2 Paragraph argument ::: Argue for or against: the ancient Japanese peoples were not isolated. Cite a couple of pieces of evidence from the course materials for the week.

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Home >History homework help >Ancient history homework help >2 Paragraph argument ::: Argue for or against: the ancient Japanese peoples were not isolated. Cite a couple of pieces of evidence from the course materials for the week.

Tsunoda, Ryūsaku. Sources of the Japanese Tradition. E-book, New York: Columbia University Press, 1958, https://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.06049. Accessed 17 Sep 2020. Downloaded on behalf of University of California, Santa Cruz

CHAPTER I

THE EARLIEST RECORDS

OF JAPAN

The oldest extant annals in Japanese are the Records of Ancient Matters (A.D. 712) and the Chronicles of /apan (720).1 Both open with chapters on the mythological Age of the Gods, but little of the material from the ancient Japanese past can be taken seriously as history. It is not until we reach the reign of the Empress Suiko (592-628) that consciously written history became a reality; indeed, the name Suiko itself may be translated "conjecture of the past," and suggests that this posthumous title was be- stowed on the empress because the writing of history was considered to be an outstanding event of her reign.

For information about the earlier periods of Japanese history it is usually safer to rely on accounts found in the Chinese dynastic histories than on the native literature. By the time that Japan first came into the ken of the Chinese, the writing of history had left far behind the rather primitive level of the Book of History and was approaching a science. In contrast to the highly tendentious and even fictional Japanese descriptions of their early history, the Chinese accounts of Japan, brief as they are, possess com- parative reliability, if for no other reason than that the Chinese had no axe to grind with respect to a semicivilized people living at what was for them the end of the world.

According to the Chronicles of /apan the foundation of the Japanese empire took place at a date corresponding to 660 B.c., but the first men- tion of Japan in the Chinese histories occurs only in A.D. 57. At this latter date, Japan, far from being a unified country with a heritage of 700 years of civilization, consisted of more than a hundred scattered tribal com- munities. Even as late as the Chinese Three Kingdoms Period (220-265) Japan was still divided into some forty communities.

The Chinese histories do not inform us how the people now known as 1 The Koiiki and the Nihongi.

4 ANCIENT JAPAN

the Japanese first found their way to the islands. In the absence of posi- tive information on this subject, modern scholars have attempted to expound various theories based on linguistics, archeology, architecture, and a great many criteria, some contending that the Japanese originally came from Southeast Asia, others insisting that they were a northern people. It is probable, however, that the Japanese had diverse origins, with various elements entering from different directions. The main stream of cultural influence came from the continent by way of Korea. It seems likely that when the first Ch'in emperor (247-210 B.c.) unified China and built the Great Wall to prevent the northern barbarians from making incursions on the fertile plains of the Yellow River, it helped to set a definite direction to the migrations of different peoples, eastwards or westwards along the wall. Disturbances resulting from the movement of tribes were at times so severe as to compel the Emperor Wu (r. 140- 87 B.c.) of the Han dynasty to send expeditionary forces to restore order. An outpost of the Han empire was established in northern Korea which served as a model of organized government to the surrounding tribes including, possibly, the Japanese.

It may seem surprising that there were Japanese in Korea in the first century A.D., but no fixed boundary appears in fact to have existed at the time between the territories of the Koreans and of the Japanese. A con- stant eastward migration from northern China to the Korean peninsula and thence to the Japanese archipelago made for a fluidity in the com- position of the population. Despite Korean references of the fourth century A.D. to "Japanese invaders," there continued to be Japanese hold- ings on the continent until A.D. 562 when the Japanese political center in the peninsula was destroyed by the rising power of the Korean king- dom of Silla. As late as A.D. 478 the Japanese emperor was recognized by the Chinese court as being ruler of Korea, although the Japanese em- peror in turn proclaimed his fealty to the Chinese sovereign. During the course of the seventh century Silla, with Chinese aid, subjugated the rival kingdoms of Koguryo and Paekche, and unified the peninsula. These successes of the combined forces of Silla and T'ang China drove the Japanese from the continent into the relative isolation of their islands, an event which may have helped to bring about the birth of historical Japan: The rise of powerful dynasties in China and Korea impelled Japan to achieve a unified government if it were not to be overwhelmed.

EARLIEST RECORDS 5

For an understanding of some important influences upon Japanese

thought since the earliest periods of their history, we may turn to the

geographical features of the islands. The first Chinese account of Japan

opens with the words, "The people of Wa live on mountainous islands

in the ocean," and the two elements of water and mountains, together

with a kind of sun worship have always been very close to the Japanese.

Of course we are likely to find in the religious beliefs of any country

worship of the striking or beneficial aspects of nature, but the combina-

tion of these three elements is especially characteristic of Japan. The

numerous clear streams and the ever present ocean have always de-

lighted the Japanese, as we may tell from their earliest poetry. To their

love of water the Japanese have joined a passion for lustration and clean-

liness, and in our own day for swimming. The Japanese love of mountains

is not surprising in a country renowned for its numerous peaks, espe-

cially the incomparable Mt. Fuji, and the worship of the sun is not

unnatural in a country blessed with a temperate climate. Today we can

still appreciate what an awe-inspiring experience it must have been for

the Japanese of any age to stand on the summit of Mt. Fuji and greet

the glowing sun as it rose from the waters of the Pacific. Other char-

acteristics of the Japanese found in the early Chinese accounts and which

still seem true today include honesty, politeness, gentleness in peace and

bravery in war, and a love of liquor. The Japanese accounts of the birth of the gods and of the foundation

of Japan belong of course to the realm of mythology rather than history,

but they afford us a glimpse of Japanese attitudes toward life and the

universe when civilization was just beginning to glimmer. Also since

great importance was attached to these legends by later Japanese, some

knowledge of them is indispensable to the study of Japanese thought.

