear.

Can the Purpose Change?

Yes. Groups often start out as education, support, or growth groups; as they develop, the members begin to share on a more personal level. If the leader sees a need to shift to counseling, it is usually valuable for him to discuss this in the group. Perhaps the best way to make the change is for the leader to explain how the group could alter its purpose. If the group decides to switch its emphasis, the leader needs to be aware that it will probably take one or two sessions to completely change the direction. Often leaders make the mistake of shifting the purpose of the group without informing the members. As a result, members feel frustrated, confused, fearful, or resentful. As we have said throughout this discussion, it is important that the leader and members remain clear about the group’s purpose, and the leader should reiterate the purpose whenever necessary. If the leader decides to shift the purpose, she must be sure that the members are aware of her intent and that they also desire the shift.

Example

It is the third session of an education and support group for stepfamily living. Four women make up the group. The leader has noticed that all the members have numerous personal concerns that are interfering with effective living.

Sheila:I can’t stand the way their mother treats them. I actually called her up and threatened her. I can’t help it!

Celina:I get so angry when Juan’s mom is late all the time in meeting us! But I am just an angry person, or so my husband says. He even told me the other night he could not take my anger much longer.

Leader:Let me talk about a possible shift here in the group. I know we originally got together because of stepfamily issues, but I have noticed that each of you has some major concerns that aren’t necessarily related to stepfamilies. Sheila, you and Celina seem to have some major issues with anger. Dealing with anger seems like a good topic. Another topic could be dealing with guilt because Dana, you and Sharon both mentioned that last week and again this week. Would you like to shift the group to more of a counseling group about these and other issues, still focusing on stepfamily issues as they relate to these?

Dana:I need help in both areas. I don’t want to not be able to talk about my adjustment in my stepfamily.

Leader:We will definitely keep talking about stepfamily matters as well, but I just did not want to switch the purpose unless we all agree.

Celina:I’m for it because I need help or my husband may leave.

Can There Be No Purpose?

Not having a purpose is inadvisable. Groups without a purpose usually dissolve because of lack of interest and direction. Although you may choose to bring together a group of people having no predetermined goal in mind, the purpose of the first meeting should be to decide what the purpose should be for the remainder of the meetings. In fact, a group with no purpose cannot really be termed a group; rather, it is a social gathering.

If the Leader Is Clear, Will the Members Be?

Not always. Often, members have their own ideas of what the group should be about, and they try to steer it in that direction. In addition, some members will come to groups for reasons other than the stated purpose; that is, they come to complain, to preach, or to attack and will not follow the leader’s direction. Another reason members may not be clear about the group’s purpose is that some find it hard to understand what is going on. Because of their anxiety, they are not able to listen well. By reiterating, the leader can do much to clarify the intent of the group for the members. If she sees that some of the members are confused, she will probably want to do one of two things:

(1)

meet with those members who seem confused or

(2)

discuss the problem in the group.

Often, this clears up the confusion.

Example

The leader views this group as a support group for those with hepatitis C. Two members want the group to be a therapy group and continually bring up unrelated personal problems. It is the second session and the leader realizes that the two members may not understand the purpose.

Mary:I am still trying to decide if I want to take the new drug—I am afraid of the side effects.

Toni:I understand. My doctor wants me to try something new and I am scared to death, but I do not like how I have been feeling lately.

Hector:I think we can all be supportive of each other, especially when taking one of those powerful drugs. We could meet more often or at least make sure we are in contact by phone or e-mail.

Nicole:I know I could use the contact during the holidays. I have such problems with my in-laws. They are the hardest people to buy gifts for. Do any of you worry about buying the right gift?

Cheryl:My problem is being disappointed by the gifts my husband buys me. He always….

Leader:Let me talk about something here. During the first session, we talked a lot about being supportive of each other and how this is a support group. However, it really is not a general support group but rather a specific one focusing on issues pertaining to having hepatitis C. I’d rather have us stay focused on those kinds of issues. Cheryl and Nicole, I realize you have concerns that are important to you, and if you would like to talk about those privately with me, that would be fine. Let’s go back to what Mary, Toni, and Hector were talking about.

