Reading Reflection 4

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P1: OTA/XYZ P2: ABC c11 JWBT312-Novotny August 12, 2010 14:36 Printer Name: Sheridan

ECOCITIES: EVALUATION AND SYNTHESIS1

XI.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter presents case studies of seven ecocities already designed and in various stages of development. The concepts of the cities were elaborated in detail in the preceding chapters. New developments claiming to be sustainable and/or ecocities are sprouting up in several countries. In Chapter III we presented four developments: (1) Westergasfabriek Park in Amsterdam, (2) Staten Island Blue Belt in New York, (3) Augustenborg Neighborhood in Malmö, Sweden, and (4) Western Harbor, also in Malmö. Throughout the book we have described several components of the water/stormwater/used water systems of Dongtan, Tianjin and Qingdao in China, Masdar in the UAE, and Dockside Green in British Columbia, Canada. In China, another large (300,000+) new cities are being developed based on water conservation/ecology concepts, in CaoFeiDian on the Pacific coast, about 200 km from Beijing (Ma, 2009), Harbin, Shenyang, Beijing, Chengdu, cluster of cities in the Pearl River Delta, and others to come in the near future in Portugal and the UK.

In 1999, the Swedish Parliament adopted sixteen objectives relating to the qual- ity of Sweden’s environment, and most of them are to be achieved by the year 2020 (Environmental Objectives Council, 2006). The aim is to pass on to the next genera- tion a society in which all major environmental problems have been solved. Among these sixteen goals, three are particularly relevant for the urban wastewater sector: Zero Eutrophication, A Non-Toxic Environment, and A Good Built Environment. Other goals of concern for the urban wastewater sector are Reduced Climate Im- pact, Natural Acidification Only, and Good-Quality Groundwater (Malmqvist and Heinicke, 2007).

1This chapter is coauthored by Eric V. Novotny with a contribution from W.P. Lucey and C. Baraclough and CH2M-Hill Masdar team.

539

Novotny, V., Ahern, J., Brown, P., & Ahern, J. (2010). Water centric sustainable communities : Planning, retrofitting, and building the next urban environment. ProQuest Ebook Central <a onclick=window.open('http://ebookcentral.proquest.com','_blank') href='http://ebookcentral.proquest.com' target='_blank' style='cursor: pointer;'>http://ebookcentral.proquest.com</a> Created from asulib-ebooks on 2020-08-19 20:36:09.

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540 ECOCITIES: EVALUATION AND SYNTHESIS

Zero Eutrophication The main goal is: “Nutrient levels in soil and water must not be such that they adversely affect human health, the conditions for biological diversity or the possibility of varied use of land and water.” Discharges of phospho- rus and nitrogen to the receiving water are a main task for all Swedish wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). Most of them are designed for phosphorus and nitrogen removal (nitrogen removal is required only if more than 10,000 persons are con- nected to the water reclamation (treatment) plant.).

A Non-Toxic Environment The main goal is: “The environment must be free from manmade or extracted compounds and metals that represent a threat to human health or biological diversity.” Of concern to the wastewater sector is the discharge of heavy metals and organic hazardous substances to the receiving water and to soil in case the sludge is used in agriculture.

A Good Built Environment The main goal is: “Cities, towns and other built- up areas must provide a good, healthy living environment and contribute to a good regional and global environment. Natural and cultural assets must be protected and developed. Buildings and amenities must be located and designed in accordance with sound environmental principles and in such a way as to promote sustainable management of land, water and other resources.”

Among the short-term goals are:

� “To promote more efficient energy use, use of renewable energy resources and development of production plants for district heating, solar energy, biofuels and wind power.”

� “The quantity of household waste landfilled, excluding mining waste, will be reduced by at least 50% by 2005 compared with 1994, at the same time as the total quantity of waste generated does not increase.” The first part of the goal has been achieved, the second not (Environmental Objectives Council, 2006).

� “By 2010 at least 35% of food waste from households, restaurants, caterers and retail premises will be recovered by means of biological treatment. This target relates to food waste separated at source for both home composting and centralized treatment.”

� “By 2015 at least 60% of the contents of phosphorus in wastewater will be brought back to productive land, of which at least half will be brought back to agricultural soils.”

China is very serious about bringing ecocity concepts into urban planning and de- velopment of the new urban areas, and so are British Columbia (Canada), the United Kingdom, Sweden, Germany, the Netherlands, and several cities in the U.S. (for example, San Francisco, Chicago, Philadelphia). It has been pointed out that China must build, in the next 25–30 years, urban settlements for about 300 million people. In 2003, the Chinese government proposed building “a conservation-oriented and environmentally-friendly society.” The Chinese Ministry of Environmental

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XI.1 INTRODUCTION 541

Protection issued “Guidelines on building ecological provinces, ecological cities and ecological country” in May 2003 (revised in 2007). The response has been an upsurge in building sustainable cities. However, how to develop actual plans has not been clearly defined (Ma, 2009). Therefore, some renowned ecocity projects in China are planned, developed, and built with foreign partners; for example, Tianjin is a Sino-Singapore joint venture, Dongtan was done with British cooperation, and CaoFeiDian is being done in cooperation with Sweden. Several U.S. universities are also involved in planning and developing Chinese sustainable cities (e.g., University of California, Berkeley; Massachusetts Institute of Technology; and Harvard University).

There are many commonalities to characterize the sustainable (eco) cities that have been updated from the original 20-year-old definition given by University of California, Berkeley, professor Richard Register (1987), and quoted in Chapter II. The following descriptions of the eight developments, plus the abovementioned ad- ditional developments in the Netherlands, Sweden, and British Columbia, Canada, all have these concepts in common:

� Sustainable new (eco) cities are built on lands that might not be suitable for development using traditional criteria. The land is either a brownfield or an arid land. One of the COTF requirements is not converting prime agriculture land or forest into an urban area.

� They are not like Low Impact Development (LID) cities common in the U.S. Typically, they are medium-density multiple-family mixed-use developments which; however, incorporate drainage concepts common to LID (e.g., pervious pavements and rain gardens).

� They are very frugal with water use. � They use less energy; some developments have a net zero carbon footprint. � They recycle and eliminate most or all refuse from landfills. � Vehicular traffic within the city is restricted and/or discouraged; people in the

cities walk or use bikes and have convenient public transportation.

This book has also extensively covered Singapore as the world hub of the newest developments and implementation of the sustainable infrastructure for water recla- mation and reuse. Singapore is approaching sustainability, but in spite of its progres- sive and groundbreaking water management, it is not yet an ecocity. The city-state is in the final phase of heavy water/stormwater/used water infrastructure investments for water reuse and recycle; it is now focusing on softer approaches such as water conservation that includes labeling of appliances based on their water-saving capa- bility (virtual water), collecting and treating urban runoff, stream restoration, and implementing best management practices throughout the watersheds. The per capita water use, according to the statistics of the Ministry of Environment and Water Re- sources, is about 150 liters/capita-day (approaching the ecocity level), and the pro- grams of reducing water use and reuse continue. Singapore has an excellent public transportation system and, because of its small size, the citizens do not drive cars

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542 ECOCITIES: EVALUATION AND SYNTHESIS

excessively. The city is rich with beautiful parks, and one can walk everywhere; hence, the majority of One Planet Living (OPL) criteria would be satisfied. However, the water system relies heavily on massive infrastructure and energy-demanding used water conveyance (in a tunnel), pumping, and conventional activated sludge treat- ment and recycle relying on reverse osmosis without fully compensating energy use by production of renewable solar and wind energy. Because of its tropical climatic conditions, use of electricity is high (about 8000 kWh/capita-year) and almost all electricity is produced by fossil fuel–powered plants (oil). Singapore is capable of developing renewable energy sources at a relatively fast pace.

Such a system, relying on heavy infrastructure, will be difficult to reproduce in most large cities in the world, and it may not be suitable for those located in devel- oping countries. Nevertheless, technology and concepts developed in Singapore are highly applicable to the Cities of the Future, and the city-state is now in the final phases of becoming an ecocity. The last lap could be run in a relatively short time.

The following sections provide more focused and detailed information on eight developments that have the elements of ecological development. The case studies of seven cities were first analyzed and reported by Novotny and Novotny (2009). The description of the Dockside Green development in British Columbia was provided W. P. Lucey and C. Barraclough of Aqua-Tex Scientific Consulting Ltd.

XI.2 CASE STUDIES

XI.2.1 Hammarby Sjöstad, Sweden

Hammarby Sjöstad means “a city surrounding Hammarby Lake.” The city was con- ceived in the early 1990s and was planned originally as part of Stockholm’s bid for the 2004 Summer Olympic Games (which were awarded to Athens, Greece). About 200 ha (480 acres) of old industrial and port brownfields were converted into a mod- ern, sustainable neighborhood. The development has a strong emphasis on water, ecology, and environmental sustainability (Figure 11.1). Once the city is fully built, in 2015, there will be 11,000 residential units for more than 25,000 people. A total of 35,000 people is estimated to live and work in the area. The following informa- tion is taken and adapted from information in published materials about the city (GlashusETT, 2007).

Located on Lake Hammarby Sjö, the waterside environment shaped the project’s infrastructure, planning, and building design into a modern mixed-use urban space. The scheme has attracted international acclaim for the quality of habitat it cre- ated, and convinced many that carbon-neutral development does not require lifestyle changes. The development is linked with Stockholm’s center, including adoption of the contemporary inner city street dimensions, block lengths, building heights, and density. Its mix of uses provides a quality neighborhood.

The use of glass as a core material maximizes sunlight and views of the water and green spaces. The scheme successfully connects the historic landscape with aquatic areas. which act as stormwater drainage and encourage biodiversity, creation of new

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XI.2 CASE STUDIES 543

Figure 11.1 Hammarby Sjöstad with a central canal (Courtesy Malena Karlsson, GlashusEtt).

habitats, informal amenity areas, and formal areas of public open space (Figure 11.2). Sustainability is also enhanced through the use of green roofs, solar panels, and eco- friendly construction products. The city has a fully integrated underground sanitary (separated) waste collection system conveying wastewater to the local district treat- ment and heat recovery plant.

The development has its own ecosystem, known as the Hammarby Model, which also includes a wastewater plant. The “GlashusEtt”, Hammarby Sjöstad’s environ- mental information center, disseminates knowledge to residents and visitors via study trips, exhibitions, and demonstrations of new environmental technologies. Public re- ports by the center (GlashusEtt, 2007, 2009) provide most of the information.

In the early 1880s the area was a popular park, providing enjoyment of nature for the inhabitants of Stockholm. However, in the late 1800s a large bay, a part of the original area, was filled for a planned port. The natural elements of the area were also partially destroyed during the construction of a highway transecting the area. The port was never built, and the original and reclaimed (filled) area was made available for storage depots and industries. However, until 1998 most of the buildings were temporary shantytown structures (Vestbro, 2005).

The industrial operation left the soil contaminated, and the site became a brown- field. Hence, the first step in preparing the land for the Hammarby Sjöstad ecocity development was the monitoring and decontamination or removal of highly contam- inated soil.

The project planners worked with various companies to change the brownfield area into a livable, sustainable habitat to make sure all aspects of clean energy were considered and included. Great emphasis was placed on the importance of

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544 ECOCITIES: EVALUATION AND SYNTHESIS

Figure 11.2 Residential area with a surface stormwater channel (Courtesy Malena Karlsson, GlashusEtt).

collaboration and synergistic thinking between these agencies, each of which had responsibility for a different segment of the system.

Hammarby Sjöstad is a full-scale, living proof that use of clean energy and energy-saving solutions does not have to increase project costs. Table 11.1 presents the basic characteristics and parameters of the city.

Environmental Goals The overall environmental goal of the development is to preserve the existing natural areas as much as possible and create new parks and green areas within the city.

� The city will have at least 15 m2 of green courtyard and 25 to 30 m2 of open courtyard and park space available to each inhabitant of the city. Park area should be available within 300 meters of every apartment building.

� At least 15% of each courtyard should be sunlit for 4–5 hours on sunny days during vernal and fall equinoxes.

� Development of the green public areas shall be compensated by creating biotopes benefiting the biological diversity in the immediate area.

