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THE HERO(INE) ON A JOURNEY: A POSTMODERN CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE

Phillip Dybicz Keimyung University

Narrafive therapy, the strengths perspecfive, and solufion-focused therapy are

3 prominent examples of social work pracfices heavily informed by social con-

strucfionism. Yet getting students from understanding theory to applying theo-

ry can often be chaüenging. This arficle offers a conceptual framework to aid

students in the appUcafion of social construcfionism and the theory of mimesis

in the aforemenfioned 3 approaches. The "hero(ine) on a journey" is the frame-

work offered for capturing the linguisfic turn that informs postmodern pracfice:

a focus on how narrafives construct the idenfity of the client, how the client's

efforts at reaching a preferred idenfity serve as the engine that drives change,

and how these efforts arise from an endeavor at consciousness-raising.

MANY CHALLENGES AWATT t h e i n s t r u c t o r w h o

aftempts to teach students innovafive pracfice

approaches such as the strengths perspecfive,

narrafive theory, and solufion-focused therapy.

These approaches have arisen as a crifique to

tradifional approaches of social work interven-

fions. Yet when aftempfing to learn these

approaches, students commorüy struggle with

breaking free from their tradifional (i.e., mod-

ernist) understanding of social work as an

effort at problem solving—an effort predomi-

nated by concerns over funcfiorüng and adapt-

ing to the environment. Teaching various post-

modem theories—such as social construcfion-

ism that aU three of the approaches embrace

(Berg & De Jong, 1996; Saleebey 2006a; White &

Epston, 1990)—provides a new phüosophical

base of understanding on which students may

stand, and thus better grasp these new

approaches. Yet such theories are often a bit

esoteric for students to deeply comprehend.

When this is the case, a good conceptual frame-

work can serve as a bridge between esoteric

theorefical concepts and their pracfical applica-

fion in an intervenfion (for example, person-in-

environment serves such a purpose). The pur-

pose of this arficle is to introduce such a con-

ceptual framework: The hero(ine) on a journey.

In their crifique of the medical model and

embrace of social construcfionism, the three

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aforementioned approaches seek to move away from interventions based on concerns over functioriing. This postmodern stance is reflected in the following statement made by Saari (1991):

[T]he adaptive point of view has pro- vided an inadequate foundation for clinical social work theory. A theory of meaning in which psychological health is indicated by a constructed personal meaning system (or identity) that is highly differentiated, articulated, and integrated is proposed to take the place of conceptualizations about adapta- tion, (p. 4)

Saleebey (2006b), for the strengths per- spective, speaks of painting new brushstrokes of identity "that depict capacity and ingenu- ity" (p. 88); White (2004), for narrative thera- py, emphasizes giving attention to "construc- tions of men's and women's identities" (p. 45); and De Jong and Berg (2001), for solution- focused therapy, speak toward "the co- constructLon of competence that is characteris- tic of solution-focused work" (p. 365). The concern over helping the client articulate his or her identity in a life-enhancing way (i.e., depicting competencies and strengths) is apparent in each of these approaches. But how does this translate into a guide for interven- tion efforts? Such a question often befuddles students.

One way to elucidate the central impor- tance of the social construction of identity in these interventions is by offering another the- ory. The theory of mimesis—first offered by Aristotle (1996/c. 335 b.c.) but recently updat-

ed by Ricoeur (1984-1988)—offers a theory of human action based within identity (a brief explanation of mimesis is offered in the follow- ing section). Yet this also ulustrates the chal- lenge faced when attempting to teach students; a common way to elaborate an esoteric theory is often through reference to another esoteric theory. This makes the need for a conceptual framework to act as a bridge even greater.

This article takes the position that the fol- lowing basic elements are at work in each of the three approaches (strengths perspective, solution-focused therapy, and narrative thera- py). Based on their critique of the medical model, each is concerned that the presenting problem is exerting undue influence on shap- ing the client's identity. The helping response thus involves assisting the cHent in socially constructing an alternate identity, an identity that is more life-enhancing and empowering. To embrace the idea that an alternate identity is possible (i.e., multiple realties exist), the client must undergo an expansion of con- sciousness (i.e., consciousness-raising). An alternate identity is then constructed that depicts strengths and successes. Once this new identity is constructed and embraced, it serves as the new source directing client actions, which in turn leads to ameUoradon of the presenting problem.

Postmodernism has been concisely described as "the linguistic turn" (e.g., Munslow, 2005) due to the importance it places on the role and influence of language in human endeavors. As these practices are based within theories of language, the analo- gy being made here draws on the notion that the client's lived experiences are viewed as comprising a narrative, or behavioral text

THE HERO(INE) ON A JOURNEY 2 6 9

(White & Epston, 1990). The emphasis on

highUghting cUent strengths, competencies,

and successes speaks to placing the cUent as

the protagorüst (i.e., hero or heroine) of one's

life narrafive. Hence, presenting problems are

framed as issues concerning confronting

oppressive or problem-saturated narrafives,

and thus helping the cUent achieve a transfor-

mafion from a debUitating self-idenfity to one

that is life-enhancing (De Jong & Berg, 2008;

Saleebey, 2006c; White & Epston, 1990). The

metaphor of the intervenfion process as a

journey undertaken by the cUent, a journey of

self-discovery, has been evoked by a number

of pracfifioners and authors advocating these

approaches (Dimcan, MiUer, & Sparks, 2004;

Rapp & Goscha, 2006; White, 2007).