If the two members continue to be unclear as to the purpose of the group, the leader would want to talk with them privately. After talking with them, if they continue to bring up unrelated therapy issues, the leader may decide to ask them not to be in the group and find them a therapy situation that fits their needs—either another group or individual counseling.

Purpose in Single-Session Groups

Most of our comments have implied that groups meet for a number of sessions. Many groups meet only once. When leading a single-session group, clarity of purpose is even more essential. The leader needs to be very clear about why this group is meeting and then plan a group that will accomplish the desired objective in the time allotted. The group’s purpose may be to discuss and determine a treatment plan for a patient, to resolve a conflict, or to plan an event. Being clear will help the leader use the time effectively and accomplish the desired outcomes. Often at single-session group meetings, little is accomplished because the members keep switching topics and the leader fails to keep the discussion within the boundaries of the purpose. Members may also focus for half the meeting on something that is irrelevant, thus necessitating a second meeting. A good leader should be clear as to the purpose, what needs to be done, and how much time should be spent on introductions, warm-up, background information, and the various topics.

Evaluation of Group Success

Regardless of the purpose of your group, it is important to determine if the purpose has been achieved and to what extent. Although a leader may have a clear idea in his or her mind as to the purpose, only some form of evaluation will confirm the extent to which the purpose has been accomplished. Measuring outcomes allows for the leader to adjust aspects of both content and process to better reach the intent of the group experience. Although group leaders should not become preoccupied with evaluating their groups, periodic evaluation can give them useful feedback about their ostensible purpose, as well as information on the kinds of experiences that are most helpful in meeting the goals of their members. For a thorough discussion regarding evaluating groups, see Riva and Lange’s (2014) short book, How Leaders Can Assess Group Counseling.

Three kinds of evaluations are possible:

(1)

evaluation of the changes that actually occur in members’ lives,

(2)

self-evaluation by the group leader, and

(3)

evaluation by the members.

There are advantages and limitations to each, and each type of evaluation serves a particular function.

Evaluation of the Changes in Members’ Lives

Perhaps the most important type of evaluation is the evaluation of how the group experience has impacted the members’ behavior. Do students get better grades in school or have fewer reported incidents of misbehavior? Do spouses communicate more effectively? Do teen mothers provide better care for their babies than they would have if they had not been in the group? Do unemployed workers from the group get jobs sooner than those not in the group? Do members who experience much guilt and anxiety cope with life better after being in the group? Some of these questions are rather easy to answer and some are difficult to answer, but there is an increasing demand for evidence-based evaluation. Agencies, schools, and institutions want to see data showing that the group work is effective in bringing about changes.

Some groups easily lend themselves to outcome-based evaluation, whereas with others, it may be difficult to quantify changes in members. Members’ self-reports are one method of determining if they are actually changing. Throughout the life of the group, the leader should ask members to comment on changes they are making. Of course, such responses are subjective and not always accurate, but the leader can often get some idea of the impact the group is having on the members. Another method of evaluating behavioral change is to have other people in the members’ lives give a more objective evaluation. These outside evaluators may be teachers, employers, parents, spouses, friends, probation officers, primary care medical treatment staff, or individual therapists. In a school setting, the leader may receive informal comments or anecdotes, such as, “Yes, Billy is definitely paying more attention in class,” or more formal feedback through the use of a written behavioral checklist. Presuming that Billy’s behavior in class had a negative impact on his academic work, checking Billy’s grades at the end of the next full marking period may be a way to evaluate the impact of the group. Other objective data school counselors can review to determine the group’s success might be referrals for discipline issues for former group members or school attendance records.

To produce data measuring the outcome, the leader must follow a procedure that includes these steps:

Determine the outcome goals of the specific group; for example, students stay in school, students reduce the number of days of skipping school, grades increase, members stop smoking, members have fewer panic attacks, members get jobs. For some groups, the leader, may need to determine goals for each member.

Collect pre-group data. Examples would be the number of panic attacks, number of days skipped, number of fights at work, number of work days missed.