� Natural areas shall be protected from development.

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XI.2 CASE STUDIES 545

Table 11.1 Characterstics and parameters of Hammarby Sjöstad

Location Stockholm, Sweden Area of development 200 ha (480 acres) Population served

Population density 25,000–35,000 when fully developed in 2015 133 inhabitants/ha (56/acre)

Project team Key partners

Lead planners Architect

Water and wastewater

Exploateringskontoret Stockholm Stad and app. 20 different proprietors

Stadsbyggnadskontoret Stadsbyggnadskontoret in cooperation with architects from

the app. 20 other architectural and consulting companies Stockholm Energi, Stockholm Water, and SKAFAB (the

city’s waste recycling company) Contact web site www.hammarbysjostad.se Project cost 20 billion Swedish krones (appr. U.S. $2.4 billion) Type of drainage

Sanitary

Storm runoff and snowmelt

Subsurface (sewers) connected to a centralized on-site experimental treatment plant

Local surface channels and green roofs; stormwater from streets with more than 8000 vehicle/day traffic treated by local BMPs (infiltration, storage, sedimentation)

Renewable energy Solar cells, solar panels Heat extraction from treated wastewater (also converted to

cooling) Buildings green architecture Heat extraction from incineration of combustible solids Biogas production by digestion from organic solid residuals

Water conservation Outside source, in-house water-saving fixtures (low-flushing toilets, low-flow dishwashers, showers; potential gray water reuse)

Wastewater system and management

Linear and centralized (no water reclamation from the central treatment plant), heat recovered by heat pumps

Transportation Light rail and (free) ferry to Stockholm Car pools

Recreation, leisure, sports

Extensive network of foot and bicycle paths, cross-country skiing, downhill ski slope

Sports arena and a cultural center Green areas and nature Extensive, interconnected, natural and man-made; see below

Transportation Hammarby Sjöstad offers the following low-energy transporta- tion alternatives to minimize the energy-demanding use of private cars: (1) light rail connection with Stockholm center, (2) ferry to Stockholm, and (3) car pools. Eighty percent of residents’ and workers’ trips in the city will be by public transportation, by bicycle, or on foot. Private car users are limited to 0.7 parking lots per household.

Approximately one-third of the town’s residents are members of the car pool, whereby two or three people share a car. Most people use the car pool to shop at the supermarket over the weekend. Light rail provides commuting possibilities to

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546 ECOCITIES: EVALUATION AND SYNTHESIS

residents who work in Stockholm center, which is about 15 to 20 minutes away by all means of transport. The water ferry is free between the city and the nearest subway stop. There are also several bus lines in the city.

Integrated Planning The goal of the integrated planning was to create a residen- tial environment based on sustainable resource use, where energy consumption and waste production would be minimized, and resource and energy savings maximized. This is accomplished by:

� Heat energy extracted from treated used water by heat pumps and used for heating and cooling

� Heat energy extracted from water solids by incineration � Biogas from digestion of organic sludge and solids � Biosolids for soil conditioning from digested sludge and other organic solids � Solid waste recovery and recycle � Surface stormwater management and treatment

Table 11.2 lists the components of integrated resource recovery management. The goal is to reduce the per capita water use to100 liters/capita-day by conservation measures, which is about one-half of the current average water use in Sweden.

Table 11.2 Components of integrated management (GlashusEtt, 2007)

Energy Water and Sewage Solid Waste

−Combustible waste is converted into heating and electricity in the city incinerator.

−Biodegradable waste is converted into biofuel and subsequently into heat and electricity.

−Solar cells convert solar energy into electricity. Solar panels use solar energy to heat water.

−Good heat insulation, southern exposure, solar panels, and building materials reduce the energy demand.

−Water consumption is reduced through the eco-friendly installations, low-flush toilets, and air mixer taps.

−A pilot used water treatment plant was built to treat separated sanitary used water and to research treatment technologies.

−Digestion extracts biogas from the sewage sludge.

−Digested solids are used for fertilization.

−Rainwater is drained via surface paths to the lake.

−Local BMPs are used for treatment of polluted street runoff.

−An automated waste disposal system with three deposit chutes, a block-based system of recycling rooms, and an area-based environmental station sorts and disposes the waste.

−Organic waste is converted/digested into biosolids and used as fertilizer.

−Combustible waste is converted into electricity and heating.

−All recyclable materials are sent for recycling.

−Hazardous waste is incinerated or recycled.

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XI.2 CASE STUDIES 547

The area has an experimental on-site centralized wastewater treatment and re- source recovery treatment plant (no water is reclaimed currently from the plant for reuse), officially opened in 2003. The plant, receiving only sanitary sewage flows, reduces the nitrogen level in the effluent to below a standard of 6 mg/L and recovers 95% of phosphorus for reuse on agricultural lands. The phosphorus concentration in the effluent is expected to be below 0.15 mg/L.

Landscape Architecture The street dimensions, block lengths, building heights, density, and usage mix were designed to take advantage of water views, parks, and sunlight. Restricted building depths, setbacks, balconies and terraces, large glass areas, and green roofs are the main features.

Landscape architecture planning is crucial in the implementation of surface storm drainage. Stormwater from the developed area is infiltrated, routed on the surface in channels into three surface canals transecting the city.

A green avenue links the city district’s public green spaces, creating a green cor- ridor running through the southern part of the city. The parks are also linked to the nature conservancy and forests. Most predevelopment natural areas have been pre- served, and new nature areas around the shoreline (former brownfield areas) were recreated.

Solid Waste Recycling Solid waste management is conducted on three levels: (1) domestic, building source–based, (2) block-based, and (3) area-based:

At the source, solid waste is separated into combustibles, food waste, and paper (newspapers, catalogues, etc.). Wastes are deposited into three color-marked chutes or bins (Figure 10.13).

The block-level depository room receives other solid waste such as glass, plastic and metal packaging, bulky items (e.g., furniture), electrical and electronic waste (light bulbs, small batteries, fluorescent lights), and textiles, which are deposited in special recycling depository rooms.

The area-based depository facilities receive potentially toxic wastes—such as paint, solvents, and large batteries—that cannot be deposited with the other block-level waste or poured into household drains. These wastes are separated and handled at the hazardous waste collection location.

Combustible wastes are recycled as heat and converted into electricity in an in- cinerator located in South Stockholm. Food waste is composted into soil along with the sludge residuals after sludge digestion and methane extraction. The biosolids are currently used in the surrounding forest, and the application will be expanded also to farmland.

Newspapers and similar items are delivered to paper-recycling enterprises. Metals are recycled; some other discarded bulky items (e.g., furniture) are incin- erated. Noncombustible and nonreusable solid waste is disposed of in landfills. Haz- ardous waste is either incinerated or recycled.

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548 ECOCITIES: EVALUATION AND SYNTHESIS

The city uses a sophisticated automated waste disposal system that conveys the source-based waste into underground tanks, separated for each type of waste, from which the waste is emptied by vacuum into large collection vehicles and delivered for processing.

Health and Social Well-Being The city strives to be a healthy place, to stim- ulate the body and soul by providing ample opportunities for exercise, sports, and culture. It has numerous foot and bicycle paths, a slalom ski slope, a sports hall, and a nature reserve. Cultural outlets include a social and cultural center and a library. It offers tuition for students and adults to engage in art classes.

Summary The Swedish traditional urban and suburban housing model is different from the prevalent model in the U.S. Swedish suburbs mainly contain large blocks of apartment houses, not the detached single-family units typical for U.S. suburban developments. Also, the central city developments prefer a high-density habitat that provides better conditions for local services and lively streets. This policy of higher density resulted in more households per 10,000 inhabitants than anywhere else in the world (Vestbro, 2005). At the time of planning Hammarby Sjöstad, virtually all major political parties in Sweden supported the traditional high-density development concepts. This resulted in the planners’ opting for a compromise between the sub- urban and urban concepts. The average population density in Hammarby Sjöstad is 133 inhabitants/ha, which is in between the typical suburban density in Sweden of 34 inhabitants/ha and that in the central city, which ranges between 163 and 273 inhabitants/ha. It was pointed out in Chapter X that higher-density developments are more environmentally friendly and have a smaller carbon footprint than typical suburban developments. A “compacted” city with good transportation and other ser- vices such as recreation, shopping, and the like, reduces the demand for private car ownership.

The ecocity is still based on the linear water utilization model, and water recla- mation and reuse are not included.

The Hammarby Sjöstad goal, model, and reality document that energy and water use can be halved in comparison to standard Swedish urban settings, even when con- sidering the fact that typical Hammarby apartments are larger and more illuminated (with light provided by oversized windows) than a typical flat in the Stockholm area (Vestbro, 2005).

The city development promotes a sustainable lifestyle and serves as a laboratory for sustainable development. In this sense, Hammarby Sjöstad is the first city built on ecological principles that broke the barrier preventing sustainable urban devel- opment. It uses modernistic and advanced 20th-century principles and concepts. It is a true lower impact development without the drawbacks typical for some other “low impact” developments that result in low-density developments in rural subur- ban areas. Hammarby does not incorporate some key 21st-century principles such as closed-loop or water/stormwater/wastewater management or wind power. How- ever, because Sweden is rich with water resources and has low population density, the closed water loop criterion of sustainability may not be as critical as in ecocity

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XI.2 CASE STUDIES 549

development in water-deficient areas, and wind power can be relatively easily in- stalled to further reduce energy use from the city fossil fuel power plant. The envi- ronmental, social, and economic benefits are balanced.

XI.2.2 Dongtan, China

Introduction Dongtan, planned near Shanghai, China, is apparently one of the first comprehensive conceptual ecocity design and has changed the direction in which ecocities are going. Phase I, a demonstration settlement for 5000–10,000 inhabitants, was to be ready for opening at the time of the Shanghai International World Expo in 2010. The Exposition follows traditional World Fairs held at the beginning of each decade throughout the world. Because of the theme of the exposition, “Better City– Better Life,” the Dongtan development was implicitly assumed to be one of the main attractions for visitors, and was to represent Shanghai, a megacity with 19 million inhabitants (2009), as a 21st-century major economic and cultural center (Langellier and Pedroletti, 2006).

Dongtan was planned to be at the eastern tip of Chongming Island at the mouth of the Yangtze River (Figure 11.3), in the middle of a designated nature reserve with outstanding biodiversity. Chongming is the third-largest island in China (at 1200 km2

or 120,000 ha), and its principal land use has been agriculture, rice farming (Figure 11.4). Chongming Island contains vast environmentally sensitive wetlands that are home to migratory birds flying all the way from Siberia to Australia. The natural resource value is very high (SIIC, 2003). The location of the proposed city on the island is about 40 kilometers from downtown Shanghai, and in 2008 was ac- cessible only by ferry. A bridge and tunnel, opened in 2009, shorten the commute from Shanghai from 3 hours to about 45 minutes, but it also shortens the commute to Shanghai to less than 1 hour, meaning, if the city is built in one form or another, many people living in the city will be commuting to Shanghai and not developing the local economy.

Figure 11.3 Dongtan Phase I (South Village) Location (Source: Arup).

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550 ECOCITIES: EVALUATION AND SYNTHESIS

Figure 11.4 The site of Dongtan, Chongming Island, comprises large naturalistic wetlands and agriculture.

The contract for the project was awarded to the Shanghai Industrial Invest- ment Corporation (SIIC), a state-owned developer, in 1999. SIIC appointed Arup, a British-based urban planning consultancy, to design Dongtan. The contract was signed in London in November 1999 at 10 Downing Street (the British prime min- ister’s office) in the presence of the former prime minister, Tony Blair, and the vis- iting Chinese president, Hu Jintao. Construction was supposed to begin in 2008 and the demonstration Phase I development for about 10,000 inhabitants finished by the time of the World Exhibition. The final population, in about 2050, was planned to be 500,000. The commitment to British–Chinese cooperation for the development of ecocities in China was reconfirmed by the former prime minister, Gordon Brown.