JAPAN IN THE CHINESE DYNASTIC HISTORIES

The following extracts are from the official histories of successive Chinese dynasties beginning with the Latter Han (A.D. 25-220). However, the first of these accounts to be written was that for the Kingdom of Wei (220-265), compiled about A.D. 297. The History of the Latter Han was compiled about 445 and incorporates much from the earlier description of the Japanese.

These accounts are contained in a section devoted to the barbarian neigh-

6 ANCIENT JAPAN

bors of China at the end of each history. Thus they do not occupy a prominent place in these works, being more in the nature of an afterthought or foot- note. Particularly in the earlier accounts the information is apt to be scattered and disconnected, and of course is presented by official chroniclers who view Japanese affairs with an eye to Chinese interests and prestige.

Nevertheless, some of the main outlines of Japan's development in these early centuries may be discerned. In the first accounts Japan appears to be a hetero- geneous group of communities in contact with China, with one ruling house bidding for Chinese recognition of its supremacy over the others. In one case the influence of the Chinese ambassador is said to have been the decisive factor in settling a · dispute over succession to the Yamato throne. The kings of W a, as the Yamato rulers were known, also made strong claims to military suprem- acy in Korea which were at times acknowledged by the Chinese court. In the later accounts unification of Japan has progressed noticeably. The sovereignty of the Yamato house has been asserted over hitherto autonomous regions, and its government displays many of the trappings of the Chinese imperial struc- ture. On occasion the Japanese court is rebuked for its pretensions to equality with the Chinese, and even for its hinted superiority, as when the Japanese ruler addressed the Chinese, "The Son of Heaven in the land where the sun rises addresses a letter to the Son of Heaven in the land where the sun sets."

ACCOUNTS OF THE EASTERN BARBARIANS

History of the Kingdom of Wei ( Wei Chih) c. A,D. 297 [Adapted from Tsunoda and Goodrich, Japan in the Chinese Dynastic Histories, pp. 8-16]

The people of Wa [Japan] dwell in the middle of the ocean on the moun- tainous islands southeast of [ the prefecture of] Tai-fang. They formerly comprised more than one hundred communities. During the Han dynasty, [Wa] envoys appeared at the court; today, thirty of their communities maintain intercourse with us through envoys and scribes ....

The land of W a is warm and mild. In winter as in summer the people live on raw vegetables and go about barefooted. They have [ or live in] houses; father and mother, elder and younger, sleep separately. They smear their bodies with pink and scarlet, just as the Chinese use powder. They serve food on bamboo and wooden trays, helping themselves with their fingers. When a person dies, they prepare a single coffin, without an outer one. They cover the graves with earth to make a mound. When death occurs, mourning is observed for more than ten days, during which

EARLIEST RECORDS 7

period they do not eat meat. The head mourners wail and lament, while friends sing, dance, and drink liquor. When the funeral is over, all members of the family go into the water to cleanse themselves in a bath of purification.

When they go on voyages across the sea to visit China, they always select a man who does not comb his hair, does not rid himself of fleas, lets his clothing get as dirty as it will, does not eat meat, and does not lie with women. This man behaves like a mourner and is known as the "mourning keeper." When the voyage meets with good fortune, they all lavish on him slaves and other valuables. In case there is disease or misc hap, they kill him, saying that he was not scrupulous in observing the taboos ....

Whenever they undertake an enterprise or a journey and discussion arises, they bake bones and divine in order to tell whether fortune • will be good or bad. First they announce the object of divination, using the same manner of speech as in tortoise shell divination; then they examine the cracks made by the fire and tell what is to come to pass.

In their meetings and in their deportment, there is no distinction between father and son or between men and women. They are fond of liquor. In their worship, men of importance simply clap their hands in- stead of kneeling or bowing. The , people live long, some to one hundred and others to eighty or ninety years. Ordinarily, men of importance have four or five wives; the lesser ones, two or three. Women are not loose in morals or jealous. There is no theft, and litigation is infrequent. In case of violation of law, the light offender loses his wife and children by confiscation; as for the grave offender, the members of his hbusehold and also his kinsmen are exterminated. There are class distinctions among the people, and some men are vassals of others. Taxes are collected. There are granaries as well as markets in each province, where necessaries are exchanged under the supervision of the W a: officials ....

When the lowly meet men of importance on the road; they ·stop and withdraw to the roadside. In conveying messages to them or addressing them, they either squat or kneel, with both hands on the ground. This is the way they show respect. When responding, they say "ah," which corresponds to the affirmative "yes."

The country formerly had a man as ruler. For some seventy or eighty years after , that there were disturbances and warf;ue. Thereupon the

8 ANCIENT JAPAN

people agreed upon a woman for their ruler. Her name was Pimiko. She occupied herself with magic and sorcery, bewitching the people. Though mature in age, she remained unmarried. She had a younger brother who assisted her in ruling the country. After she became the ruler, there were few who saw her. She had one thousand women as attendants, but only one man. He served her food and drink and acted as a medium of communication. She resided in a palace surrounded by towers and stock~ ades,. with armed guards in a state of constant vigilance. . . .