Focus the group sessions on the desired outcome goals. Allow members to work on their goals.

Develop an appropriate form for members to complete regarding their progress toward the established goals. It is very important for the form to contain questions that allow measurement of the outcome of the group.

Determine whether people other than the members can be involved in evaluating outcome and, if so, obtain permission from the members and contact those people.

Collect data periodically, using a form.

At the end of the group, collect data, using a form.

Plan for follow-up data collection by either mailing forms to the members (and others if appropriate) at certain intervals or giving members extra forms and asking them to send the completed forms at designated intervals. Collecting data at 3 months after the group ends, then 6 months, and then 1 year is an excellent way to evaluate the group based on lasting changes in the members.

The Leader’s Self-Evaluation

Many leaders do a self-evaluation after each session. Usually a self-evaluation is simple and straightforward. The leader will want to recall any interactions or dynamics that seemed especially important and evaluate her role in the group. For example, “My instructions for doing the ‘Family Sculpture’ exercise were confusing” or “I could have cut off Dan earlier and kept the group from getting so restless” or “Sarah attacked Bill and I didn’t do anything about it.” The leader can ask herself these questions:

How closely did I follow my plan?

When I deviated from my plan, was it because I thought of a more appropriate strategy at the moment or because I felt lost or overwhelmed by the group?

How closely was I able to meet the needs of the individual members?

Did things happen in the group that I did not plan for or anticipate?

Could I have predicted these with more forethought?

What have I learned from the session that I can implement next time?

On a 1–10 scale, how would I rate my overall satisfaction with the session? What can I do to improve the rating?

The leader should keep these self-evaluations and periodically review them to observe the progress that he is making. If there are areas where the leader feels he is not improving, he may wish to give them special attention or ask a fellow group leader or supervisor for help.

The Members’ Evaluations

The leader will find it helpful to have members evaluate the group. An informal evaluation can be done as part of the closing of any session. The leader might say: “What happened in the group during this session that was particularly valuable for you?” A more formal evaluation can be done a third of the way or halfway through the group. This might involve a check sheet with questions about the process that takes place in the group, as well as its content, and ways in which the group has been helpful. A final written evaluation is also helpful for the leader in planning future groups. A useful evaluation form for the end of groups could contain the following questions, plus some additional ones that are specific to the given group.

What were the most important things you gained from being in this group?

What activities, discussions, or topics stood out for you?

What did you like most about the group?

What did you like least about the group?

What would have made the group better for you?

What could the leader have done differently that would have made the group better for you?

A leader should exercise caution when reading member evaluations. Some members may not like her and thus give inaccurate feedback, or members may have a need to please and therefore give only positive feedback. Some members give dishonest feedback because they feel threatened by or concerned for the leader. For example, if the leader continually asks members if they like the group or if it is being helpful to them, members may conclude that the leader is fishing for positive feedback and may be reluctant to offer constructive criticism. Some members develop what can be termed a “groupie” mentality; they identify so strongly with the power of the leader that, no matter what happens in the group, they believe it is for the good of the group. Because it is natural to look for positive feedback, such feedback may lull leaders into thinking that their groups are terrific, when in fact there are problems that should be corrected. We cannot sufficiently stress the benefit of evaluating your groups. Much can be learned from evaluations, using any of the preceding methods of evaluation. The ultimate evaluation may lie in experimental research, with experimental and control groups. Research of this nature is difficult to design because accurate assessment of outcomes is not easy.

Concluding Comments

Being clear about the purpose is the most important factor in determining the outcome of a group. It also affects the leader’s choice of the kind of group, membership, topics, dynamics, and depth as well as the leader’s role. Clarity of purpose is crucial no matter what type of group is being led. The purpose of the group serves as the map for guiding the leader in planning and conducting the session. Many beginning leaders fail to be clear as to the purpose, or they do not stick to the purpose. Sessions have different purposes, sometimes more than one. Also, the purpose of the group can change as the group develops.

Evaluation of groups can be accomplished in a variety of ways. Ideally leaders will evaluate themselves and have members evaluate themselves and their experience as a group member.