However, the realization of the Dongtan vision has stalled, mainly for political reasons, including the inability of the SIIC to obtain the necessary permits after a primary government mover for the project on the Chinese side was deposed in 2006. The outlook is uncertain, and the start-up of construction has been indefinitely post- poned (Moore, 2008; Anon, 2009a). Nevertheless, because of the pioneering nature of the Dongtan concepts and the possibility that it might be built later, either at the original location or somewhere else in China, it has been included in this book.

How Big, and How Many People? Arup’s approach is pioneering and ini- tiated the new paradigm of ecocity building that was then adapted by other ecoc- ity developments. However, although the city design is extremely water centric, the main architectural functions of the canals and lagoons within the development are

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XI.2 CASE STUDIES 551

aesthetics, recreation, and transportation. In other words, Arup architects decided to create another Venice (Italy) with all the characteristics of a Venice type of city (Figures 11.3 and 10.1), including parking only outside the city, but based on the Chinese thousand-year-old tradition of several historic water cities of their own. It is also necessary to consider the flooding potential, exacerbated by global warming, because the alluvial Chongming Island has very low elevation and is geologically unstable, like the 128 wetland alluvial islets forming Venice. The ecological and hy- drological functions and benefits of the water bodies have not been fully addressed on a macroscale, but implicitly assumed and incorporated into a potpourri of various reuse, recycle, and infiltration measures incorporated in the landscape design. Arup has not used a comprehensive hydrological and ecological model to assess and de- sign the overall macroscale impact of the city (Stanley Yip, Arup-China Director of Planning, personal communication).

Because the foundation conditions on the island did not allow high-rises, Arup settled on a range of four- to eight-story buildings across the city. The combination of such buidings allowed for passive energy savings from sun and ocean breezes, as well as for implementation of solar panels, voltaics, and small wind turbines (Figure 11.5). The result was that the population could be increased to about 500,000 on less than 10% of the island area, thus leaving ample space for wetlands, nature, and sustainable agriculture.

Characteristics The water centric nature of the city is inspired less by Venice than by the thousand-year-old Chinese traditions of their own water cities located in the Yangtze River delta and elsewhere along the Yangtze River (e.g., WuXi), with

Figure 11.5 Architectural rendering of the East Village and the lagoon, showing the medium- height (4–8 story) buildings with solar panels and vertical wind turbines surrounding the lake (Picture provided by Arup).

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552 ECOCITIES: EVALUATION AND SYNTHESIS

canals, ponds, arched bridges, and water transporation, although the concepts are very similar. Arup’s landscape architect, Alejandro Gutierrez, created flood cells within the city, so that if Dongtan were hit by a once-in-a-century storm, the sea- water would stay in a single cell. At the water’s edge, instead of a high levee, a gentle hill would recede into a wide wetland basin—a park, bird habitat, and natural storm barrier would be created.

Regarding energy, the designers located the energy (electricity and heat) produc- ing plant in the center of the city to efficiently distribute heat to the buildings. As an energy source, the city would use rice husks, abundantly produced by the agriculture on the island. In addition, a big wind farm, conversion of waste sludge into biogas, and numerous smaller contributions to the grid—including photovoltaic panels and small wind turbines—were planned. Dongtan would receive 100% of its energy from renewable sources within 20 years after Phase I.

The city’s sustainability influence would also extend to suburban agricuture, which would be mostly organic and use treated effluent for irrigation. Most of the food would be produced on the island. The features of the city are summarized in Table 11.3, as follows (Head and Lawrence, 2008; Arup, 2008; Urban Agent, 2008):

Energy:

� Energy demand in Dongtan would be substantially lower than in comparable conventional new cities. Dongtan ecocity aims to have: � 60% smaller ecological footprint

Table 11.3 Dongtan characteristics

Project Dongtan New City Construction start date Indefinitely postponed Anticipated completion phases Final (500,000 pop.) by 2050 Location Chongming Island, 40 km from Shanghai Island size 1200 km2 (120,000 ha) Dongtan city size 86 km2 (8600 ha) Connection to Shanghai Bridge and tunnel completed in 2009 Travel time to Shanghai 45 minutes Project built-up size 30 km2 (3000 ha) Target total population 500,000 Population density 160 people/ha Developer Shanghai Industrial Investment Corporation (SIIC) Design and master plan Arup, Shanghai (Stanley Yip Cho-Tat, Director) Financing HSBC and Sustainable Development Capital LLP Cost estimate $1.3 billion for Phase II 80,000 population Water/wastewater management Centralized, partially closed cycle (water reclaimed

from wastewater will be reused for toilet flushing and irrigation)

Arup web site http://www.arup.com/eastasia/project.cfm?pageid= 7047

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� 66% reduction in energy demand � 40% energy from bio-energy � 100% renewable energy for buildings and on-site transport

� If Dongtan is completed, the energy used within the city would not add to the level of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. This would be accomplished by: � Energy in the form of electricity, heat, and fuel would be provided entirely

by renewable means. � In buildings, this would be achieved by specifying high thermal performance

and using energy-efficient equipment and appliances to encourage building users to save energy.

� Transportation energy demand would be reduced by eliminating the need for a high proportion of motorized travel, and judicious choice of energy- efficient vehicles.

� Energy supply would be via a local grid, and electricity and heat would be supplied by: � A combined heat and power (CHP) plant located in the center of the city

that runs on biomass of rice husks, which are the waste products of local rice mills.

� A wind farm. � Biogas extracted from the digestion of municipal solid waste and sewage. � Electricity would also be generated in buildings using photovoltaic cells and

micro wind turbines. � Some of the electricity generated would be used to charge the batteries of elec-

trically powered vehicles or to produce hydrogen for vehicle fuel cells. � A key feature of energy management in Dongtan would be the level of in-

formation provided to consumers to encourage them to conserve energy by means such as smart metering and financial incentives. A visitors’ center lo- cated close to the energy center would explain how cities can be sustainable in energy terms.

Resource and Water/Waste Management:

� Two water networks would provide water throughout the city: one that supplies drinking water to kitchens and another that supplies reclaimed treated wastew- ater for toilet flushing and landscape and farm irrigation.

� Approximate water use for the city (80,000 population) was estimated as 16,5000 m3/day, or 200 L/cap-day, of which 43% would be reclaimed.

� The design aims to collect 100% of all waste within the city and to recover up to 90% of collected waste.

� Waste is considered to be a resource; most of the city’s waste would be recycled, and organic waste would be used as biomass for energy production.

� Waste to landfill would be reduced 83%. There would be no landfills in the city.

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554 ECOCITIES: EVALUATION AND SYNTHESIS

Ecological Management of Wetlands:

� The delicate nature of the Dongtan wetlands and the adjacent sites for migrating birds and wildlife has been one of the driving factors of the city’s design.

� The existing wetlands would be enhanced by returning agricultural land to a wetland state, to create a “buffer zone” between the city and the protected coastal wetlands.

� Only around 40% of the land area of the Dongtan site would be dedicated to built-up urban areas, and the city’s design aims to prevent pollutants (light, sound, emissions, and water discharges) from reaching the adjacent wetland areas.

Sustainability:

� A combination of traditional and innovative building technologies would re- duce energy requirements of buildings by around 66%, saving 350,000 tons of CO2 per year for the start-up area.

� All housing would be within seven minutes’ walk of public transport and have easy access to social infrastructure such as hospitals, schools, and work.

� Although some may choose to commute to Shanghai for work, there would be local employment for the majority of people who live in Dongtan, across all social and economic demographics. By means of effective policy incentives, companies would be attracted to Dongtan, and people would choose to live and work in the city.

� Dongtan would produce sufficient electricity and heat for its own use, entirely from renewable sources. Within the city, there would be practically no emis- sions from vehicles—vehicles would be battery- or fuel cell–powered.

� Farmland within the Dongtan site would use organic farming methods to grow food for the inhabitants of the city; nutrients and soil conditioning would be used together with processed city waste.

� The development of techniques that increase the organic production of veg- etable crops would mean that no more farmland would be required than is available within the boundaries of the site.

Buildings and Architecture:

� Where possible, labor and materials would be obtained locally to reduce the transport and energy costs associated with construction.

� A combination of traditional and innovative building technologies would re- duce the energy requirements of buildings by up to 70%.

� Public transportation with reduced air and noise pollution would enable build- ings to be naturally ventilated, and in turn reduce the demand on energy.

� Buildings with green roofs would improve insulation and water filtration and provide potential storage for irrigation or waste disposal.

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� The compact city design would reduce infrastructure costs and improve the amenity and energy efficiency of public transportation systems as well.

� The original three villages would be retained and form the historic city center. � The city would contain 20% affordable housing. � No building would be higher than eight stories. � Dongtan would be a water centric city where lakes and canals would be the

focus of the city, used for enjoyment, recreation, and transportation.

Transportation:

� Dongtan would be a city linked by a combination of bicycle paths, pedestrian routes, and varied modes of public transportation, including buses and water taxis. � All housing is to be within a seven-minute walk of public transportation;

walking and bicycling would be promoted. � Public transportation by hydrogen fuel–cell buses and solar-powered water

taxis would be provided. � Businesses, schools, hospitals, and other public facilities should also be

easily accessible. � Vehicular parking would be allowed only outside the city.

� Improved accessibility in Dongtan would reduce travel distances by 1.9 million kilometers, reducing CO2 emissions by 400,000 tons per year.

� Canals, lakes, and marinas would permeate the city, providing a variety of recreation and transport opportunities.

� Visitors would park their cars outside the city and use public transportation within the city.

� Public transportation with reduced air and noise pollution would enable build- ings to be naturally ventilated, and in turn reduce the demand on energy.

The Current Situation and the Future Barriers. Arup’s original plan envi- sioned that in 2010 about 5000 to 10,000 people would live in the demonstration site, at the time Shanghai hosted the World Expo. Apparently this did not happen; the project is suspended, but not canceled. A new bridge/tunnel, opened in 2009, connects the island site with the Shanghai mainland. Obviously, the major barrier to the realization of Dongtan is the political situation in Shanghai, and now there is potential pressure to develop Chongming Island as a traditional suburban car-based community. Another barrier could be the fragile nature of the island wetland ecology and its low elevation, with the potential of increased tidal and typhoon flooding.

Arup envisioned Dongtan as a vibrant city with green “corridors” of public space ensuring a high quality of life for residents. The city was designed to attract employ- ment locally across all social and economic demographics, in the hope that people would choose to live and work there.

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556 ECOCITIES: EVALUATION AND SYNTHESIS

“Dongtan is designed to be a beautiful and truly sustainable city with a mini- mal ecological footprint. The goal is to use Dongtan as a template for future urban design. As China is planning to build no less than 400 new cities in the next twenty years, Dongtan’s success is of crucial importance.” (World Business Council of Sus- tainable Development, quoted in Urban Agent, 2008)

XI.2.3 Qingdao (China) Ecoblock and Ecocity

Ecoblocks The ecoblock concepts were developed by the team of Dean Harrison Fraker of the University of California College of Environmental Design specifically for urban developments in China. China’s current rapid pace of urban development consists of so called super blocks (Fraker, 2006, 2008). A super block is a typical high-rise residential development in China, usually 100–200 ha (240–480 acres) in an area with 2000 to 10,000 residential units housing 6000 to 30,000 people. China is now building 10–15 super blocks a day. A super block is a traditional unsustain- able development relying heavily on municipal services for power, potable water, wastewater and stormwater conveyance (sewers), centralized wastewater treatment, and solid waste collection and disposal.

In contrast, an ecoblock is a city block much smaller than a super block. It is self-sustained and semi-independent in its water and energy needs. It generates its own energy from renewable sources, harvests rainwater, produces its own water, and processes and reclaims its wastewater. It is a module that can be repeated many times to form an ecocity or a part of thereof. Unlike the IRMC (water centric cluster) it is not connected to, nor does it rely on, natural or restored water bodies, with the ex- ception of constructed wetlands that treat wastewater. In water-rich urban areas (e.g., Dongtan), landscape architects may include water bodies for enjoyment and recre- ation. However, the size of the ecoblock is relatively small, and conceivably it could be shaped and fitted into the local topography and natural environment. Fundamen- tals of the ecoblock and the history of its development and application in China are described in Fraker (2006).