In the sixth month of the second year of Ching-ch'u [ A,D. 238], the Queen of Wa sent the grandee Nashonmi and others to visit the pre- fecture [ of Tai-fang], where they requested permission to proceed to the Emperor's court with tribute. The Governor, Liu Hsia, dispatched an officer to accompany the party to the capital. In answer to the Queen of Wa, an edict of the Emperor, issued in the twelfth month of the same year, said as follows: "Herein we address Pimiko, Queen of Wa, whom we now officially call a friend of Wei. The Governor of Tai-fang, Liu Hsia, has sent a messenger to accompany your vassal, Nashonmi, and his lieutenant, Tsushi Gori. They have arrived here with your tribute, consisting of four male slaves and six female slaves, together with tw.o pieces of cloth with designs, each twenty feet in length. You live very far away across the sea; yet you have sent an embassy with tribute. Your loyalty and filial piety we appreciate exceedingly. We confer upon you, therefore, the title 'Queen of Wa Friendly to Wei,' together with the decoration of the gold seal with purple ribbon. The latter, properly en- cased, is to be sent to you through the Governor. We expect you, 0 Queen, to rule your people in peace and to endeavor to be devoted and obedient." . . .

When Pimiko passed away, a great mound was raised, more than a hundred paces in diameter. Over a hundred male and female attendants followed her to the grave. Then a king was placed on the throne, but the people would not obey him. Assassination and murder followed; more than one thousand were thus slain.

A relative of Pimiko named Iyo, a girl of thirteen, was [then} made queen and order was restored. Cheng [ the Chinese ambassador] issued a proclamation to the effect that Iyo was the ruler. Then Iyo sent a delegation of twenty under the grandee Y azaku, General of the Imperial Quard, to accompany Cheng home [ to China]. The delegation visited tho

EARLIEST RECORDS 9

capital and presented thirty male and female slaves. It also offered to the court five thousand white gems and two pieces of carved jade, as well as twenty pieces of brocade with variegated designs.

History of the Latter Han Dynasty (Hou Han Shu) c. A.D. 445 [ Adapted from Tsunoda and Goodrich, fapan in the Chinese Dynastic Histories, pp. 1-3]

The Wa dwell on mountainous islands southeast of Han [Korea] in the middle of the ocean, forming more than one hundred communities. From the time of the overthrow of Chao-hsien [ northern Korea] by Emperor Wu [r. 140--87 B.c.], nearly thirty of these communities have held intercourse with the Han (Chinese) court by envoys or scribes. Each community has its king, whose office is hereditary. The King of Great Wa resides in the country of Yamadai ....

In the second year of the Chien-wu Chung-yuan era [ A,D. 57 ], the Wa country Nu sent an envoy with tribute who called himself ta-fu. This country is located in the southern extremity of the Wa country. Emperor Kuang-wu bestowed on him a seal. ...

During the reigns of Huan-ti [ 147-168] and Ling-ti [ 168--189] the country of W a was in a state of great confusion, war and conflict raging on all sides. For a number of years, there was no ruler. Then a woman named Pimiko appeared. Remaining unmarried, she occupied herself with magic and sorcery and bewitched the populace. Thereupon they placed her on the throne. She kept one thousand female attendants, but few people saw her. There was only one man who was in charge of her wardrobe and meals and acted as the medium of communication. She resided in a palace surrounded by towers and stockade, with the pro- tection of armed guards. The laws and customs were strict and stern.

History of the Liu Sung Dynasty (Sung Shu) c. A.D. 513 [ Adapted from Tsunoda and Goodrich, fa pan in the Chinese Dynastic Histories, pp. 23-24]

The fo\lowing extract is preceded by an account of four successive Japanese rµlers who asked to be confirmed in their titles by the Chinese court. One of these titles was "Generalissimo Who Maintains Peace in the East Commanding with Battle-Ax All Military Affairs in the Six Countries of W a, Paekche, Silla, Imna, Chin-ban and Mok-han." Wa refers to Japan, and the other five names

IO ANCIENT :JAPAN

to states comprising most of the Korean peninsula. On at least two occasions in the fifth :c¢ntury the .Chin~se court, while accepting tlie fealty of the Japanese "king," confirmed his . claim to military supremacy in Korea. , ..

Ko died and his brother, Bu,1 came to the throne. Bu, signing himself King ,0£ Wa, ,Gerieralissimo Who Maintains .Peace·in ·the EastCommand- ing with Battle-Ax All Military Affairs in the Seven Countries of Wa, Paekche, Silla, lmna, Kala, Chin-han, and Mok-han, in · the second year of Sheng~ming, Shun-ti's reign [ 478), sent an envoy. bearing a memorial which read as. follows: "Oµr land is remote and distant; its domains lie far out in the ocean. From of old our forebears have c.lad the;ffiseJves in armor and . helmet and gone . across the hills and . waters, sparing no time for rest. In the east, they conquered fifty-five countries of hairy men; and . in the west, they 'brought to their knees sixty-si~ countries of various barbarians. Crossing the sea to the nortb, tpey s,ubjugated ninety-five coumries. The way of government is to keep harmony and peace; thus order is established in the land. Generation after, generation, without fail, our forebears have paid homage to the com~1 Y:our s1.1b- ject, ignorant though he is, is su~ceeding to the . throne of bis predecessors and is fervently .devoted to your Sovereign Majesty. Everything he co.m- mands is at your imperial disposal. In order to go by way otPaekche, far distant though it _ is; we prepared ships and boats. Kogury,o,2 4owever, in defiance of law, schemed to . capture them. Borders were raided, and murder was committed repeatedly, Consequently we wer~ delayed every time and missed favorable winds. We attempted to push on, but when the way was clear, Koguryo was rebellious. My deceased f:1ther became indignant at the marauding foe who blocked our way to the sovereign court. Urged on by a sense of justice, he gathered together . a millioll archers and . was about to launch a great campaign . . J;lµt because of th~ death of my father and brother, the plan that had been matured could not be carried out . at the last moment. Mourning required the laying down of arms. Inaction does not bring victory. Now, however, we again set our armor in array and carry out the wish of our elders. The fighting men are in high mettle; civil and military officials are ready; none have fear 'of sword or fire. ·