The theory used as the irispirafion for the

Hero(ine) on a Journey (HOJ) conceptual

framework derives from noted anthropologist

Joseph CampbeU's (1968/1949) theory of the

monomyth, which he outlines in his seminal

work The Hero With a Thousand Faces. The

monomyth captures all of the basic elements

previously identified: breaking free from an

estabUshed idenfity and constructing a new

one via an expansion of one's consciousness.

However, before describing CampbeU's theo-

ry of the monomyth and how it supports HOJ,

it is important to look at the theory of mime-

sis. The HOJ conceptual framework is under-

girded by a concepfion of causaUty that arises

in narrative—one that explains present

acfions of persons/characters by their imag-

ined future idenfity of who they would like to

be (hence the focus on capturing the dreams

and goals of the client). Ricoeur (1984-1988)

expertly detaUs this concepfion of causaUty—

an updating of Aristotle's conception of

mimesis—in his three-volume work Time and

Narrative. Although a thorough descripfion of

Ricoeur's elaboration of mimesis and its

impUcafions for social work has been provid-

ed elsewhere (Dybicz, 2010), it is useful to

briefly review the major concepts before mov-

ing on.

Ricoeur on Mimesis

As first conceived by Aristotle in his Poetics

(1996/c. 335 b.c.), simply put, mimesis is the

process of having an image of who we are and

who we wovild Uke to be, the latter mofivating

our present acfions. As Davis (1992) notes con-

cerning Arfistotle's Poetics, "AU human acfion

is always an imitafion of acfion—AchiUes is

Uving up to his own image of himself . . . Uke

aU brave men, he wants 'to die Uke AchiUes'"

(i.e., courageously; p. xviii). Building on

insights from social construcfionism in his

examinafion of a broad scope of narrafive,

Ricoeur (1984-1988) updates Aristotle's con-

cept of mimesis by spUtting it into three parts:

prefigurafion (mimesis^), configurafion (mime-

sis^), and refigtirafion (mimesis^).

Prefigurafion (mimesis^) is the proposifion

that humans intuifively and naturally seek to

imderstand their Uved experiences by placing

them within a narrafive structure. When one

teUs a story about oneself, one does not begin

with one's birth and give a minute-by-minute

account of what has happened. Rather, one

selects a begirvning point, then selecfively

chooses from a wide array of experiences to

include as pertinent to the middle of the story,

and then usuaUy projects an ending to the

story in one's future. This is what cUents do

when they access services for an issue they are

facing. From this narrafive structure a theme

2 7 0 JOURNAL OF SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION

arises. It is the theme that serves to determine whether or not a particular lived experience (i.e., event) is considered appropriate to fit within the narrative. Unfortunately, when most clients access services, they walk in with a theme of dysfunction (a dominant theme within the modem discourse): The pertinent events related by the client, and often asked for by the social worker, are those that speak to the underlying causes of the problem. This theme of dysfunction is unfortunate because the theme used to organize the events also speaks to defining the identity of the main character in the narrative (i.e., the client): Within mimesis, one is defined by one's actions.

Configuration (mimesis^) is a consciousness- raising process. As previously mentioned, pré- figuration is an intuitive process; we intuitive- ly use thematic templates from culture that we carry around within us. The first step in this consciousness-raising process is the recogni- tion that the current theme being used to organize one's events is undercutting one's self-worth. Next is the recognition that one can consciously select difterent events to comprise the story, causing a new theme to arise that enhances one's self-worth: In short, one can construct a new reaHt)'. This consciousness- raising process captures the metaphor of author-editor that is often used in postmodern practice literature (Goldstein, 1990; Saleebey, 2006b; White, 2007) to describe the client- social worker collaboration. It is important to note that there are some limitations in this endeavor. First, one must choose from one's actual lived experiences (when creating the beginning and middle of the narrative). Second, some events are absolutely necessary

to the story, what Abboft (2002) describes as constituent events. So, for example, if a preg- nant teenager comes in for services, the event of her pregnancy is a constituent event; it can- not be ignored.

Yet Abbott (2002) notes that supplemen- tary events also make up a narrative. Supplementary events are not essential for defining the story, yet they are fully responsi- ble for the theme that arises: For example, a story of pregnancy can have various possible themes. With configuration, it is these supple- mentary events that are consciously selected to be placed within the narrative. Thus, a client's strengths and successes are looked for in relation to the issue. Including these successes—and the new theme that arises from their inclusion—does more than simply enhance a client's self-worth. It opens up new possibilities for attainable preferred identities in the future (e.g., being a good mother). By viewing these preferred identities as attain- able and seeking to embrace them (i.e., who I want to be), it causes one to act in the present in accordance with this preferred identity (Brubaker & Wright, 2006).