A typical standardized ecoblock has 600 units on 3.5 hectares and would house 1500–1800 residents. A layout of the ecoblock is shown in Figure 11.6. The Qing- dao ecoblock includes several 5- to 7-story townhouses, six 12-story tower blocks, and four 24-story tower blocks arranged around a green courtyard. Limited under- ground and on-street parking is intended to encourage walking, biking, and public transportation. The maximum time to reach public transportation by walking should be less than 15 minutes.

Ecoblock Characteristics Energy: The components and concepts of energy reduction and self-sufficiency in the ecoblock are (Fraker, 2008):

1. The best techniques for energy conservation, such as: � Insulation � Passive solar energy capture by windows

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XI.2 CASE STUDIES 557

Figure 11.6 Plan and view of the ecoblock module (Courtesy: H. Fraker, U.C. Berkeley, and Arup).

� Natural ventilation and daylighting � Energy-efficient home appliances and lights These technologies can reduce the energy demand of a unit by as much as 40%.

2. Renewable energy sources: � Vertical axis wind turbines on the tops of tall buildings (30%) � Building-integrated roof and canopy photovoltaics on the lower buildings,

which would both generate electric energy and provide shading (21%) � Building-integrated solar water heaters (3%) � Bioconversion of sewage sludge, kitchen solid waste, and organic yard

waste, by a two-phase anaerobic digestion process, into methane running a backup generator (6%)

3. Shared plug-in hybrid cars

Water Dual closed-loop water, stormwater, and wastewater recycling and reuse system. A conceptual plot of a dual system proposed for the Qingdao ecoblock was shown in Figures 6.5 and 7.17. Figurs 7.17 was modified to remove direct

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558 ECOCITIES: EVALUATION AND SYNTHESIS

potable reuse. Reducing water demand and instituting water reclamation would be achieved by:

1. Increased efficiency of water use, providing a 35% reduction of typical water use (160 liters/capita-day), includes: � Xeriscape of the green areas, reducing need for irrigation water � Using reclaimed water for irrigation � Low-flow fixtures in the units (dishwashers, washing machines, faucets) � Toilet flushing with reclaimed water

2. Recycling water in a dual system, one for gray water and the other for potable water, would provide 50% reduction. � Gray water from bathroom sinks, showers, and washing machines would be

collected; conveyed for physical treatment by settling, aeration, reverse os- mosis, and UV disinfection; and then returned into the potable water cycle. Sludge would be pumped into the biogas digester.

� The gray water cycle would be supplemented by make-up potable water from the municipal system, representing about 15% of the total water use, to replace the losses by evaporation and to control buildup of nonremovable pollutants in the system (e.g., pharmaceutical residues and inorganic solids such as salt). Potable water would be pumped into hot and cold water tanks and distributed to the tenants.

� Black wastewater from toilets and kitchen sinks would be conveyed to bio- logical treatment by batch reactors and then discharged into wetlands. After subsurface flow wetland treatment it would be collected into large commu- nal reservoirs, where it would be mixed with rainwater and thereafter reused, after UV disinfection, for landscape irrigation, toilet flushing, and washing machines.

� Impervious surfaces would be limited mostly to roofs. Rainwater would be harvested and directed to cisterns from which water would be pumped after UV disinfection for toilet flushing and laundry. Pervious pavement would be used on all streets and paths to enhance groundwater recharge. Ground- water would also be pumped and either added to the cisterns with harvested rainwater or directly used for irrigation.

Assembling an Ecocity The Qingdao ecocity would consist of 16 ecoblocks (Figures 11.7 and 11.8). The city would be connected to the public transportation station and the main road. The commercial center would be located around the sta- tion. The city would have central surface and subsurface reservoirs and energy re- covery (digestion) units. Used and locally treated black water would be conveyed to the reservoirs via the constructed wetlands. Rainwater collected from roofs and pave- ments would be treated by grass biofilters (swale) and conveyed to the reservoirs.

The system includes proven technologies; however, the creators of the ecocity, in their video of the Qingdao plan (Green Dragon Media Project, 2008), pointed out

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Figure 11.7 Architectural rendering of the ecoblocks in the Qingdao ecocity (Courtesy Profes- sor Harrison Fraker, University of California, Berkeley).

Figure 11.8 Schematic of the Qingdao ecocity, consisting of 16 ecoblocks. The number in each ecoblock represents the number of units. Based on the Green Dragon Media Project (2008) video.

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560 ECOCITIES: EVALUATION AND SYNTHESIS

that the new ecological and sustainable urban concepts would provide incentives for new and better technologies for water saving and reuse as well as renewable energy that would be less costly. It was estimated that the capital cost of such developments would be about 15% more than the conventional super block development in China.

Barriers. Schlaikjer (2007) discussed the social and economic barriers to the ecoblock and ecocity developments in China, acknowledging that:

1. Clean technologies are still expensive.

2. It would be difficult for foreign and Chinese firms to collaborate, which would be necessary in order to develop and reinforce responsible business practices.

3. The idea of a “gated community,” though having historic precedent in the “for- bidden city” (Fraker, 2006), does not always appeal to local cultural attitudes and norms.

4. The incentives to build and operate “green” cities are not always evident at the onset.

Similarly to Dongtan, the construction phase of the Qingdao ecocity is uncer- tain but the concepts of the ecoblock decentralized water/used water management is sound and was applied in Tianjin (Personal communication of Prof. Fraker to the primary author) and most likely other Chinese cities. It is applicable for retrofitting the medium to high density urban zones typical of central and east European cities and also many megalopolis of the developing world.

XI.2.4 Tianjin (China)

Overview On October 28, 2008, a groundbreaking ceremony attended by Chinese and Singapore government officials and media celebrated the start of construction of one of the first ecocities in China, the Tianjin ecocity. The site of the new city development is about 150 kilometers southeast of Beijing and 40 kilometers from historic Tianjin City (population about 12.3 million in 2009), which is the center of the Tianjin region and the largest port city in northeast China (Figure 11.9). The city is part of a huge regional development of the Tianjin–Binhai New Area (TBNA) that would include several industrial parks, manufacturing (e.g., Airbus airplane produc- tion), several science and commercial centers, a port, and recreational tourist zones. The building of the ecocity would be based on an international treaty signed by Pre- mier Wen Jiabao of the China State Council and Singaporean Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong one year earlier. The Sino-Singapore Tianjin ecocity would use Singa- porean advanced experience and leadership in sustainable urban planning, environ- mental protection, resource conservation, circular economy, ecological construction, renewable energy utilization, reclaimed water usage, and sustainable development. The overall goals of the projects should comply with “three harmonies,” namely the harmony between (1) people and people (social), (2) people and the economy, and (3) people and the environment, which would be the same goal as balancing the triple bottom line (TBL) component of sustainability. Both governments consider the

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562 ECOCITIES: EVALUATION AND SYNTHESIS

Table 11.4 Characteristics and parameters of the Tianjin ecocity

Location Tianjin region 150 km southeast of Beijing Area of development 30 km2 Phase I, 4 km2

Population served Population density

350,000 Phase I, 30,000 117 inhabitants/ha (49/acre)

Project team Key partners Lead planners

Architect Developers

Water and wastewater

Governments of China and Singapore China Academy of Urban Planning and Design; Tianjin

Urban Planning and Design Institute; Singapore Urban Development Authority

Sino-Singapore Tianjin Eco City Investment and Development Co., Ltd; Arup

Arup, China; Siemens Contact web site www.tianjinecocity.gov.sg Project cost 50 billion yuan (U.S. $9.7 billion) Type of drainage

Sanitary Storm runoff and

snowmelt

Subsurface (sewers) connected to a centralized on-site treatment plant; distributed system considered for future expansions

Local surface channels, rainwater capture, and recycling Renewable energy Solar cells, solar panels, wind energy capture, 15% energy

use from renewable sources Buildings green architecture Biogas production by digestion from organic solid residuals

Water conservation Water reuse, in-house water-saving fixtures (low-flushing toilets, low-flow washing machines, showers; potential gray water reuse)

Wastewater system and management

Closed system but centralized in the first phase Extensive water reclamation in the treatment plants for landscape irrigation and in-house use

Ecoblocks considered Transportation Light rail to Binhai and Tianjin City, 90% of all trips by

public transportation, on foot, or by bicycle No restriction on the use of private cars; the incentive to

reduce car use: excellent and easily accessible public transporation, walkways and bike paths linking homes, shops, and public facilities

Recreation, leisure, sports

Extensive network of foot and bicycle paths, cultural center

Green areas and nature Extensive, interconnected, natural and man-made; extensive water-based recreation, proximity of large recreation zone

Tianjin ecocity as a model for other cities in China and the world. The parameters of the Sino-Singapore Tianjin ecocity are summarized in Table 11.4.

After the signing of the treaty in 2007, the “Master Plan of Sino-Singapore Tianjin Eco-city” was developed by the design groups from the China Academy of Urban Planning and Design, the Tianjin Urban Planning & Design Institute, and the Urban Redevelopment Authority of Singapore. In order to expedite the project, the site

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XI.2 CASE STUDIES 563

selection had to minimize the land acquisition process and legal procedures, save productive land and water, enable resource recycling, and encourage independent innovation. Consequently, the project has intentionally been placed in a water-short area with salty land, scarce vegetation, desert, unfavorable natural conditions, and fragile ecology.

The sources of the information on the Tianjin ecocity are the web sites listed in the References section. plans for the city and its water management draw heavily on the Singapore experience, where such technologies have already been successfully implemented on a large scale. Figure 11.10 shows the architectural rendering of the Tianjin ecocity. It can be seen that the city would be divided into (eco) blocks. The smallest block unit has an area of 400 × 400 meters (16 ha or 38.4 acres). Harrison Fraker (Clean Energy, 2008) has testified that Tianjin would also include the Qing- dao ecoblocks, which are self-contained smaller ecoblocks with 600 units that have their own water reclamation and energy recovery program (see Qingdao ecoblocks in preceding section).

The city will have residential areas; protected historic-cultural districts; urban sur- face water bodies specified in the plan, including rivers, lakes, reservoirs, dykes, and

Figure 11.10 Architectural rendering of the Tianjin ecocity located on the Jiyun River. The city will be developed on both sides of the river. This is the original concept of the city in 2009. In 2010 planners were changing the city configuration.

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wetlands; urban infrastructure influencing the overall urban development; and trans- portation facilities such as railway, light railway, and subway.

The city will feature an “eco-valley,” which is the main north–south green con- nector in the city. The city site will retain a large ecological wetland, set aside habitat for birds’ migration, and preserve the former watercourse of the Jiyun Canal to guar- antee the smooth connection of Jiyun County Natural Reserve in the north to Binhai Bay Corridor and to form a regional ecological network with rivers as its arteries. It will be a water centric ecocity emphasizing the proximity and aesthetic functions of surface water bodies.

Overall Goals The selection of the site was based on the requirement that no agricultural or other natural land would be used. The site consists of wasteland such as salt pan (deserted beach). One-third of the area consists of polluted water bodies, including a 270-ha waste pond. The polluted sites are being decontaminated and cleaned up. Another goal would be to restore the water quality of the Jiyun River, which transects the future city (Figure 11.10).

The environmental goals for the city were formulated using 26 key performance indicators based on the Chinese and Singapore national standards. The most impor- tant indicators are (www.tianjinecocity.gov.sg):

� Ambient air quality: at least Grade II China national standards � Tap water quality: potable � GHG emissions/unit of GDP: ≤150 tons of carbon/U.S. 1 million GDP � Proportion of green buildings: 100% � Transportation: 90% of all trips in the form of green trips (nonmotorized trans-

port, cycling, and walking) and public transportation � Proportion of affordable housing: 20% subsidized � Usage of renewable energy: 15% of the total energy use � Water use: not to exceed 160 liters/capita-day � Sources of water: 50% from desalination (high energy use) and rainwater and

50% recycled water (see Figure 6.6) � Employment generated: 50% of the ecocity residents to be employed within the

ecocity

Integrated Resource Recovery System

Water Use and Reuse Figure 6.6 in Chapter VI is a representation of the wa- ter and energy recovery system. The primary sources of water are desalinated water and rainwater. These sources would constitute more than 50% of water used in the city. An extensive system of rainfall collection and sewage reuse would be estab- lished, relying heavily on the landscape. The city will have centralized used water treatment and recycling, and would develop and utilize nonconventional water

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resources such as recycled water and desalinated seawater, in multiple channels, to improve the use proportion of nonconventional water resources. It would implement a reasonable and scientifically based water supply infrastructure that would reduce the need for conventional water resources. It will intensify the ecological rehabili- tation and reconstruction of the surface water systems, which will be used also as a source of water in the recycle system, collect and use rainfall in the rainy season, strengthen groundwater resource conservation, and construct a favorable aquatic eco- environment connected to the Jiyun River.