''.Your Sovereign virtue extends over heaven and earth. If through it we can crush this foe and put an end to our · troubles, we shall ever

1 Emperor Yiiryaku, 456-479. I State in . North Korea.

EARLIEST RECORDS 11

continue loyally to serve [Your Majesty]. 1 therefore beg you to appoint me as supreme commander of the campaign, with the status of minister, and to grant to others [among my followers] ranks and titles, so that loyalty tnay be encouraged."

By imperial edict, Bu was made King of · Wa and Generalissimo Who Maintains Peace in the East . Commanding with Battle-Ax all Military Affairs in the Six Countries of Wa, Silla, Imna, Kala, Chinshan, and Mok-han.

History of the Sui Dynasty (Sui Shu) c. A.D. 630 [Adapted from Tsunoda and Goodrich, /apan in the Chinese Dynastic Histories, pp. 29-32]

During the twenty years of the K'ai-huang era (581-600), the King of Wa, whose family name was Ame and personal name Tarishihoko, and who bore the title of Ahakomi, sent an envoy to visit the court. The Emperor ordered the appropriate official to make inquiries about the manners and customs [of the Wa people]. The envoy reported thus: "The King of Wa deems heaven to be his elder brother and the sun, his younger. Before break of dawn he attends the court, and, sitting cross-legged, listens to appeals. Just as soon as the sun rises, he ceases these duties, saying that he hands them over to his brother." Our just Emperor said that such things were extremely senseless,1 and he ad- monished [the King of Wa] to alter [his ways].

[ According to the envoy's report], the King's spouse is called Kemi: Several hundred women are kept in the inner chambers of the court. The heir apparent is known as Rikamitahori. There is no special palace. There are twelve grades of court officials. . . .

There are about 100,000 households. It is customary to punish murder, arson, and adultery with death. Thieves are made to make restitution in accordance with the value of the goods stolen. If the thief has no property with which to make payment, he is taken to be a slave. Other offenses are punished according to their nature-sometimes by banishment and sometimes by flogging. In the prosecution of offenses by the court, the knees of those who plead not guilty are pressed together by placing them

1 According to Chinese tradition a virtuous ruler showed his conscientiousness by attend .ing to matters of state the first thing in the morning. Apparently the Japanese emperor was carry; ing this to a ridiculous extreme by disposing of state business before dawn.

1:2 ANCIENT JAPAN

between pieces of wood, or their heads are sawed with the stretched string of a strong bow. Sometimes pebbles are put in boiling water and both parties to a dispute made to pick them out. The hand of the guilty one is said to become inflamed. Sometimes a snake is kept in a jar, and the accused ordered to catch it. If he is guilty, his hand will be bitten. The people are gentle and peaceful. Litigation is infrequent and theft seldom occurs.

As for musical instruments, they have five-stringed lyres and flutes. Both men and women paint marks on their arms and spots on their faces and have their bodies tattooed. They catch fish by diving into the water. They have no written characters and understand only the use of notched sticks and knotted ropes. They revere Buddha and obtained Buddhist scriptures from Paekche. This was the first time that they came into possession of written characters. They are familiar with divination and have profound faith in shamans, both male and female ....

Both Silla and Paekche consider Wa to be a great country, replete with precious things, and they pay her homage. Envoys go back and forth from time to time.

In the third year of Ta-yeh [6o7], King Tarishihoko sent an envoy to the court with tribute. The envoy said: "The King has heard that to the west of the ocean a Bodhisattva of the Sovereign reveres and promotes Buddhism. For that reason he has sent an embassy to pay his respects. Accompanying the embassy are several tens of monks who have come to study Buddhism." [The envoy brought] an official message which read: "The Son of Heaven in the land where the sun rises addresses a letter to the Son of Heaven in the land where the sun sets. We hope you are in good health." When the Emperor saw this letter, he was dis- pleased and told the official in charge of foreign affairs that this letter from the barbarians was discourteous, and that such a letter should not again be brought to his attention.

New History of the T'ang Dynasty (Hsin T'ang Shu) 1 [ Adapted from Tsunoda and Goodrich, /apan in the Chinese Dynastic Histories, pp. 38-40]

Japan in former times was called Wa-nu. It is 24,000 li distant from our capital, situated to the southeast of Silla in the middle of the ocean.

1 Compiled in the eleventh century on the basis of earlier materials relating to the T'ang dynasty, 618-906.

EARLIEST RECORDS 13

It is five months' journey to cross Japan from east to west, and a three months' journey from south to north. There are no castles or stockades in that country, only high walls built by placing timbers together. The roofs are thatched with grass. There are over fifty islets there, each with a name of its own, but all under the sovereignty of Japan. A high official is stationed to have surveillance over these communities.

As for the inhabitants the women outnumber the men. The people are literate and revere the teachings of Buddha. In the government there are twelve official ranks. The family name of the King is Ame. The Japanese say that from their first ruler, known as Ame-no-minaka-nushi, to Hiko- nagi, there were altogether thirty-two generations of rulers, all bearing the title of mikoto and residing in the palace of T sukushi. Upon the enthronement of Jimmu, son of Hikonagi, the title was changed to tenno and the palace was moved to the province of Yamato. . . .