There is also refiguration (mimesis^). This happens simultaneously with configuration, so the consciousness-raising effort is actually a configuration-refiguration process. Refig- uration refers to the proposition that we all act as audience members to the narrative being created. The person creating the narrative simultaneously acts as an audience member, as well as other important individuals in the person's Ufe. It is important to note that the social construction of reality is a social process. For a narrative to "ring true" it has to achieve a level of verisimilitude within the

THE HERO(INE) ON A JOURNEY 2 7 1

public sphere. This is where the importance of caring relationships comes into play. When a narrative is being configured, caring individu- als within the client's Ufe are able to reflect back to the client the message "Yes, I see you that way too" (e.g., "Yes, I see those same qualities within you that will help you to be a good mother"). It is this process that lends the newly created narrative verisimilitude, thus constructing a new reality. Ultimately, this new thematic template becomes the natural and intuitive way for the person to organize his or her lived experiences for this particular narrative, and thus he or she falls back into the stage of préfiguration.

Joseph Campbeii's The Hero With

a Thousand Faces

Campbell's work (1968/1949) is a compara- tive analysis of myths from aroimd the world: He analyzes myths across numerous cultures and across the centuries. Through his exten- sive research, Campbell uncovers a basic structure that is common to all myth; he labels this basic structure the monomyth. Myths are particularly relevant in this analysis in that they represent the poems of Aristotle—the goal being to provoke an intellectual insight, or consciousness-raising experience, in the audience. They all speak to the notion of a rite of passage taking place, or in other words, a transformation of identity. The events that the hero(ine) experiences lead to a new theme arising concerning the hero(ine)'s life, and consequently, the hero(ine)'s identity. Noble and admirable qualities arise and are high- lighted, befitting to the present role of the main character as that of a hero(ine). The anal- ogy being drawn to HOJ is that this basic

structure—this rite of passage to a new identity—strongly reflects our own efforts to grasp meaning from the narratives that we create through the configuration-refiguration process when facing challenges in our lives.

Campbell's monomyth can be succinctly described as that of a hero(ine) on a journey. Thus the monomyth's fimdamental structural elements concerning this journey of transfor- mation are adopted as the basic elements for the conceptual framework of HOJ. Arising from his analysis of thousands of myths, Campbell (1968/1949) identified five funda- mental narrative elements common to myths across cultures and across historical epochs: a Call to Adventure, Crossing Beyond a Threshold,

Overcoming Trials and Tests, Receiving Aid, a n d

Facing a Supreme Ordeal Yielding a Reward.

These basic elements, expressed in one partic- ular way or another depending on the culture, are what comprise the monomyth.

Campbell (1968/1949) elaborates as fol- lows. The hero(ine)'s journey begins with a "call to adventure." The hero(ine) is either lured away, carried away, or voluntarily pro- ceeds. Sometimes a hero(ine) may seek to refuse this caU, but this always results in turn- ing the hero(ine) into a victim to be saved and one's world tuming into a wasteland. Eor those who choose to proceed, they "cross beyond the threshold" of their world. "Beyond the threshold, then, the hero [sic] journeys through a world of unfamuiar yet strangely intimate forces, some of which severely threaten him (tests), some of which give him magical aid (helpers). When he arrives at the nadir of the mythological roimd, he undergoes a supreme ordeal and gains his reward . . . intrinsically it is an expansion of

272 JOURNAL OF SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION

consciousness and therewith of being" (p. 246). Thus the next elements that the hero(ine) faces are a number of "trials and tests," but he or she also "receives aid" to help with these chaüenges, with the final chaüenge culminat- ing in facing a "supreme ordeal )âelding a reward." As Campbeü states, "This popular motif gives emphasis to the lesson that the passage of the threshold is a form of self- annihüation. . . . the hero goes inward, to be bom again" (p. 91).

The Hero(ine) on a Journey (HOJ)

HOJ, informed by Campbeü's analysis, is not directed toward providing a template in which to create narrafives but rather as a conceptual framework informing the consciousness- raising process linked to creating a new narrafive—and the resulting journey of self- discovery that inevitably results. One thing that immediately becomes apparent to stu- dents who are introduced to this framework is that the intervenfion is not speaking to con- cerns about adaptafion. As noted earlier, these pracfice approaches rely on seeking, elaborat- ing, and developing noble qualifies of the client (i.e., sftengths, successes, and compe- tencies). Within HOJ, the cUent is cast as a hero(ine)—the identificafion and elaborafion of the client's noble qualifies serves an impor- tant and crifical role. A key focus is on how societal narratives shape (and potentially undercut) one's identity and self-worth, directly infiuencing levels of personal agency and empowerment. Casting a client as a hero(ine) underscores his or her personal agency, enhances his or her self-worth, and facilitates his or her empowerment.