Energy The city will rely on a mix of renewable and conventional energy sources that would be linked together. The plan envisions that at least 15% of energy would be from renewable sources. Traditional energy sources would be “clean coal” and other high-quality fuels. However, some may argue that from the standpoint of GHG emissions, there is no such thing as “clean coal.” To reduce the influence on the environment, the plan forbids the use of high polluting fuels such as non-clean coal and other low-quality fuels. The proportion of clean energies would reach 100%. All buildings will use green energy conservation technologies and will be built according to the green building standards.

Heat pump technology will reclaim heat and electricity from wastewater and electricity, and will also be generated extensively by solar panels, wind turbines, geothermal energy, and methane generated by the anaerobic digester. During the ini- tial phases, the ecocity willd draw waste heat from a nearby major power plant.

Culture, Leisure, Education The city would provide ample opportunities for land- and water-based recreation: beaches, boating, walking, and biking. There are several coastal wetland nature areas that provide habitat for water fowl.

A university would be planned for the city, which would focus on environmen- tal science and technology. The Tianjin–Binhai New Area would have many large research centers and other institutions of higher leaning.

Summary Barriers. The system will be modeled after the Singapore water recla- mation closed system, which is not distributed.

The plan features a partially closed hydrologic cycle system with extensive reuse of reclaimed water from the central treatment plant. The city planners intend to in- corporate Qingdao’s “ecoblocks,” which are almost fully carbon-neutral (Harrison Fraker, personal communication). Most likely in the final outcome the city may be a hybrid between a centralized resource (water and solid waste) and energy management system and a decentralized rainwater-harvesting and local renewable energy–generating system.

The price tag of $9.7 billion for the city may change, as new elements may be in- corporated in the future. Considering the average family size in China is fewer than three people, and subtracting about 20% for commercial, transportation, government, and education infrastructure, the cost of one flat would be about $60,000–70,000, which would be on the high side but still reasonable in Chinese economic conditions,

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Figure 11.11 Artistic representations of Masdar City (Courtesy Shamma Al Muhari, Masdar).

especially in the higher income TBNA development region. Twenty percent of hous- ing units will be subsidized.

The city development is on a wasteland with no resources except coastal wetlands that would be preserved. The site also has meager freshwater resources, and make- up water is only available from desalination and rainwater and eventually from the cleaned up and created water bodies. In the Tianjin area, rainfall is low and occurs only during two to three months in an average year. The city will be a habitat for many people working in theTianjin–Binhai New Area, but it will also provide many employment opportunities for its residents within the city.

XI.2.5 Masdar (UAE)1

Overview Masdar City in the Emirate of Abu Dhabi, capital of the United Arab Emirates (Figure 11.11 and 11.12), is about 17 kilometers from Abu Dhabi island and close to the Abu Dhabi International Airport. It is also about 1 hour driving dis- tance from Dubai. The city development is seed funded by the government of Abu Dhabi through Masdar, a wholly owned subsidiary of the Mubadala Development Company, and was designed by the British architectural firm Fosters & Partners. CH2M-Hill is the main strategic partner contractor for water, used water, reuse, energy, information communication technologies, public realm, and solid waste man- agement. With expansion carefully planned, the land surrounding the city’s built en- vironment may contain waste management facilities, energy farms, research fields,

1 Masdar section was revised and prepared by CH2M-Hill Masdar team.

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Figure 11.12 Layout of city with space allocation outside of the populated areas (Courtesy Masdar)

plantations and dense green spaces. The city is being built and designed to address the “One Planet Living” (OPL) ten principles (see Section II.4.2) (WWF, 2008).

At full build out, the city may be home to around 50,000 people, as well as hun- dreds of businesses in an area of 6 km2 (1500 acres). 40,000 people are expected to commute to work in the city with a total living and working population of around 90,000 people (Bioregional, 2008; Hartman, Knell and Witherspoon, 2010). Basic characteristics of the development are summarized in Table 11.5 and the locations of many of the utilities around the city are displayed in Figure 11.12.

Open Spaces Green and open spaces will be located throughout the city and along the outside of the populated areas. Recreational fields are provided between the large and small populated centers. Native plant species will be used throughout the city in order to reduce irrigation needs. Open spaces will also be located throughout

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Table 11.5 Characteristics and parameters of the Masdar City development

Location Abu Dhabi, UAE Area of development 700 ha or 7 km2

Population served 50,000 residential, 49,000 commuters Population density 140 people/ha (333 people/acre) Project team

Key partners Foster + Partners, CH2M HILL, WSP, ETA, Transsolar, QS Cyril Sweett cost consultancy, Systematica

Lead planners Foster + Partners, CH2M HILL Architect Foster + Partners

Contact web site http://www.masdarcity.com/ Type of drainage

Sanitary Subsurface connected to a centralized treatment plant & black and grey water reuse

Stormwater Rainwater harvesting, stormwater reuse Renewable energy Primarily photovoltaic ground and roof mounted with solar

thermal, waste-to-energy, and geothermal as other possible sources

Water conservation Most of water supplied to be recycled for irrigation, toilet flushing, district cooling and other uses. Gray water will also be collected and recycled. Low-flow and water-monitoring systems will be installed in all condominiums and offices.

Used water system and management

Centralized, 80% water recycled

Transportation Car-free city. Every resident will live within a short walk of a transportation hub. A driverless four passenger rapid transportation system is being pilot tested and other options are being considered. Compact design encourages walking and biking. Light rail system connects city to Abu Dhabi.

Recreation, leisure, sports

Network of foot and bike paths, recreational center with sport fields

Green areas and nature Green areas surround the city, with parks and community squares located throughout.

Project cost U.S. $22 billion

the city, including three large pathways (two through the large rectangular populated area and one through the smaller area) to allow the daytime and nighttime winds to flow through the city. These pathways will be oriented to facilitate wind flow through the city to help promote airflow.

Energy Masdar City aims to be one of the world’s most sustainable urban devel- opments in the world powered by renewable energy. Many factors would need to be implemented to reach this goal. These factors include energy reduction through- out the city through the implementation of advanced technology to reduce the city

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energy demand, city and street orientation, and the use of renewable energy sources to provide all of the energy needs of the city. Through the implementation of the most advanced technologies, the power requirements of the city will be reduced to 230 MW of power, instead of the usual 800 MW for a city of similar size (WSP, 2009). Narrow streets, shaded walkways, and orienting the city northeast would min- imize the amount of direct sunlight on building sides and windows, reducing the need for air conditioning, as shown in Figures 11.13 and 11.14. All other electricity and

Figure 11.13 Artist’s representation of a shaded street in the city (Courtesy Sharma Al Muhari, Masdar).

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Figure 11.14 Artist’s representation of a public square the city (Courtesy Sharma Al Muhari, Masdar).

cooling needs is provided by renewable energy generated on site (BioRegional, 2008; Hartman, Knell and Witherspoon, 2010).

The low carbon emission goals do not just apply to the city after implementa- tion, but also during construction. A 10 MW photovoltaic power plant is providing clean electricity to support the construction process, In order to offset part of CO2 emissions generated during construction, much of the plant’s electricity is pumped back into the grid (Palca, 2009). There will be large photovoltaic arrays and panels throughout the city and a concentrated solar power (CSP). As well, there are plans for a waste-to-energy plant. In addition to these power sources, there are discus- sions regarding drawing clean energy from renewable power plants located outside Masdar City. The 10-MW solar farm is generating 17 million kWh per year. Built across 22 hectares by Abu Dhabi-based Enviromena, the plant was connected to the Abu Dhabi power grid in April 2009 and is supplied by 50 percent thin film pho- tovoltaic modules and 50 percent polycrystalline photovoltaic modules. The CSP

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plant will be used to produce electric power by converting the sun’s energy into high-temperature heat using various mirror configurations. This in turn will gener- ate steam that will then be channeled through a conventional generator to provide electricity (Crampsie, 2008).

In addition to solar energy, geothermal and waste heat may also be used. Also both sewage and municipal solid waste may be used to provide energy. The waste- to-energy strategy involves treatment of both the organic fraction of the waste and the residual fraction to produce energy rich gases. Organics may be converted to biogas through anaerobic digestion. The residual fraction may be converted to syngas through pyroloysis and/or gasification. The produced gases in both cases may be used to produce electric energy.

The city itself will be a global clean-technology cluster and home not only to sales, marketing, demonstration facilities, headquarters and R&D facilities of firms ranging from start-ups to global multinationals, but also to the International Renew- able Energy Agency (IRENA) and the Masdar Institute of Science and Technology, a graduate-level research-focused university focused on renewable energy and clean technologies and developed in cooperation with the Massachusetts Institute of Tech- nology.

Transportation Masdar City will be free of cars on the street level. Instead of private automobiles, a variety of alternatives will be used and test piloted, including a Personal Rapid Transit (PRT) system. This system could become the world’s first large-scale personalized electric transport system powered by solar energy. It will work on the principle of small electric driver-less cabs carrying up to four passengers at a time. Every resident will be just a short walk from a transportation station where they can request one of the PRT vehicles. Once inside, a passenger can select any PRT station in the city at the touch of a button. (WSP, 2009).

In addition to the PRT system, the city is compact with short distances transporta- tion links encouraging walking or biking to destinations. The shaded walkways and narrow streets will create a pedestrian-friendly environment in the context of Abu Dhabi’s extreme climate. It also articulates the tightly planned, compact nature of traditional walled cities (Foster + Partners, 2007).

To accommodate the commuters who will travel in and out of the city every day, there is a Light Rail Transit (LRT). The LRT is an overland train that runs from Abu Dhabi city centre to the international airport stopping at Raha Beach, a popular resort development just outside Masdar City, and Masdar City itself (WSP, 2009). In addition to the light rail, parking structures are located at the city edge for travelers driving to the city. These parking structures are near transportation stations for easy access to the city.

Water Use Masdar City does not have any viable freshwater sources and the sea water from the Arabian (Persian) Gulf has very high salinity (40,000 mg/L). Rain- water sources are very limited, the area is essentially a desert. The local groundwater salinity is twice that of the gulf waters (Hartman, Knell and Witherspoon, 2010). It should be pointed out that all Arabic states on the gulf use desalination for their water

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supply and discharge high salinity brine reject into the gulf. Potable water sources for the city are currently being evaluated. Each building is designed to have three unique water streams to enter and exit the unit (Hartman, Knell and Witherspoon, 2010). Potable water enters the building for personal consumption and bathing. Re- claimed used water is used for toilet flushing. Spent graywater and blackwater are conveyed to the water reclamation plant for treatment and reuse for toilet flushing, district cooling, and irrigation. The water reclamation plant is centrally located due to the large central demand for each stream. In addition to treated used water, landscape irrigation will also use graywater (Bioregional, 2008). In some cases the irrigation water will also be reused. For a typical city of Masdar City’s size, consumption of desalinization water is expected to be around 20,000 m3/day (5.3 MGD). In order to minimize water consumption, passive demand control strategies and water reuse approaches will be used to reduce water consumption significantly from typical city usage. Individual water consumption is expected to be much lower than typical city usage. This is a dramatic reduction from the current water use in Abu Dhabi which is currently ranging from 55- to 353 L/person-day, of which a significant volume is used for irrigating lawns of villas (Hartman, Knell, and Witherspoon, 2010). In order to reach this goal, reduction in water leakage from pipes is needed and installa- tion of the most modern water saving fixtures and appliances. Masdar City will also adopt water efficiency measures that minimize consumption through a combined ap- proach of technology and cultural change. Typically, an estimated 20% of water is lost through pipe leakages. Through the implementation of advanced technologies and systems, Masdar City expects to cut the losses down to less than 1%.