In the fifth year of Chen-kuan [ 631 ], the Japanese sent an embassy to pay a visit to the court. In appreciation of this visit from such a distance, the sovereign gave orders to the official concerned not to insist on yearly tribute ....

At this time, Silla was being harassed by Koguryo and Paekche. Em- peror Kao Tsung sent a sealed rescript to Japan ordering the King to send reinforcements to succor Silla. But after a short time, King Kotoku died [ 654] and his son Ame-no-toyo-takara was enthroned. Then he also died, and his son Tenchi was enthroned. In the following year [663] an envoy came to the court accompanied by some Ainus. The Ainus also dwell on those islands. The beards of the Ainus were four feet long. They carried arrows at their necks, and without ever missing would shoot a gourd held on the head of a person standing several tens of steps away.

Then Tenchi died [671] and his son, Temmu, came to the throne. He died, and his son Soji was enthroned.

In the first year of Hsien-heng [ 670] an embassy came to the court from Japan to offer congratulations upon the conquest of Koguryo. About this time, the Japanese who had studied Chinese came to dislike the name Wa and changed it to Nippon. According to the words of the Japanese envoy himself, that name was chosen because the country was so close to where the sun rises. Some say [ on the other hand], that Nippon was a small country which had been subjugated by the Wa, and that the latter took over its name. As this envoy was not truthful, doubt still remains. Be-

' ANCIENT JAPAN

sides the envoy was boastful, and he said that the domains of his country were many thousands of ·square li and extended to the ocean on the south and on the west. In the northeast, he said, the country was bor- dered by mountain ranges beyond which lay the land of the hairy men.

THE EARLIESTJAPANESE CHRONICLES

The great native chronicles of early Japan, the Records of Ancient Matters (Koiiki) and Chronides of .Japan (Nihongi), were compiled as late as the first decades of the eighth i:;entury A.D., when Japanese writers were already strongly influenced by Chinese traditions.1 It is therefore difficttlt to distinguish any pure native traditions in thes_e works or any reliable' account of Japan's early history. Many of the events described are anachronistic, and many of the legends are selected with a view to confirming -the religious or political ·claims of the ruling dynasty. The emphasis on ancestry is already. quite appar~t, though other .evidence indicates that family genealogies were~ a very confused state before the introduction of writing and the Chinese practice of compiling genealogical records (see Chapter IV). · · ·

Passages betraying significant Chinese influence are included elsewhere. The following excerpts from :th~ translations of Chamberlain and Aston are selected to show what seem to 'be the most unsystematic and unsophisticated of legends dealing with the Age of the Gods and the f<;>unding of the dynasty. Especi~lly evident a.re the great number of gods, their close association with natural phenomena, and the near-chaos of the supernatural world. It should be noted that in the creation of the imperial line gods representing the Sun, Mountains and the Sea· each made an important contribution. .

From the Preface to Records of Ancient Matters (Ko#ki) · [Adapted from Chamberlain, Ko-ji-ki, pp. n-13]

Here4pOQ, regretting the erro,rs .in the old words, and wishing to correct the misstatements in the .. former chronicles, .[the Empress Gem .myo], · on

tl,ie eighteenth day of the ninth moon of the fourth year of Wada [November 3, 711],. comm~nded° me Yasumaro to select and record the old words, learned by he~rt ,by Hieda no Are according to the imperial decree, an,d dutifully to lift them up to Her. ·

In reverent obedience to the contents of the decree, I have made a · 1 Footnotes to translations from the Kojiki and Nihongi, unless otherwise identified, arc those of Chamberlain and Aston ·respectively, in some cases abbreviated or adapted to the usage in this text. [Ed. J

EARLIEST RECORDS . 15

careful choice. But in high antiquity both speech and thought were so simple, that it would be difficult to arrange phrases and compose periods

in the characters. 2 To relate everything in an ideographic transcription

would entail an inadequate expression of the meaning; to write alto- gether according to the phonetic method would make the story of events unduly lengthy. 3 For this reason have I sometimes in the same sentence used the phonetic and ideographic systems conjointly, and have some- times in one matter used the ideographic record exclusively. Moreover where-the drift of the words was obscure, I have by comments elucidated their signification; but need it be said that I have nowhere commented

on what was easy? ... Altogether the things recorded commence with the separation of Heaven and Earth, and conclude with the august reign at Oharida. 4 So from the Deity Master-qf-the-August-Centre-of-Heaven

down to His Augustness Prince-Wave-Limit-Brave-Cormorant-Thatch- Meeting-Incompletely makes the First Volume; from the Heavenly Sovereign Kamu-Yamato-lhare-Biko down to the august reign of Homuda makes the Second Volume; from the Emperor 6-Sazaki down to the great palace of Oharida makes the Third Volume. 5 Altogether I have written Three Volumes, which I reverently and respectfully present. I, Yasumaro, with true trembling and true fear, bow my head, bow my head.

Reverently presented by the Court Noble Futo no Yasumaro, an Officer of the Upper Division of the First Class of the Fifth Rank and of the

Fifth Order of Merit, on the 28th day of the first moon of the fifth year of Wada [March 10, 712 ].