In addifion, as described earlier, these same postmodern pracfice approaches draw on the metaphor of the client undertaking a journey, resulting in a transformafion of being. As reflected by Ricoeur's (1984-1988) theory of mimesis, the social construcfion of a counter- story is a consciousness-raising experience— and the resulting change in consciousness prompts a change in one's idenfity (from "dysfunctional" to valiantly struggling "hero(ine)"—arising from the newly config- ured narrafive).

The HOJ framework serves to connect the theorefical concepts of mimesis and social constructionism to the various practice approaches that employ them. Hence, various metaphors guiding postmodern pracfice— such as the cHent as the expert, the client- social worker relafionship as author-editor, the client as hero(ine) of his or her Ufe story, and undertaking a journey of self-discovery— become theoretically grounded concepts guiding pracfice. To begin with, the case study of Nick offered by White and Epston (1990), broken up into a running commentary, is used to iüustrate the various steps of HOJ in its appHcafion to narrafive therapy in a thorough manner. Space limitafions aüow for more abbreviated explanations to follow under applicafions to the strengths perspecfive and solufion-focused therapy.

HOJ Applied to Narrative Therapy

This classic case study is chosen because it makes for an exceüent learning tool for stu- dents. This is because Nick's presenting problem—encopresis—at first glance seems to clearly be a problem of funcfioning, and hence

THE HERO(INE) ON A JOURNEY 2 7 3

leads one to beHeve that it should be treated in this way. Yet White (acting as therapist) treats it as a problem in identity construction (White and Epston, 1990). And in the short span of three sessions, Nick achieves dramatic progress in what had before been an intractable problem.

Call to Adventure

Nick, aged six years, was brought to see me by his parents. Sue and Ron. Nick had a very long history of enco- presis, which had resisted aU attempts to resolve it, including those instituted by various therapists. Rarely did a day go by without an "accident" or "inci- dent." (White & Epston, 1990, p. 43)

The hero(ine)'s "call to adventure" is the con- frontation of a dramatic event (lured or car- ried away) or the desire to reinterpret an exist- ing narrative (voluntarily proceeds). This first stage represents when the client is engaging in the préfiguration process (mimesis^): The client is engaging in understanding of one's world at an intuitive level. The dramatic event represents a recent event or series of events that carmot be successfully (i.e., in a Ufe- enhancing way) accounted for within one's present orientation (i.e., current prefigurative understanding).

In this particular case study, it would be Nick's repeated incidents of encopresis that paint him as a "bad boy" or dysfunctional. Within his present orientation, a "good boy" does not defecate in his pants; hence, he cannot account for these repeated incidents in a Hfe- enhancing way. Although the narrative "good

boys don't soil their pants" serves a useful pur- pose at a societal level, within the particular experiences of Nick, it is overly denning who he is, and thus undercutting his self-worth. This dilemma marks one's "call to adventure."

Crossing the Threshold

In helping these famuy members sepa- rate themselves and their relationships from the problem, externalization opened up possibilities for them to describe themselves, each other, and their relationships from a new nonproblem-saturated perspective; it enabled the development of an alterna- tive story of family Ufe, one that was more attractive to family members. (White & Epston, 1990, p. 39)

The next stage is that of "crossing the thresh- old." It represents the client's wiUingness to engage in a consciousness-raising effort via the configiiration-reHguration process. This stage represents a movement from préfigura- tion (mimesis )̂ to configuration (mimesis^). One's current orientation is not able to account for the event(s) in a life-enhancing way; therefore, one must pass beyond the horizon of one's world (Ricoeur, 1984^1988) to achieve a reorientation that will successfully account for the event(s). This requires a consciousness-raising experience. This cross- ing of a threshold can be likened to the move of "making the familiar strange" that is pro- moted by some postmodern theorists as a means to spark this consciousness-raising (for example, Bakhtin's [1984/1929] use of the carruval).

2 7 4 JOURNAL OF SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION

For the aforemenfioned case study. White (White & Epston, 1990) uses the technique of extemaUzing the problem to make the famU- iar strange. Nick's presenting problem of encopresis is depicted as a force outside of Nick, acting on Nick in an aftempt to trick him and corrupt him, and is even given a name by Nick, "Sneaky Poo." This extemaUzafion frees up Nick's consciousness to begin exploring other quaUfies about himself—posifive, noble quaUfies—that can now be accessed to prima- rUy define himself.

In summary, the hero(ine) crossing the threshold and entering a strange new land represents the step in the helping process when the problemafic theme and idenfity is identified (one is dysfuncfional, a fauure, bro- ken, etc.) and quesfioned regarding its veraci- ty. New possible themes are now open to be explored, themes arising ftom cUent strengths and successes in relafion to the presenting problem.