Other tools are used to reduce the amount of water consumed by each individual. These tools include installing water consumption tracking devices throughout the buildings to notify residents and office managers of how much water they are using and its associated carbon footprint impacts.

Masdar City will use a plethora of water management principles in order to treat all parts of the water cycle and use them as a water source. As many as nine wa- ter conveyance systems will be employed in 12 different ways and treated at three treatment levels. The variety of water sources being explored include groundwater, seawater, surface runoff, rainwater harvesting, dew/fog capture, gray and black water reuse and resource (nutrient) recovery from urine streams (CH2M-Hill, 2008).

Waste Management The ultimate goal of waste management within Masdar City is to reach a state where waste is recycled, reused, converted to energy and/or reduced to zero at City buildout. More realistically the city plans to divert most of the waste from landfills by full built out (Crampsie, 2008). An intensive recycling program is implemented along with nutrient recovery to be used in the creation of soils in landscaping as well as waste to power scheme (Palca, 2009). Both sludge and organic garbage wastes will be used to create power by production of biogas from anaerobic digestion of organic solids.

Summary and Current Status Masdar City seeks to be one of the most sus- tainable cities in the world, with the long-term goal of being carbon neutral at City

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Figure 11.15 Masdar city headquarters (Courtesy Sharma Al Muhari, Masdar).

build out. In order to sustain this achievement, the city will control growth instead of sprawl, implement low rise high density developments and use sustainable methods of transportation while following the 10 principles of “One Planet Living” (OPL), independently verified by the World Wildlife Fund (WWF, 2008). The project be- gan in 2008. The first buildings were set to be occupied in the second half of 2010. Not only will the city be used as a model for sustainable development, but also the majority of the people living inside of the city will work in the renewable energy and sustainable technology business. Located at Masdar City, Masdar Institute is re- searching and teaching renewable energy and clean technology practices. The total cost of the Masdar City project is expected to be $22 billion and is expected that at full build out it will house as many as 50,000 residents, with another 40,000 people commuting to the city for work in hundreds of businesses. The project broke ground in 2008 with the first building phase of Masdar City (the university/technology center and surrounding neighborhood) set for completion in 2013. The entire city will be built over more than a decade. Figure 11.15 show headquarters (city hall) if Masdar with a waterscape pool.

The City’s real estate business model requires careful spending and development growth to meet fiscal goals of a sustainable city. The final costs will be in line with the City’s fiscal goals whilst being one of the most sustainable cities in the world

XI.2.6 Treasure Island (California, U.S.)

Overview Treasure Island is a man-made island built by dredging sediments from the San Francisco Bay, constructed to host the 1939 Golden Gate International

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Exposition. It was originally scheduled to become an airport after the exposition, but instead was acquired by the U.S. Navy for a naval base. In 1990 Treasure Island supported a population of more than 4500 people and a daily employee population of almost 2000. In 1997 the naval base was closed as part of the Base Realignment and Closure III (BRAC) program, and redevelopment plans have been developed to transform Treasure Island and the nearby Yerba Buena Island into one of the most sustainable cities in the United States.

The majority of the information on this redevelopment was obtained from the Treasure Island Development Authority development plan (TIDA, TICD, 2006). By 2018 the Treasure Island and Yerba Buena Island development will be an entirely new built community of 6000 homes supporting 13,500 residents, a retail-focused town center including 21,800 m2 (235,000 sq ft) of retail space, hotels with a total of 420 hotel rooms, adaptive reuse of historic structures, a marina district including ferry transport to San Francisco, a range of essential services, and an extensive open space program (Figure 11.16). No official references regarding the cost are available, but the total cost has been unofficially estimated to be around $3 billion.

Currently the island is still owned by the U.S. Navy. Negotiations are ongoing regarding the purchase price for the City of San Francisco. In addition to purchasing the land, the city will have to deal with various contamination sites that are present throughout Treasure Island. Soil contamination is related to fuel storage and fueling operations, previous fire training activities, above- and below-ground storage areas, ammunition storage, and petroleum pipelines. The U.S. Navy is partly responsible for hazardous materials remediation. The city has been working with CH2M HILL and Geomatrix to monitor the Navy’s cleanup work to date. The parameters of the city are in Table 11.6.

Other important issues that need to be addressed during the construction of the Treasure Island development relate to seismic conditions and traffic. Under current land conditions, Treasure Island is expected to perform poorly in a major earthquake

Figure 11.16 Schematic of the Treasure Island project with open spaces, recreation, parks, and urban farms (Sylvan, 2008).

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Table 11.6 Characteristics and parameters of the Treasure Island development (TICD, 2006)

Location San Francisco, CA Area of development 1.8 km2 (180 hectares, 450 acres) Population served 13,500

Populations density 150 people per hectare of built area Project team

Key partners Treasure Island Community Development (TICD), Treasure Island Development Authority (TIDA), City of San Francisco

Lead planners SMWM, SOM Architect SMWM, SOM with the help of 18 other architecture and

consulting firms Type of drainage

Sanitary Subsurface connected to a centralized treatment plant Stormwater Green roofs, xeriscape, and gravity pipes for excess runoff to

a centralized wetland area for treatment Renewable energy Photovoltaics, small vertical axis wind turbines, solar hot

water heating, biogas power generation from WWTP Peak energy use 17.4 MW 5% renewable

Water conservation Low-flow fixtures (faucets, toilets, showers, dishwashers, washing machines), recycling 25% of water for flushing toilets, irrigation, boat washing, etc.

Water use 264 L/cap-day (70 gpcd) Used water system and

management Centralized; 25% of the water is recycled

Percent solid waste diverted from landfill

95%

Transportation 100% of the population within a 15-minute walk to the transit hub, ferry transportation to San Francisco, bus service to San Francisco and Oakland from transit hub, car-share program, extensive network of bike paths

Recreation, leisure, sports

Network of foot and bike paths, recreational center with sports fields, marina access, neighborhood parks, and on-island organic farm

Green areas and nature Extensive, covering 56% of the 180 hectares Affordable housing, % 30 Probable cost $3 billion

event, resulting in possible soil liquefaction and lateral spreading. Traffic is another issue that needs to be addressed. Currently access to Treasure Island and Yerba Buena Island is only possible via the Bay Bridge. The high volume of traffic on the Bay Bridge and the design of connecting ramps to the two islands mean that vehicular traffic access could be constrained in the future. For an increase of population on Treasure Island from 4500 to 13,500, regulators will allow only a 5% increase in traffic on the Bay Bridge.

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Construction is phased over 10 years. Initial estimates were to have construction begin in 2009 and continue until 2018 in four phases; currently it is scheduled to start in 2010, with the first homes available in 2013. Phase I will center on island-wide infrastructure improvements, including but not limited to: seismic stabilization, util- ity distribution systems (water sewer and storm sewer), environmental remediation, and deconstruction. This phase is expected to take four years. The following three phases are expected to last two years each and include the phased construction of homes, retail space, and open spaces, starting near the transit center during Phase II and expanding to the rest of the islands in Phases III and IV.

Many groups are involved in the design of this project, including the following government agencies: the San Francisco Department of the Environment, the Trea- sure Island Community Development (TICD) team, the Treasure Island Develop- ment Authority (TIDA), and the San Francisco Public Utilities Commission. Pri- vate companies involved include Skidmore, Owings & Merrill (SOM) Architects, Arup, BFK, BVC Architects, CMG Landscape Architects, Concept Marine Asso- ciates, CH2M HILL, Concord Group, Engeo, Geomatrix, Hornberger + Worstell Architects, Korve Engineering, Nelson/Nygaard, SMWM, Treadwell & Rollo, Tom Leader Studio, and William McDonough + Partners.

Characteristics

Open Spaces Extensive open spaces are provided, covering approximately 120 ha (300 acres) for the entire project, including 55% of Treasure Island. Because of the population density in the residential areas, a substantial amount of land is free to be used for the entire population of Treasure Island. There will be a number of neighborhood parks spaced among the residential areas for access and use by the residential occupants. Trees will be retained or planted throughout the island to re- duce the heat island effect and to sequester carbon to offset emissions. Throughout the island native or noninvasive, climate-appropriate, and low-maintenance plants will be used in consultation with restoration ecologists and landscape architects.

At the center of the island an organic farm will be created. This will allow for the production of local foods, opportunities for training and job creation, as well as a place to use composted organic wastes from the residential areas. Other areas throughout the development will include public plazas, a sailing center, a 400-slip marina, wetlands for stormwater treatment, connections to the Bay trails, sports, and recreational areas, and an art park.

Energy A large portion of the energy management is to reduce power demand and energy consumption. Many design criteria will be used in order to reduce the power demand throughout the island, including: appropriate building orientation at 35◦ from due south to optimize solar exposure and create wind protection, natu- ral ventilation, high-performance glazing, maximum use of daylighting, integrated lighting and energy controls, specification of Energy Star–certified appliances, centralized heating and cooling, and solar hot water for residential areas.

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A central utility plant for heating and cooling is planned to reduce energy con- sumption by 20% below the projected consumption, for certain buildings in the cen- tral core of the development. This central plant will use a distribution heat pump loop with heat pumps in each building and heat exchanges to either reject or absorb heat from the Bay, depending on the season.

Energy production on the island will be gained from the sun, wind, biogas, and tides. In order to harness energy from the sun, roof-mounted PV cells will be used. Solar panels will cover 70% of the rooftops, generating 30 million kilowatt-hours of electricity per year. Solar power will also be used for water-heating systems that can support up to 80% of the hot water needs.

To harness wind power, large-scale wind turbines and small-scale vertical turbines will be placed on top of buildings. Other energy solutions being considered include the installation of tide-driven turbines on the floor of the Golden Gate channel and a biogas generator at the used water treatment plant. The biogas generator could provide half the power and heat needed for the treatment plant.

Local energy production will only be enough to provide 50% of the power needs of the community; hence, the remaining energy will be provided by the city grid during periods of low solar energy availability. In the middle of the day, when solar output is at a maximum, more energy will be created on the island than needed, and the extra energy will be exported out of the island to the grid. The overall goal of the development is to reduce the per capita carbon emission in the city by 60%, from 3.5 to 1.3 tons (Ward, 2008).

Transportation The main goal of the transportation design is to reduce car use and promote public transportation, walking, and biking. The transportation network throughout the island is oriented first around walking and biking, and provides integration into the regional transportation system via ferry and bus. Ninety percent of the residents will live within 1.2 km from retail services and within a 15-minute walk from an intermodal transit hub (Biello, 2008). An on-island transit system will also be provided, with a small fleet of electric or alternative-fuel shuttles. The transit terminal will provide transportation to San Francisco through a bus and ferry system.

Car use will be limited by a fee and pricing system. Parking management will be based on the policy that all auto users incur a parking charge. A congestion pricing program will be applied to people who choose to use their car to get to and from the island during peak travel periods. Ramp metering will also be used to limit the number of vehicles that can leave the island during periods of bridge congestion.

Water Use and Treatment Potable water will be imported from San Francisco. Low-flow faucets, shower heads, and toilets with sensors and controls, along with low-water-use appliances including dishwashers and side-loading washing machines will be installed in all residential units to reduce water consumption. All of the water use practices will provide a reduction in water use from the existing 380–450 liters per capita per day to 265 liters/capita-day (70 gallons), a 30% reduction. The water system is essentially linear with some 25% reuse.

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After the water is used it will be sent to the local WWTP. Treatment will include influent screening, a combined primary/secondary treatment process (either mem- brane bio-reactors or sequencing batch reactors), aerobic sludge digestion, clarifica- tion, sludge dewatering, disinfection, and odor control. After the water is treated to meet secondary standards, 75% of the water will be discharged into the Bay, and the 25% will be treated to tertiary levels using coagulation, filtration, and disinfection and then recycled for irrigating the farm, as well as for flushing toilets in commer- cial buildings and washing boats in the marina. When the recycled water is taken into consideration, only 834,000 m3 (218 million gallons) of water will be used ev- ery year. This value is equivalent to the amount of water produced by 51 cm of rain (average annual rainfall) falling on the island (Ward, 2008).