2 That is, the simplicity of speech and thought in early Japan renders it too hard a ·t;sk to rearrange the old documents committed to memory by Arc in such a manner as to make them conform to the rules of Chinese style.

a That is, if I adopted in its entirety the Chinese ideographic method of writing, I should often fail of giving a true impression of the nature of the original documents. If, on the other hand, I consistently used the Chinese characters, syllable by syllable, as phonetic symbols for Japanese sounds, this work would attain to inordinate proportions, on account of the great length of the polysyllabic Japanese as compared with the monosyllabic Chinese.

• That is, commence with the creation, and end with the death of the Empress Suiko (A.D. 628), who resided at Oharida.

6 Kamu-Yamato-Ihare-Biko is the proper native Japanese name of the -emperor commonly known by the Chinese "canonical name" of -Jimmu. Homuda is part of the native Japanese name of the Emperor Ojin. 0-Sazaki is the native Japanese name of the Emperor Nintoku.

16 ANCIENT JAPAN

Birth of the Sun Goddess

Note that in this account from the Nihongi the Sun Goddess, Amaterasu, is identified not as the first of the gods or as the creator of the world, but simply as one among many offspring of the primal pair, Izanagi and Izanami.

[Adapted from Aston, Nihongi, I, 18-20]

Izanagi no Mikota and Izanami no Mikoto cons1,.1lted together, saying: "We have now produced the Great-eight-island country, with the moun- tains, rivers, herbs, and trees. Why should we not produce someone who shall be lord of the universe?" They then together produced the Sun Goddess, who was called 6-hiru-me no muchi. 1 ·

(Called in one writing Amaterasu no 6 kami.2 ) (In one writing she is called Amaterasu-6-hiru-me no Mikoto.3 ) The resplendent luster of this child shone throughout . all the six quar-

ters.4 Therefore the two Deities rejoiced, saying: "We have had many children, but none of them have been equal to this wondrous infant. She ought not to be kept long in this land, but we ought of our. own accord to send her at once to Heaven, and entrust to her the affairs of Heaven."

At this time Heaven and Earth were still not far separated, and there- fore they sent her up to Heaven by the ladder of Heaven.

They next produced the Moon-god. (Called in one writing Tsuki-yumi 5 no Mikota, or Tsuki-yomi no

Mikoto.) His radiance was next to that of the Sun in splendor. This God was

to be the consort of the Sun-Goddess, and to share in her government. They therefore sent him also to Heaven.

Next they produced the leech-child, which even ,at the age of three years could not stand upright. They therefore placed it in the rock- camphor-wood boat of Heaven, and abandoned it to the winds .

. Their next child was Sosa no o no Mikoto.6

(Called in one writing Kami Sosa-no-o no Mikoto or Haya Sosa-no-o no Mikoto.7) · · ·

1 Great-noon-female-of-possessor. 1 Heaven-illumine-of-great-deity • . • Heaven-illumine-great-noon-female-of-augustness. • North, South, East, West, Above, Below. • Yumi means bow; yomi, darkness. Neither is inappropriate as applied to the moon. • Better known as Susa no o, a god particularly associated with the Izumo people, who was

probably relegated to a subordinate role when these people were displaced or eclipsed in power by the Yamato group. [Ed.]

7 Kami, deity; haya, quick.

EARLIEST RECORDS

This God had a fierce temper and was given to cruel acts. Moreover he made a practice of continually weeping and wailing. So he brought many of the people of the land to an untimely end. Again he caused green mountains to become withered. Therefore the two Gods, his parents, ad- dressed Sosa no o no Mikoto, saying: "Thou art exceedingly wicked, and it is not meet that thou shouldst reign over the world. Certainly thou must depart far away to the Nether-land." So they at length expelled him.

The Divine Creation of the Imperial Ancestors

In the following excerpt from the Ko;iki it should be observed that the divine offspring from which the imperial line is traced were the joint creation of Amaterasu, the Sun Goddess, and Susa-no-o, the unruly storm god. They were actually produced from the mouth of Susa-no-o after he had chewed up the ornaments of Amaterasu, but she claimed them as her own on the ground that the seed or stuff of which they were made came from her. Thus the ordinary male and female functions are reversed in establishing the genetic relationship, which gives priority to the Sun Goddess but suggests the absorption of Susa- no-o's power into the imperial line.

[ Adapted from Chamberlain, Ko-ji-ki, pp. 45-49]

So thereupon His-Swift-Impetuous-Male-Augustness (Susa-no-o) said: "If that be so, I will take leave of the Heaven-Shining-Great-August-Deity (Amaterasu), 1 and depart." (With these words] he forthwith went up to Heaven, whereupon all the mountains and rivers shook, and every land and country quaked. So the Heaven-Shining-Deity, alarmed at the noise, said: "The reason of the ascent hither of His Augustness my elder brother is surely no good intent. It is only that he wishes to wrest my land from me." And she forthwith, unbinding her august hair, twisted it into august bunches; and both into the left and into the right august bunch, as like- wise into her august head-dress and likewise on to her left and her right august arm, she twisted ari augustly complete [ string] of curved jewels eight feet [long] of five hundred jewels; and, slinging on her back a quiver holding a thousand [arrows], and adding [thereto] a quiver holding five hundred [arrows], she likewise took and slung at her side a mighty and high [-sounding] elbow-pad, and brandished and stuck her bow upright so that the top shook; and she stamped her feet into the hard ground up to her opposing thighs, kicking away [ the earth] like

1 In what follows, the names of deities appearing frequently in these accounts are standard- ized and given an abbreviated translation or transliteration in place of the full title. {Ed.]