Overcoming Trials and Tests

When mapping the influence of family members in the life of what we came to caU "Sneaky Poo," we discovered . . . Although Sneaky Poo always tried to trick Nick into being his playmate, Nick could recaU a number of occa- sions during which he had not aUowed Sneaky Poo to "outsmart" him. . . . There was a recent occasion during which Sneaky Poo could have driven Sue into a heightened sense of misery, but she resisted and turned on the radio instead. (White & Epston, 1990, p. 46)

"Overcoming trials and tests" marks the next stage. This is when the cUent begins acfively engaging in the configurafion-refiguration process. To transform a debiUtating narrafive into one that is life-enhancing, one must begin configuring the problemafic experiences into a plotUne of overcoming trials and tests (e.g., marking strengths and successes). In Nick's case study, this occurs after the encopresis is externalized as an oppressive influence in his life (in eftect, excising it from Nick's idenfity and transforming it into a foe to be combated). His Uved experiences are now mined for examples of his successes: occurrences when he successfuUy acted in resisting this influ- ence in part or in fuU. White and Epston (1990) term these as "unique outcomes." These unique outcomes are moved to the fore- ground and form the building blocks of the new plotUne and theme (for Nick, one of defi- ance). Consequently, previous failures are transformed within this new context. No longer serving the role of determining one's idenfity, their meaning is transformed into that of representing setbacks. These setbacks occur precisely because one is human, and thus not perfect. This new plotUne (i.e., over- coming trials and tests) and the theme(s) that it engenders (e.g., defiance) begins coalescing a new meaning for one's idenfity—for Nick, a new meaning for what it means to be a "good boy" (someone who acfively fights against the influence of "Sneaky Poo")—and consequent- ly how one would Uke to be. This in turn begins to guide one's present acfions, embold- ening one to continue to add to one's success- es and thus further build on this new plotline, as Ulustrated herein.

THE HERO(INE) ON A JOURNEY 2 7 5

In response to these questions, Nick thought that he was ready to stop Sneaky Poo from outsmarting him so much, and decided that he would not be tricked into being his pla)miate any- more. Sue had some new ideas for refusing to let Sneaky Poo push her into misery. (White & Epston, 1990, p. 47)

Refiguration (mimesis'̂ ) accompanies configuration (mimesis^) at this stage. As new events are added to one's narrative, one acts as audience member: judging whether these new events fit the emerging theme(s) well (i.e., possess verisimilitude).

After identifying Nick's, Sue's, and Ron's influence in the life of Sneaky Poo, I introduced questions that encouraged them to perform meaning in relation to these examples, so that they might "re-author" their lives and relationships. (White & Epston, 1990, p. 47)

The role of the editor in this step is to get the cHent/narrator to reflect on the sig- nificance of placing such events in this new life-erú\ancing narrative. Special attention is given to the theme that emerges from this new narrative, and consequently, how this theme reflects on the identity of the client. This serves to further contribute to the consciousness-raising experience. As configu- ration (mimesis^) involves the conscious selec- tion of lived experiences, knowledge of the theme at work and the client's new identity

feature arising from this theme enable the client to more easuy recogrüze lived experi- ences that support this new theme. In addi- tion, having a sharper focus on the new iden- tity arising from this theme— b̂y plugging into mimesis' causality of seeking "who I want to be"—gives clearer direction to consciously directed future actions. This is how a change in the client's behavior occurs through these approaches. Finally, one may act as audience member to the stories others communicate about your experiences as was described in the previous section within the context of car- ing relationships. This is described in the next stage, "Receiving Aid."

Receiving Aid

"Receiving aid" is a stage that occurs concur- rently with that of "overcoming trials and tests." Within HOJ, receiving help or aid is not conceived of as a need arising from dysfunc- tion or weakness. Rather, one receives help because one has journeyed to a strange land (i.e., passed beyond the horizon of one's world—préfiguration). Because one is a hero(ine) possessing noble traits and values, one is deserving of aid for one's valiant strug- gle. This aid serves the purpose of helping the client achieve his or her preferred identity. This aid can take many forms. As discussed earlier, it may come in the form of a caring relationship. This is the form it takes for Ron and Sue:

Sue was making good her escape from guilt. This had been facilitated, to an extent, by the fact that she and Ron had been talking more to other parents

2 7 6 JOURNAL OF SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION

about the trials and tribulations of par- enting. In so doing they had learned that they were not the only parents who had doubts about their parenting skills. (White & Epston, 1990, p. 48)

The social worker acts in the role of edi- tor: assisting the hero(ine) in the configuration and refiguration process, affirming the client's narrative, and/or directing the client to share this narrative with others (e.g., family mem- bers; for Sue and Ron, other parents) who wiU affirni it.