Stormwater management will center on xeriscape, permeable surfaces and pave- ments, green roofs, and routing excess runoff to be treated in a wetland. The imper- meable area of Treasure Island will shrink from 64 to 39% through these practices (Ward, 2008). Once the excess runoff is collected, it will be routed to a constructed treatment wetland. The treatment capacity will be to treat 0.5 cm/hour, which in- cludes 80–90% of storms in the Bay area. The hydraulic residence time in the wet- land will be at least 48 hours. Stormwater in excess of the treatment flow will be collected and discharged into the Bay directly.

Solid Waste The Treasure Island development plans to divert 75% of the solid waste from landfills, with an overall goal of 100% diversion by 2020 (TICD, 2006). Organic waste will be composted with an on-site aerobic digester capable of process- ing 6 tons per day of compost, to be used on the island’s urban farm and community gardens. Separate bins will be used for compostables, recyclables, and general waste in public areas as well as residential units.

Summary The Treasure Island development, including both Treasure and Yerba Buena Islands, will combine high-density residential areas with large open commu- nity parks, neighborhood areas, and a community organic farm. Renewable energy will provide 50% of the power required by the island by using technology such as PV cells, wind turbines, and biogas digesters, along with building designs that reduce energy consumption. Walking and biking will be promoted through extensive bike and pedestrian paths, close proximity of residential areas to the transportation depot, and commercial areas designed to fit the needs of the community. Stormwater will be treated with a centralized wetland, and 25% of the wastewater will be recycled for irrigation and commercial use. With the installation of low-flow appliances and fixtures, total water use will be reduced by 20%; however, the water use will still be very high and not commensurate with other ecocity developments. Energy produced in the island central power plant will be mostly derived from conventional fuels, and only 5% from renewable energy sources. On-site composting of waste to be used on the island and an extensive recycling program are expected to reduce trash exports from the island by 100% by 2020.

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Figure 11.17 Layout of the Sonoma Mountain Village development (Courtesy Sonoma Moun- tain Village, SOMO).

XI.2.7 Sonoma Mountain Village (California, U.S.)

Overview Sonoma Mountain Village is located 64 kilometers (40 miles) north of San Francisco in the city of Rohnert Park, California, USA (Figure 11.17). It is being created in an area formerly occupied by an industrial park and striving to become the first North American community to be certified by the One Planet Communities

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criteria and the fourth in the world (Peters, 2009). The construction and design of this village are being led by BioRegional and Codding Enterprises at a total cost of $1 billion.

The construction of the Sonoma Mountain Village community started with mod- els available for viewing in 2011–2012. Homeowners are expected to begin mov- ing in by late 2011–2012, with the completion of the entire project expected after 2020 (Sonoma Mountain Village, 2010). In total, 1900 homes will be constructed on 0.8 km2 of land with a mix of 900 apartments and condominiums and 1000 single- family homes. These homes will vary between single-family homes, row houses, affordable-by-design homes (smaller square footage), townhouses, multifamily con- dos, lofts, flats, and luxury homes, ranging from 56 to 420 m2 (600 to 4500 sq ft) with prices from $300,000 to $3 million (Sonoma Mountain Village, 2010). The to- tal population after construction is complete is expected to be around 5000 (Sonoma Mountain Village, 2008).

The community will include 500,000 square feet of commercial, retail, and office space to serve the needs of the neighborhoods and surrounding communities (Figure 11.18). Currently 21 businesses are located in the community, as well as 27 sustainability-oriented and socially relevant technology start-up companies (Sonoma Mountain Village, 2010). Table 11.7 presents the basic characteristics and parame- ters of the city.

Following the 10 principles of the One Planet Living concept (see Chapter II), the ecocity principles for Sonoma Mountain Village pertain not only to the final prod- uct, but also to the construction process. A number of measures are being conducted

Figure 11.18 Artist’s rendition of public areas (Courtesy Sonoma Mountain Village SOMO).

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Table 11.7 Characteristics of the Sonoma Mountain Village development

Location Sonoma Village, CA, USA Area of development 0.8 Km2 (80 ha or 200 acres) Population served 5000 people

populations density 62 people/ha (25 people/acre) Project team

Key partners BioRegional, Codding Enterprises Lead planners Codding Enterprises Architect Farrell-Faber & Associates, Fisher Town Design, KEMA

Green, Scott Architectural Graphics, MBH Architects, WIX Architecture

Contact web site http://www.sonomamountainvillage.com/ Type of drainage

Sanitary Subsurface connected to a centralized treatment plant Stormwater Rain gardens, biofiltration, swales, pervious pavements in

alleyways, construction of stream to transport runoff out of village

Renewable energy Photovoltaic arrays on building tops Water conservation Rainwater harvesting, water reuse, and use of low-flow devices

including ET irrigation technology Used water system and

management Centralized

Transportation Promote biking and walking within the city, car share/carpool programs, rail transport to nearby cities

Recreation, leisure, sports

Network of foot and bike paths, sports fields

Green areas and nature Project cost

Green areas throughout city $1 billion

to ensure that energy use and damage to the environment are minimized during the building phase, as they will be when the city is complete. During construction, ve- hicle access is constrained to existing roads and new asphalt roads, storm drains are protected with filter strips and settling areas as needed, and any significant vehicle use off roads is preceded by soil stabilization with gravel and the use of additional silt fences and earth dikes. All asphalt and concrete removed from previous construction are reused on-site. Stockpiling of these materials will require appropriate contain- ment areas to prevent oils and concrete dust from mobilizing. Temporary seeding and mulching are used to stabilize bare soil throughout the project. Silt fences, sedi- ment traps, basins, and biofilters are used.

Open Spaces Open spaces, parks, and community areas are located through- out the 0.8-km2 land area, including over 10 hectares of parks, many kilometers of trails for walking and bicycling, dog parks, and an international all-weather soccer field (Sonoma Mountain Village, 2009). Landscaping will include groupings of plant species native to California and species adapted to the local climate. Throughout the development, turf areas will be limited. Trees will also be planted along the streets

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and chosen for their heartiness, shade, and beauty. Residents will have access to community gardens, fruit trees, and a year-round farmers’ market (Peters, 2009). In addition to the local farmers’ market, 65% of all food consumed by the community will come from within 300 miles, with up to 25% coming from within 50 miles, promoting locally grown sustainable farming practices (Sonoma Mountain Village, 2008). In addition to all of the green spaces located on ground level, green roofs will be used throughout the community. In all, 10% of the land is set aside for habitat and 20% of the land for green spaces, with a total of 50% of the project area acquir- ing conservation easements using pollinator gardens on green roofs, native flowers, trees, and grasses throughout the community (Sonoma Mountain Village, 2010).

Energy The energy plan in the village community is focusing on solar energy and energy conservation. A $7.5-million, 1.14-MW, 5845-photovoltaic panel solar array was mounted on the roof of an existing building (Figure 8.3) within the community in 2006 (Peters, 2009). This array is being used to power the construction of the development and will then be used to help power the community. When the commu- nity is finished, the solar power output is expected to quadruple, with excess energy routed to the utility grid.

The energy efficiency of the designed buildings, when compared with the state of California’s current energy code, uses 50% less energy. The use of ground source heat pumps, ultra-efficient lighting and appliances, super-insulated walls, floors, and roofs, along with solar hot water preheating systems is expected to accomplish this goal (Sonoma Mountain Village, 2008). By 2020 the energy use in buildings will have zero carbon equivalent emissions, while average California homes have CO2 equivalent energy emissions of around 8240 tons per year.

Transportation The transportation goals in the community are walking and bik- ing as the primary transportation methods. Every resident will be no more than a five-minute walk from groceries, restaurants, day care, and other amenities offering local, sustainable, and fair trade products and services. These services are located in the town square at the center of the community (Peters, 2009).

Narrow tree-lined streets, paths, and convenient bicycle parking will be available throughout the village. Free bikes, electric vehicles that connect to the smart grid, a biofuel filling station, plug-in hybrid car-share programs, and carpool concierge services will reduce car traffic throughout the village. A commuter rail is also avail- able for transportation from and to nearby cities, with a station located within 10 minutes of the village (Peters, 2009). Overall, the goal of the community is an 82% reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from traveling to, from, and within the vil- lage (Sonoma Mountain Village, 2008). A typical California resident emits annually 22,140 tons of equivalent CO2, whereas it is estimated that the people located inside this development will emit only 3940 tonnes (4343 tons) annually for transportation (Sonoma Mountain Village, 2010).

Water Use The goal for water used within Sonoma Mountain Village is a reduc- tion in water consumption by 60% from the general norm for single-family homes in

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XI.2 CASE STUDIES 583

Table 11.8 Water saving, reclamation, and reuse in the Sonoma Mountain Village development (Codding Enterprises, 2007)

Municipal Drinking Water Supply Reclaimed Water Rainwater Gray Water

All contact uses in buildings Tollet flushing in most

existing commercial buildings

Residential toilet flushing per Title 22

Private backyard irrigation

Tollet flushing in new commercial buildings

All common area irrigation

Colling tower Fire hydrants

Habitat maintenance

Groundwater recharge

Common area irrigation

Cooling tower

Small-scale private backyard subsurface irrigation

the region (Codding Enterprises, 2007). This will be accomplished through water re- duction devises, education, rainwater harvesting, and reuse of water. The municipal drinking water supply will be used inside all buildings and for irrigation in private backyards. Reclaimed water will be used for irrigation of all public parks, medians, and street trees, along with irrigation of all common areas, private front yards, and fire hydrants (Sonoma Mountain, 2010). Reclaimed stormwater will be used for habi- tat maintenance, for groundwater recharge, and as a supplemental irrigation supply for all landscape areas (Water Balance, 2006). Habitat-protected bioswales will act as wetlands connected to a 15,100-m3 (4-MG) underground reservoir, from which water will be recycled for irrigation purposes (Kraemer, 2008). The savings, recla- mation, and reuse components of the water system are presented in Table 11.8.

The Water Plan for the village (Codding Enterprises, 2007) estimates average daily water use for the village as 1186.5 m3/day, of which 31% is for irrigation (with reclaimed water), 60.5% for residential water demand, and 8.5% for commercial use. This will correspond to water demand of 237 liters/capita-day, which is significantly lower than the typical municipal water use in California. Specifically, for Sonoma County the average water use in 2005 was 605 L/cap-day (160 gpd). Of the 237 liters/cap-day, 22% is reclaimed water from treated effluent and stormwater; hence, the average demand on the municipal grid is 185 liters/capita-day.

Stormwater Throughout the village, stormwater management practices will be used to reduce pollutants and runoff coming from the development. Rain gardens and biofiltration swales are to be used as the initial primary catchment for the runoff from the main street network and from roof downspouts on large buildings. These systems will drain filtered water to the underlying aquifers, reducing runoff volumes while increasing groundwater recharge (Sonoma Mountain, 2010). Alleyways will be constructed with pervious pavements and combined with under-drained substrate to reduce the amount of impervious surfaces in the development. Street trees will provide additional areas for the transient storage and percolation of stormwater in the soil structure (Sonoma Mountain, 2010)

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Underground infiltration galleries will also be used to store and percolate runoff where space restrictions or other land use considerations limit the use of biofiltration or rain gardens. A channel corridor will also be constructed running the length of the village along an existing railroad track. Along this corridor trails and attractive land- scaping will be used with a channel system that will have overbank storage for flood flows to transport stormwater out of the village. In order to control peak runoff flows, stormwater detentions will also be used (Sonoma Mountain, 2010). Throughout the development, stormwater will mainly flow on the surface and through the soil, rather than in pipes (Sonoma Mountain Village, 2008).

In order to reduce the amount of pollutants from contaminated stormwater, all homeowners will receive a manual welcoming them to the neighborhood and de- scribing how to maintain their home. This manual will contain a section detailing all prohibited materials and explaining why they cannot be used. These materials will prohibit use of synthetic fertilizers, but compost and naturally derived fertilizers will be allowed and used extensively (Sonoma Mountain, 2010).