ANCIENT JAPAN

rotten snow, and stood valiantly like unto a mighty man, and waiting, asked: "Wherefore ascendest thou hither?" Then Susa-no-a replied, say- ing: "I have no evil intent. It is only that when the Great-August-Deity [ our father] spoke, deigning to enquire the cause of my wailing and weeping, I said: 'I wail because I wish to go to my deceased mother's land'; whereupon the Great-August-Deity said: 'Thou shalt not dwell in this land,' and deigned to expel me with a divine expulsion. It is. there- fore, solely with the thought of taking leave of thee and departing, that I have ascended hither. I have no strange intentions." Then the Heaven- Shining-Deity said: "If that be so, whereby shall I know the sincerity of thine intentions?" Thereupon Susa-no-a replied, saying: "Let each of us swear, and produce children." So as they then swore to each other from the opposite banks of the Tranquil River of Heaven, the august names of the Deities that were born from the mist [ of her breath] when, having first begged Susa-no-a to hand her the ten-grasp saber which was girded on him and broken it into three fragments, and with the jewels making a jingling sound having brandished and washed them in the True-Pool- Well of Heaven, and having crunchingly crunched them, the Heaven- Shining-Deity blew them away, were Her Augustness Torrent-Mist- Princess, another august name for whom is Her Augustness Princess-of- the-Island-of-the-Offing; next Her Augustness Lovely-Island-Princess, an- other august name for whom is Her Augustness Good-Princess; next Her Augustness Princess-of-the-Torrent. The august name of the Deity that was born from the mist [ of his breath] when, having begged the Heaven- Shining-Deity to hand him the augustly complete [ string] of curved jewels eight feet [long] of five hundred jewels that was twisted in the left august bunch [ of her hair], and with the jewels making a jingling sound having brandished and washed them in the True-Pool-Well of Heaven, and having crunchingly crunched them, Susa-no-o blew them away, was His Augustness Truly-Conqueror-I-Conquer-Conquering- Swift-Heavenly-Great-Great-Ears. The august name of the Deity that was born from the mist [ of his breath] when again, having begged her to hand him the jewels that were twisted in the right august bunch [ of her hair], and having crunchingly crunched them, he blew them away, was His Augustness Ame-no-hohi. The august name of the Deity that was born from the mist [ of his breath] when again, having begged her to hand him the jewels that were twisted in her august head-dress, and

EARLIEST RECORDS 19

having crunchingly crunched them, he blew them away, was His August- ness Prince-Lord-of-Heaven. The august name of the Deity that was born from the mist [ of his breath] when again, having begged her to hand him the jewels that were twisted on her left august arm, and having crunchingly crunched them, he blew them away, was His Augustness Prince-Lord-of-Life. The august name of the Deity that was born from the jewels that were twisted on her right august arm, and having crunch- ingly crunched them, he blew them away, was His-Wondrous-August- ness-of-Kumanu. [Five Deities in all.]

The August Declaration of the Division of the August Male Children and the August Female Children

[ Adapted from Chamberlain, Ko-ii-ki, pp. 49-50]

Hereupon the Heaven-Shining-Deity said to Susa-no-o: "As for the seed of the five male Deities born last, their birth was from things of mine; so undoubtedly they are my children. As for the seed of the three female Deities born first, their birth was from a thing of thine; so doubtless they are thy children." Thus did she declare the division.

Descent of the Divine Grandson with the Three Imperial Regalia

[Adapted from Aston, Nihongi, I, 76-77]

"AH the Central Land of Reed-Plains is now completely tranquilized." Now the Heaven-Shining-Deity gave command, saying: "If that be so, I will send down my child." She was about to do so, when in the mean- time, an August Grandchild was born, whose name was called Ama-tsu- hiko-hiko-ho-no-ninigi no Mikoto. Her son represented to her that he wished the August Grandchild to be sent down in his stead. Therefore the Heaven-Shining-Deity gave to Ama-tsu-hiko-hiko-ho-no-ninigi no Mikoto the Three Treasures, viz. the curved jewel of Yasaka gem, the eight-hand mirror, and the sword Kusanagi, and joined to him as his attendants Ame no Koyane no Mikoto, the first ancestor of the Naka-tomi; Futo-dama no Mikoto, the first ancestor of the Im.be; Ame no Uzume no Mikoto, the first ancestor of the Sarume; Ishi-kori-dome no Mikoto, the first ancestor of the mirror-makers; and Tamaya no Mikoto, the first ancestor of the jewel-

20 ANCIENT JAPAN

makers; in all Gods of five be.1 Then she commanded her August Grand- child, saying: "This Reed-plain-1500-autumns-fair-rice-ear Land is the re- gion which my descendants shall be lords of. Do thou, my August Grand- child, proceed thither and govern it. Go! and may pro~perity attend thy dynasty, and may it, like Heaven and Earth, endure for ever.''

His Marriage with the Daughter of the Great Mountain Deity [Adapted from Aston, Nihongi, I, 7C>-JI]

Then Taka-mi-musubi no Mikota took the coverlet which was on his true couch, and casting it over his August Grandchild, Ama-tsu-hiko- hiko-ho-ninigi no Mikoto, made him to descend. So the August Grand- child left his Heavenly Rock-seat, and with an awful path-cleaving, clove his way through the eight-fold clouds of Heaven, and descended on the Peak of Takachiho of So 2 in Hyiiga.