In addition, help may come in the form of material aid—such as the linkage to resources, a common element of social work practice. Whether in the form of material resources, advice, or emotional support via a caring rela- tionship, aid serves the same purpose: It helps move the cUent along in further strengthening the newly constructed narrative. It aids the configuration process by helping the client build experiences reflective of the new plot- line and thus the client's new identity. Eor example, Brubaker and Wright (2006) write about the experience of pregnant teens and their effort to build an identity as a "good mother." They elaborate on how caring rela- tionships help support these teens in their early efforts at building this new identity. But information and advice given by experienced mothers also help these teens in acquiring skills of motherhood, and thus aid them in building experiences reflective of good moth- ering. Along these same unes, linkage to mate- rial resources—such as a health clinic and pre- natal care—serves to aid them in building these experiences of good mothering in the same fashion.

Tiie Supreme Ordeai Yieiding

a Reward

"The supreme ordeal yielding a reward" marks the final stage of HOJ. It is the final step of both configuration and refiguration. The supreme ordeal is simply the experience that completes the new narrative for the hero(ine). This yields a reward of a potent insight: All doubts fall away as to the solidity of the new identity one has assumed (e.g., "good boy," "good mother"); the plotline and themes of one's new narrative are firmly established. This results in a reorientation to one's under- standing of one's life experiences. This partic- ular journey of the hero(ine) has ended; the individual moves back to the intuitive stance of préfiguration. This usually happens in a gradual, progressive manner. However, it can also happen in a dramatic instant, as another case study by White and Epston (1990) illus- trates when Carol discards her identity as a deserving victim and embraces her new iden- tity of someone worthy of respect:

I didn't know what happened but it felt like something had snapped. I felt I was outside my body. I was screaming and crying at the same time: "I've given, given, given and I've got no more to give." I saw a big deep hole: "Get out or I'll call the police." All my fear went . . . I felt terrific—I'm not afraid anjmiore. "You can do nothing to me." I was surprised it was happen- ing. .. . Kicking him out—that was the solution in the back of my mind. It happened just like you said it would. . . . A whole new life can start for me.

THE HERO(INE) ON A JOURNEY 277

There was no room for compromise once I started, (pp. 139-141)

HOJ Appiied to the Strengths Perspective

Caii to Adventure

There is no difference in the elaborafion of this step in au three appHcafions. The "caü to adventure" represents the parficular present- ing problem that has led the client to seek services—and the sense that one's prefigura- five (mimesis-̂ ) understanding no longer ade- quately captures one's positive qualities, resulting in a diminished idenfity.

Crossing the Threshoid

If we are to help throw off the yoke of oppression, enhance a people's sense of empowerment, and help them achieve whatever is important to them, we must remove the pathological imagery that our current assessment methods indicate. . . . It [a strengths assessment] does not reduce the com- plexity of the person to a diagnosis or set of problems, but rather it is used to search for understanding and meaning from the person's viev r̂point. The cre- ative practitioner does not see the strengths assessment as paperwork, but rather a canvas on which to create a portrait of the unique person that is before them. (Rapp & Goscha, 2006, pp. 93-94)

Early in the engagement process, social work- ers are urged to conduct a strengths assess- ment. A key d5mamic at work in this process.

highlighted by the quote, is how this process serves to help the client quesfion an old iden- fity based in pathology and provide a frame- work in which to begin the process with the client of generating a more life-enhancing idenfity reflecting his or her lived experiences. This is an endeavor in consciousness-raising.

Overcoming Triais and Tests

Personal planning reinforces the client as the director of the helping process because it focuses on the person's unique journey of recovery. Goals are highly individualized and the paths toward goal achievement are limited orüy by the creativity generated through the helping process. (Rapp & Goscha, 2006, p. 121)

In a sense, what is happening at this point is the writing of a befter "text." Reframing is a part of this; not the reframing of so many famüy therapies, but adding to the picture already painted, brush strokes that depict capacity and ingenuity, and that pro- vide a different colorafion to the sub- stance of one's life. . . . And au of this must ring true to the person and be grounded in the dailiness of life. (Saleebey, 2006b, pp. 88-89)

The next step of the strengths perspecfive is to encourage the client to develop goals to which he or she aspires, and then provide assistance to the client in helping him or her achieve these goals. As Rapp and Goscha (2006) note, this goal setting flows directly from the strengths assessment. Hence, these goals are a

2 7 8 JOURNAL OF SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION

continuation of the identity transformation process begun in "crossing the threshold." What is most important about them in terms of directing behavior (i.e., mimesis) is that they empower a client to estabUsh a new "who I am" and enable him or her to conceive and then project a preferred identity of "who I want to be." This dynamic is best ulustrated via the case study offered of Mrs. J:

Mrs. J. was due to be discharged into the community after several years of hospital residence.... Mrs. J. divulged that she hated the idea of living in a home and going to day centers, and that she really wanted to be the Queen [of England]. She challenged the Practitioner to work toward that aim. Without promising too much, the Practitioner began to work out with Mrs. J. what she felt the Queen did that was worth aiming for. It emerged that Mrs. J. beUeved that the Queen did not have financial or administrative wor- ries, she always knew where she was going to Uve, people respected her because she helped them, and most importantly, she had "companions" and "ladies in waiting" who helped her and kept her company. The subse- quent assessment stated that Mrs. J. needed a strong sense of financial security and the guarantee of help with day-to-day organization, she needed to move to one location and be prom- ised that she need never move again, she needed to feel that she was helping people and feel respected for it, and she needed some "old-fashioned"

companior\ship. (Bleach & Ryan, 1995, p. 175 quoted in Rapp & Goscha, 2006, p. 133).