Waste Management Waste management throughout the community will begin with the construction phase and continue through the life of the village. Existing buildings will remain, simply incorporated into the design. All asphalt and concrete removed from the area was stockpiled and reused during construction (Sonoma Mountain Village, 2008). The home manufacturing is being done on-site in a near-zero-waste panel-home production facility. All of the new construction will utilize recycled steel framing from an on-site factory run by Codding Steel Frame Solutions. This new technology will allow for building a 200-m2 home with recycled steel from used cars rather than trees (Sonoma Mountain Village, 2009). This facility will be run on solar power and create zero waste, with the final steel frame products being 100% recyclable (Peters, 2009). Twenty percent of materials for the entire construction process will be manufactured on-site, and 60% will come from within 500 miles (Sonoma Mountain Village, 2008). Overall, the amount of CO2 equivalent greenhouse gas emission during the construction period of the development will be reduced from a California average of 113,400 tons for a similar community to 39,690 tons.

In terms of waste management, after the completion of development, an intensive recycling program will be put into place, resulting in only 2% of the waste entering landfills by 2020. This plan includes addressing retail and grocery packaging, food waste composting, school education, and creative contests to promote waste-free living (Sonoma Mountain Village, 2008). Town-wide composting is used to create soils for the community gardens, small parks, and fruit trees throughout the village (Kraemer, 2008).

Summary Sonoma Mountain Village will incorporate the 10 One Planet Living principles into the design of a small 5000-person village north of San Francisco. The community has applied for inclusion in the LEED Neighborhood Development pilot program to obtain Platinum LEED certification for the entire village, as well as LEED certification for each individual building (Carlsen, 2007). The development is

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XI.2 CASE STUDIES 585

scheduled to be completed after 2020 and upon completion could become the first development in North America to be certified as a One Planet Living community.

XI.2.8 Dockside Green

Dockside Green is a mixed-use, brownfield redevelopment project, in the city of Victoria, British Columbia, whose design and planning process is based upon achiev- ing both LEED Platinum-level certification for all buildings and the landscape-scale LEED Neighborhood Development designation, as defined by the Canada Green Building Council. The Dockside Green site is a former heavy industrial, contami- nated site, designated by the city for development. The resulting development con- cept was based upon an IRM construct and features district energy, on-site wastew- ater collection and treatment, and a biomass gasification facility (O’Riordan et al., 2008). Figure 11.19 shows the aerial view of the development and Figure 11.20 is

Figure 11.19 Aerial view of Dockside Green in 2009, with the first two development phases complete (Courtesy W.P. Lucey, Aqua-Tex Scientific Consulting, Ltd, Victoria, British Columbia).

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Figure 11.20 Artist’s rendering of Dockside Green with the central waterway as a major feature (Dockside Green, 2005).

an artist’s rendering of the central waterway. See also Figures 10.3 and 10.6. In 2010 Dockside Green development received platinum LEED certification.

Water The core design concept of the on-site treatment train process is a closed- loop cycle minimizing operating costs, while providing a fit-for-purpose, reclaimed water supply used for toilet flushing, landscape irrigation, green roof watering, and an on-site natural stream/pond complex. The used water treatment plant is situated beneath some of the most desirable of Dockside’s residential units and is imme- diately adjacent to a well-known Victoria bakery; it has a low visual impact and produces little to no odor or noise (see Figure 10.3). The treatment technology is a Zenon system (GE Water & Process Technologies), incorporating suspended-growth, activated sludge, coupled with hollow-fiber ultrafiltration membranes, UV disinfec- tion, and effluent tank storage, prior to reclaimed water use. The reclaimed water meets the province’s Municipal Sewage Regulation criteria for unrestricted public access. Dockside Green uses the reclaimed water for toilet flushing, green roof and balcony planter irrigation, and to augment the on-site watercourse. The discussion in this section is based on O’Riordan et al. (2008).

The domestic wastewater treatment system consists of two similar parallel facil- ities rated for 190 m3/day (one system installed with each of the two development phases). This parallel treatment train redundancy design enables periodic mainte- nance of each system (one system being operational), while all system processes and mechanical elements have full redundancy. There is an emergency bypass that connects this facility with the city’s large sewerage system, which lies adjacent to

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XI.2 CASE STUDIES 587

the development site. There is a natural stream channel and pond complex that has been constructed through the central longitudinal axis of the site, providing direct residential access to a natural landscape feature, maintained in proper functioning condition. This feature has significantly enhanced the valuation appraisal of those residential units fronting the stream/pond system, while significantly increasing the biological diversity of the site. The increased economic return from enhanced real estate values exceeds the cost of the construction of an ecologically viable stream/ pond complex.

Rainwater capture further augments the closed-loop design process, as rainwater routes are aligned to the stream/pond complex, providing for the design-with-nature concept of “capture, store, beneficial use.” Stormwater is captured and biofiltered on-site by green roofs, cisterns, and bioswales and channeled into the waterway for storage. Water within the stream/pond complex can be recycled to provide a range of flow rates to optimize seasonal water quality, as the stream facility provides a natural polishing process. Finally, the implementation of a closed-loop water management and treatment train process permits the green roofs to be managed such that soil moisture is optimal for plant growth and high rates of evapotranspiration, resulting in significant cooling of buildings and the potential for an urban agriculture-based production of high-value crops, as a further revenue generation mechanism that can offset long-term building management and maintenance costs.

The latter design process shifts building shell (roof) design from a “green build- ing/green roof” stormwater management concept to an integrated Engineered Ecol- ogy design, whereby ecological function is preserved. The shift in design thinking requires the natural, terrestrial landscape (contiguous horizontal and vertical con- nection via the soils) to be replaced with an “Island Archipelago” ecology (build- ings with ecologically functional green roofs), with the roads and other ground-level structures forming the media within which the “islands” are situated: thus, the essen- tial sustainable design concept that an ecosystem’s proper functioning condition must not be lost but may be changed from one functional condition to another (O’Riordan et al., 2008).

Energy Dockside Green utilizes an on-site biomass gasification technology to en- able the community to generate clean, low-cost heat using locally sourced wood waste (Figure 8.26). Biomass gasification is a process whereby organic wastes—for example construction wood waste—are converted into synthetic natural gas, or “syn- gas.” The resulting syngas is GHG neutral and can be used for any natural gas ap- plication: the generation of heat, electricity, or both (cogeneration). Dockside Green will use the syngas as the principal energy source for the district heating system (Ministry of Community and Rural Development).

Gasification is a thermal-chemical process that uses heat to convert any organic (carbon containing) fuel into syngas. The biomass gasification plant uses locally sourced wood fuel, including construction wood debris and municipal tree trim- mings. Dockside’s gasifier is a fixed-bed, bottom-fed, updraft design. Before the fuel arrives, it is broken down to pieces roughly 3 inches in diameter to prevent equipment jamming. The fuel is then fed into the bottom of a tall cylindrical gasi- fier where the wood is heated in an oxygen-starved environment to induce release

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of volatile gases. During the process, pyrolysis and gasification convert the fuel to syngas, leaving behind noncombustible ash. The temperature must be precisely con- trolled (1500–1800◦F) for efficient gasification and to ensure that the ash does not melt, and remains granular and free flowing (Sparica, 2008).

Following gasification the syngas travels through an oxidizer (combustion), where the gases are combusted and directed through a boiler. The boiler will produce hot water for the majority of Dockside heating requirements, and it can be sold off-site to neighboring hotels and businesses. Remaining particulates are removed from the flue gas prior to release, using an electrostatic precipitator. The whole facility is centrally located in the development and housed in an acoustically isolated building to avoid any noise disturbance. The energy system is backed using a natural gas boiler (Sparica, 2008).

Docksides’s other sustainable features/initiatives:

� Energy/water meters in suites, which detail personal daily use � Dual-flush toilets and low-flow fixtures � Efficient washing machines that use less water and require less drying � Energy supply supplemented with photovoltaic panels and wind turbines � Buildings that provide 100% fresh air by utilizing central or individual heat

recovery ventilators � Building materials with low or no volatile organic compounds (VOC), i.e., car-

pets, paints, adhesives etc. � Encouragement of exclusive use of green cleaning products � Recycled content, sustainably harvested materials, and rapidly renewable re-

sources to be used whenever possible, for example: � Carpets sourced from a GHG-neutral business � Use of rapidly renewable bamboo flooring � Selection of salvaged wood products

� Establishment of a mini-transit system, linking Dockside to popular downtown destinations

� Creation of pedestrian- and bicycle-friendly infrastructure � Implementation of a car-share program � Efficient lighting, occupancy sensors, solar lighting, and a design that enhances

daylight � Organics collection initiative � Commitment to education using a variety of communication channels and

strategic relationships

XI.3 BRIEF SUMMARY

The pressing global concerns of a changing climate, a post-peak oil world, declining freshwater resources, degraded and de-evolving marine ecosystems, together with

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XI.3 BRIEF SUMMARY 589

the challenge of a steadily increasing population becoming increasingly urbanized, demand the accelerated adoption of regenerative adaptive design-based development. Twenty-first century design will require innovation, imagination, and courage to overcome the barriers of regulation, financial risk, and loss of natural capital. There are projects on the immediate horizon that are seeking this scale of change, including Montreal, Victoria, and Vancouver, Canada; Malmö, Sweden; 2012 Olympic sites in London, UK; Oslo, Norway; Portugal, Australia, South Africa, and Turkey, in addi- tion to those described in this chapter and throughout this book. Perhaps in addition to whole-city change, it will be essential to focus on restructuring educational institu- tions to accelerate the change required for integrated sustainable water and landscape management.

Currently, there are dozens of urban developments throughout the world claiming to be or become “ecocities.” A few, with various degrees of success, are striving to be- come certified as One Planet Living communities. In our analysis we have compared only a fraction of the most publicized developments. The analysis was hampered by a lack of peer-reviewed technical articles; the majority of information sources were web-based articles or gray documents by the developers and/or media, admir- ing or criticizing such developments. Nevertheless, the picture that is appearing is far reaching, especially in the context of sustainability and reducing global warming. As a matter of fact, accepting the One Planet Living criteria will lead to dramatic reduction of GHG emissions from urban areas, including transportation, which rep- resent the major cause of global warming. Several of the assessed ecocities are near compliance with the OPL criteria.

Because of their frugality with respect to energy and water requirements, the “new cities” can be built in “hostile” environments such as arid or desert areas or decon- taminated brownfields. This may relieve the pressure on valuable agricultural lands, wetlands, and forests, even in countries still undergoing excessive population growth. With the exception of Dongtan, all the ecocities analyzed herein have been planned for, or are being built on, previously contaminated brownfields or poor-quality, in- hospitable lands.

In developed countries, the direction is more towards retrofitting the existing cities and reducing, or even reversing, urban sprawl by bringing people back from dis- tant energy-gobbling low-density suburbs to the retrofitted and water- and energy- efficient cites or build satellite medium density communities interconnected by effi- cient and good pubic transporation instead of low density urban sprawl surrounding the major cities relying on long commutes by automobiles on congested highways. Unfortunately, in old municipalities, bringing new sustainable concepts into rebuild- ing and retrofitting may run into resistance and obstacles caused by existing regula- tions and traditions.

These concepts are also applicable to developing countries. Cities or parts thereof may not have sewers; stormwater drainage is on the surface—in most cases in lined channels also carrying gray water. These systems can be improved without destroy- ing them and replacing them with hard underground sewers and infrastructures. It is perfectly acceptable to replace latrines with flushless composting toilets or to col- lect fecal matter for community biogas production, and implement urine collection for fertilizer recovery and simple treatment (e.g., by wetlands) of gray water for

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reuse. Use of photovoltaics for TVs and light, and concentrated heat solar panels for hot water is becoming common even in some shantytowns (perhaps sponsored by international organizations) that do not have electricity from the grid. We have also documented that the use of fecal matter (both human and animal) and vegetation for biogas production is also taking root in some developing countries. The degree of recycling is also very high. As a result, annual GHG emissions are less than 1 ton/person and should stay that way.

The future of the Cities of the Future starts now.

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