After . this the manner of the progress of the August Grandchild was as follows: From the Floating Bridge of Heaven on the twin summits of Kushibi, he took his stand on a level part of the floating sand-bank. Then he traversed the desert land of Sojishi from the Hill of Hitao in his search for a country, until he came to Cape Kasasa, in Ata-no-nagaya. A certain man of that land appeared and gave his name as Koto-katsu- kuni-katsu Nagasa. The August Grandchild inquired of him, saying: "ls there a country, or not?" He answered, and said: "There is here a coun- try, I pray thee roam through it at thy pleasure." The August Grand- child therefore went there and took up his abode. Now there was a fair maid in that land whose name was Ka-ashi-tsu-hime.

(Also called Kami Ata-tsu-hime or Ko no hana no saku-ya-hime.) The August Grandchild inquired of this fair maid, saying: "Whose

daughter art thou?" She answered and said: "Thy handmaiden is the child of a Heavenly Deity by his marriage with the Great Mountain Deity." 3

The August Grandchild accordingly favored her, whereupon in one night she became pregnant.

1 be--hcreditary guilds or corporations of craftsmen. [Ed.] • It is this word which forms the second part of Kumaso, the general name of the tribes

which inhabited the south of Kyushu. • 0-yama-tsu-rni Kami.

EARLIEST RECORDS 21

The Heavenly Grandchild and the Sea-God's Daughter [ Adapted from Aston, N ihon gi, I, 9:2-95]

The elder brother Ho-no-susori no Mikota had by nature a sea-gift; the younger brother Hiko-hoho-demi no Mikota had by nature a mountain- gift.4 In the beginning the two brothers, the elder and the younger, con- versed together, saying: "Let us for a trial exchange gifts." They even-

tually exchanged them, but neither of them gained aught by doing so.

The elder brother repented his bargain, and returned to the younger brother his bow and arrows, asking for his fish-hook to be given back to him. But the younger brother had already lost the elder brother's fish- hook, and there was no means of finding it. He accordingly made an- other new hook which he offered to his elder brother. But his elder brother refused to accept it, and demanded the old hook. The younger brother, grieved at this, forthwith took his cross-sword and forged from it new fish-hooks, which he heaped up in a winnowing tray, and offered to his brother. But his elder brother was wroth, and said: "These are not my old fish-hook: though they are many, I will not take them." And

he continued repeatedly to demand it vehemently. Therefore Hiko-hoho- demi's grief was exceedingly profound, and he went and made moan by the shore of the sea. There he met Shiho-tsutsu 5 no Oji. The old man inquired of him saying: "Why dost thou grieve here?" He answered and told him the matter from first to last. The old man said: "Grieve no more. I will arrange this matter for thee." So he made a basket without interstices, and placing in it Hoho-demi no Mikoto, sank it in the sea. Forthwith he found himself at a pleasant strand, where he abandoned the basket, and, proceeding on his way, suddenly arrived at the palace of the Sea-God. This palace was provided with battlements and turrets, and had stately towers. Before the gate there was a well, and over the well there grew a many-branched cassia-tree, with wide-spreading boughs and leaves. Now Hiko-hoho-demi went up to the foot of this tree and loitered about. After some time a beautiful woman appeared, and, push- ing open the door, came forth. She at length took a jewel-vessel and approached. She was about to draw water, when, raising her eyes, she saw

• A talent for fishing and a talent for hunting. The two brothers were the twin offspring of the August Grandchild and the daughter of the Great Mountain Deity. [Ed.]

5 Salt-sea-elder.

22 ANCIENT JAPAN

him, and was alarmed. Returning within, she spoke to her father and mother, saying: "There is a rare stranger at the foot of the tree before the gate." The God of the Sea thereupon prepared an eight-fold cushion and led him in. When they had taken their seats, he inquired of him the object of his coming. Then Hiko-hoho-demi explained to him in reply all the circumstances. The · Sea-God accordingly assembled the fishes, both great and, small, and required of them an answer. They all said: "We know not. Only the Red~woman6 has had a sore mouth for some time past and has not come." She was therefore peremptorily summoned to appear, and on her mouth being examined the lost hook was actually found. ··

After this, Hiko-hoho-demi took to wife the Sea-God's daughter, Toyo- tama 7-hime, and · dwelt in the sea-palace .... When the Heavenly Grandchild was· about • to set out · on his return journey, T oyo-tama-hime addressed him, :saying: "Thy handmaiden is already pregnant, and the time of her ·delivery is not far off. On a day when the winds and waves are raging, I will surely come forth to the sea-shore, and I pray thee that thou wilt m'ake for me a parturition house, and await me there." ...

After this T oyo-tama-hime fulfilled her promise, and, bringing with her her · younger sister, Tama-yori-hime, bravely confronted the winds and waves, and came to the sea-shore. When the time of her delivery was at hand, she besought Hiko-hoho-demi, saying: "When thy hand- maiden is in travail, I pray thee do not look upon her." Hl>Wever, the Heavenly Grandchild could not restrain himself, but went secretly and peeped in. Now Toyo-tama~hime was just in childbirth, and had changed into a dragon. She was greatly ashamed, and said: "Hadst thou not dis- graced me; I would have made the sea and land communicate with each other, and forever prevented them from being sundered. But now that thou hast disgraced me, wherewithal shall friendly feelings be knit to- gether?" So she wrapped the infant in rushes, and abandoned it on the sea-shore. Then she barred the sea-path, and passed away. Accordingly the child was called Hiko-nagisa-take-u-gaya-fuki-aezu 8 no Mikoto.

A long time after, Hiko-hoho-demi no Mikota died, and was buried · in the imperial mound on the summit of Mount Takaya in Hyuga.

·8 Aka-me, a name of the Tai (pagrus). 1 Rich-jewel. • Prince-beach-brave-cormorant-rush-thatch-unfinished.