Rather than looking at Mrs. J's goal con- cretely, the thoughtful practitioner in this case study recognized her goal as representing a theme of a preferred identity. As such, the practitioner was able to creatively develop workable, concrete goals that retained Mrs. J's theme. Importantly, as noted in the quote by Saleebey (2006b), this new description offered by the practitioner must "ring true" for the cUent (i.e., possess verisimilitude).

Receiving Aid

Resource acquisition and advocacy have always been central themes in the strengths perspective. From the begin- ning these activities have been high- Ughted as important in bringing the model aUve. (SulUvan & Rapp, 2006, p. 275)

The strengths perspective places major focus on the role community resources play in help- ing the cUent achieve his or her goals and achieve "who I want to be." It's authors also recognize the important role played by caring relationships, as described previously, of mir- roring or reflecting back to clients, "I see you that way too" (Rapp & Goscha, 2006; Saleebey, 2006b).

The Supreme Ordeai Yieiding

a Reward

As previously described, inteUectual insight occurs that moves the cUent to begin intuitive- ly constructing events within a narrative that

THE HERO(INE) ON A JOURNEY 2 7 9

supports his or her preferred idenfity, prompt- ing terminafion.

HOJ Applied to Solution-Focused

Therapy

Call to Adventure

As stated previously, the "caU to adventure" represents the parficular presenting problem that has led the client to seek services, the sense that one's prefigurative (mimesis^) understanding no longer adequately captures one's posifive quaUfies, resulting in a dimin- ished idenfity.

Crossing the Threshold

Furthermore, the miracle question requires an alterafion in both the ther- apist's and the cUent's everyday way of thinking. And this is a rather rapid paradigmafic shift from the way most people conceptualize and talk about problems both in therapy and every- day life.... We thirüc it makes a difter- ence whether or not the therapist assumes that cUents have the capacity to create meaningful descripfions of what they want their Uves to look like and how they want to be in the world. Asking the miracle question both implies and demands faith in the cUent's capacity to do this and the quesfion needs to be asked in a manner that communicates this faith, (de Shazer et al., 2007, pp. 38-39)

For solution-focused therapy, the miracle quesfion acts as the main therapeufic tool to facUitate movement by the cUent from prefig-

urafion (mimesis^), or "the cUent's everyday way of thinking" (de Shazer et al., p. 38) to achieve the "paradigmafic shift"—or raised consciousness—^necessary to begin configura- fion (mimesis^). By laying the groundwork on which to begin configurafion (mimesis^), the miracle quesfion seeks to help the cUent elab- orate the causal mechanisms underl)áng the configurafion process: the image of "how they want to be in the world" (de Shazer et al., p. 39).

Overcoming Trials and Tests

Excepfions are those past experiences in a cUent's Ufe when the problem might reasonably have been expected to occur but somehow did not. . . . Once the client has identified the excepfion, you should ask for details. In doing so, pay special attenfion to the ways in which this excepfion time was different from the problem times. Whereas a problem-focused interview- er would explore the who, what, when, and where of cUent problems, you should be interested in exploring the who, what, when, and where of excep- fion times. (De Jong & Berg, 2008, pp. 103)

Excepfions become the buUding blocks of the newly configured counterstory that the client is developing—similar to the role that unique outcomes play in narrafive therapy and the role that successes and strengths play in the strengths perspecfive. Flowing from the mira- cle quesfion, goals are developed by the cUent. These goals direct the client (and therapist) where to look for excepfions and encourage

2 8 0 JOURNAL OF SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION

the client to start thinking in terms of solu- tions rather than problem mechanics.

Consequently, once a client has made an initial statement about what difter- ences he or she would Uke to see, the next task for the practitioner is to open a conversation that transforms abstract and vague definitions into a concrete, vivid vision of what Ufe wül be Uke when the problem is solved. (De Jong & Berg, 2008, pp. 77)

As was illustrated with the strengths per- spective, broadly sweeping goals are useful in capturing and elaborating the theme (and pre- ferred identity) of the cUent, but ultimately, concrete well-formed goals are sought. Tied to one's preferred identity, these concrete goals estabUsh the causal mechanisms (i.e., "who I want to be") that will produce change in pres- ent behavior. "Solutions" are not solutions to a technical problem (such as fixing a sirik); rather, they represent an avenue for reaching a preferred outcome: a preferred identity.

As described earlier, this stage also involves engaging the cUent in refiguration (mimesis'̂ ): reflecting on the emerging coun- terstory as a means to soUdify and enhance its construction. Solution-focused therapy uses scaling questions as the method for prompt- ing refiguration.

By means of scaling questions, a prac- titioner can help clients to express complex, intuitive observations about their past experiences and estimates of future possibüities. (De Jong & Berg, 2008, p. 106)

Receiving Aid

In formulating feedback for cUents, we recommend you adopt the structure developed by de Shazer and his col- leagues (de Shazer et al. 1986). There are three basic parts to this structure: compliments, a bridge, and usuaUy a task or suggestion. AU are designed to convey to the cUents that you have been Ustening carefuUy and agree with their views about their problems, what they want to have different in their Uves, and the steps they might take to make their Uves more satisfying. (De Jong & Berg, 2008, pp. 115-116)

As this is a session of therapy, the aid that the hero(ine) receives comes in the form of feed- back (although this does not preclude the addition of material aid as weU). It seeks to aid cUents in their construction of their counter- story: advancing them on their journey toward reaching a new consciousness (i.e., their preferred identity).

CompUments are affirmations of the cUent. First, compUments affirm what is important to the cHent. . . . Second, compliments affirm client successes and the strengths these successes sug- gest. . . . The bridge is the part of the feedback that links the initial compU- ments to the concluding suggestions or tasks. . . . The content of the bridge is usually drawn from client goals, exceptions, strengths, or perceptions. . . . These tasks fall into two main cate- gories: observation tasks and behav-

THE HERO(INE) ON A JOURNEY 2 8 1

ioral tasks (de Shazer, 1988). In an observation task, based on information gathered in the interview, the practi- tioner suggests the client pay attention to a particular aspect of his or her life likely to prove useful in solution build- ing. . . . Behavioral tasks require the client to actually do something, to take certain actions the practitioner believes will be useful to the client in construct- ing a solution. (De Jong & Berg, 2008, pp. 116-117)

Compliments play the role of reinforcing the emerging theme fiom the client's counter- story by communicating, "I see you that way too." The bridge accesses this theme as a way to generate possible future "exceptioris" that the client may add to his or her emerging coimterstory as a means of strengtherung it. Observational tasks alert the client to take note of these exceptions as they arise in the future. Behavioral tasks encourage the client to directly create these exceptions.

Tiie Supreme Ordeai Yieiding a Reward

Again, intellectual insight occurs that moves the CUent to begin intuitively constructing events within a narrative that supports his or her preferred identity, prompting termination.

Conciusion

The novelty and apparent strangeness of post- modem theoretical concepts present many challenges for students to coniprehend them. Metaphors, such as "the client as the expert" and the client-social worker relationship being described as that of an author-editor.

help to aid students in their efforts at under- standing. The hero(ine) on a journey offers a conceptual framework to aid students in reaching the next level of comprehension: the often difficult task of applying theoretical con- cepts to practice. This article has used the framework to elaborate the application of two such concepts: mimesis and social construc- tionism. Elaboration of the application of other postmodern concepts may be possible as well, such as Eoucault's (1980) notions of "power" and "discourse," Bakhtiin's (1984/ 1929) notion of the "carnival" and "multiple voices," and Wittgenstein's (1968/1953) theo- ry of "language games." All of these concepts ultimately speak to notior\s of identity and how it may be transformed—the central tenets the HOJ fiamework seeks to apply. Thus this framework may be used to aid instruction at the PhD level, wherein an in-depth explo- ration of various postmodern theories and their applications might take place. Also, as described in this article, it can be used to aid instruction at the MSW level of linking a few basic postmodern concepts to their applica- tions via various practice approaches.

Similar to person-in-environment, the hero(ine) on a journey prominently features the individual as a focus for intervention efforts, and this article has kept to elaborating such a focus. However, also similar to person- in-environment, the hero(ine) on a journey does not preclude macro-level attempts at intervention. The hero(ine)'s journey takes place in a setting; the client's lived experiences arise from interaction with society. The suc- cess in HOJ's ability to elaborate macro-level interventions has yet to be explored. Yet both Eoucault's (1980) notions of "power" and

2 8 2 JOURNAL OF SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION

"discourse" and Wiftgenstein's nofion of "Ian- with micro-level intervenfions described here-

guage games" (O'Cormer, 2002) can speak to in, the focus of macro-level intervenfions

how oppressive narrafive stmctures of under- through this framework would be on con-

standing get reified into oppressive structures fronting oppression and transformational

in society—and hence, become targets for change, not on enhancing funcfioning and

macro-level intervenfion efforts. As is the case adaptafion efforts.

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Accepted: 0 3 / 1 1

Phillip Dybicz is assistant professor at Keinnyung University.

Address correspondence to Phiilip Dybicz, Keimyung University, Department of Social Welfare, College of Social Science Building, 2800 Dalgubeoldaero, Dalseo-Gu, Daegu 704-701, South Korea; e-mail: pdy- bicz@gmail.com.

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