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THE BEDFORD SERIES IN HISTORY AND CULTURE.
The Black Death
The Great Mortality of 1348-1350
A BRIEF HISTORY WITH DOCUMENTS
John Aberth
Documents #3 and 4
Guiding Reading Questions:
1. What seems to have fueled the belief that Jews were responsible for the plague?
2. What do the pogroms against Jewish communities tell us about how societies react when on the brink of apocalypse?
THE BLACK DEATH' THE G OF 1348-1350 by Aberth REAT MORTALITI
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Acknowledgments
Acknowledgments and copyri hts a . the book on page 190 whO h g . re continued at the back of copyright page. ,IC constitutes an extension of the
Foreword
The Bedford Series in History and Culture is designed so that readers cao study the past as historians do.
The historiao's first task is finding the evidence. Documents, letters, memoirs, interviews, pictures, movies, novels, or poems cao provide facts aod clues. Then the historiao questions and compares the sources. There is more to do thao in a courtroom, for hearsay evidence is wel- come, aod the historian is usually looking for answers beyond act aod motive. Different views of ao event may be as importaot as a single ver- dict. How a story is told may yield as much information as what it says.
Along the way the historian seeks help from other historians and per- haps from specialists in other disciplines. Finally, it is time to write, to decide on ao interpretation aod how to arrange the evidence for readers.
Each book in this series contains an important historical document or group of documents, each document a witness from the past aod open to interpretation in different ways. The documents are combined with some element of historical narrative-an introduction or a bio- graphical essay, for example-that provides students with an analysis of the primary source material aod importaot background information about the world in which it was produced. . f
Each book in the series focuses on a specific topic within a specific historical period. Each provides a basis for lively thought and discussion about several aspects of the topic aod the historiao's role. Each is short enough (and inexpensive enough) to he a reasonable one-week assign- ment in a college course. Whether as classroom or personal reading, each book in the series provides firsthaod experience of the challenge- and fun-of discovering, recreating, and interpreting the past
v
Natalie Zemon Davis Ernest R. May
Lynn Hunt David W. Blight
38
MATHIAS OF NEUENBURG
Chronicle
ca. 1349-1350
A clerk in the _service of Berthold of Bucheck, bishop of Strasbourg (1328- 1353), Mathias of Neuenburg was probably an eyewitness to the events that led to the Jewish pogrom at Strasbourg, the largest such atrocity to �ke Place during the Black Death. Neuenburg's account of the pogroms. ts more. coherent and has a broader scope than Fritsche Closener's although tt lacks some of the latter's detail. Strasbourg at this time was ruled by a city council headed by three burghermeisters, among who1fi. was the Lor� Mayor, Peter Swarber, who spearheaded efforts to defend the fews �ntil he was overwhelmed by the popular will, as represented by the gutl<!-5. The later account of Jacob of Kiinigshofen, often quoted in textbooks, is actually based on those by Neuenburg and Closener. Neuen burg's contributions end in 1350, after which other authors continued his Chronicle up to 1378.
And the Jews were accused of having created or amplified this pesti lence by throwing poison down springs and wells. And they were burn� from the Mediterranean Sea to Germany, except for Avignon, where Pope Clement VI protected them. Since then, some Jews were tortured in Bern, in the county of Froburg, and elsewhere, and poison was discovered in Zofingen. And the Jews were destroyed in many places, and they wrote of this affair to the councillors of the cities of Basel, Freiburg, and Strasbourg. And the aldermen and even some nobles in Basel strove to protect the Jews from a long-term banish ment. For behold, the people, armed with banners, mobbed the coun cillors' palace. The councillors were terrified, and the burghermeister ask�d them, ''What do you want?" They responded, "We won't go away until you change your mind about banishing the Jews!" Their demand
Fontes Rerum Germanicarum: Geschichtsquellen Deutschtands, ed. Johann Friedrich �oehmer and Alfons Huber, 4 vols. (Stuttgart: J. G. Cotta'scher Verlag, 1843-68), 4.261-65, 301.
151
152 THE PSYCHE OF HYSTERIA
was swiftly communicated to the councillors, who did not dare leave the palace until they came to a decision. The people cried out again, "We don't want the Jews to stay here anymore!" And the councillors and the people swore an oath that the Jews would not reside there for two hundred years. And a meeting was convened of many of the highest-ranking representatives from these three cities, which still wanted to keep their Jews but feared the people's outcry. Nonetheless, the Jews were arrested everywhere in those places.
The appointed meeting-place was Benfeld, Alsace, where assembled the bishop [of Strasbourg, Berthold of Bticheck], and the lords, barons, and representatives of the cities. Then the representatives from Strasbourg spoke up, ''We know nothing evil about our Jews," upon which they were asked, "Then why are the buckets of your wells hid· den?" For the whole populace was crying out against the Jews. Then the bishop, the lords of Alsace and the citizens of the [Holy Roman] empire met in order to decide how to get rid of the Jews. * And so in this way they were burnt, first in one place, then in another. Moreover, in some places they were expelled; when the common people got their hands on them, they burnt one group, killed some, and impaled others. But Lord Mayor Peter Swarber and some other citizens of Strasbourg still strove to protect the Jews, saying to the people: "If the bishop and the barons prevail in this matter, they will not rest until they prevail in other things too." But it was of no use in the face of the clamor of the mob. Therefore on the Friday after the feast of St. Hilary Uanuary 16] in the year of our Lord 1349, in a house newly built for this purpose on an island in the Rhine, all the Jews of Basel were burnt without a judi- cial sentence in accordance with popular demand. And on the following Friday Uanuary 23], the citizens of Freiburg put twelve of their richest Jews in safe custody, so that those who owed money to them would still be contractually bound to pay their debts.
But the Jews of Speyer and Worms gathered together in a house and burnt themselves. And all the Jews were found to have committed some kind of evil, even in Spain, where an assembly [cortes] was con- vened not long ago concerning these poisonings and also concerning the slaughter of many boys, counterfeit letters and money, theft and
*Jt should be noted that this was not the first time that Neuenburg's patron, the bishop of Strashourg, had persecuted Jews on a blood libel charge. In Neuenburg's biography of the bishop, he recounts how in 1330, Berthold of Biicheck, needing to pay the dowries of his three nieces and in debt to his Jews for the sum of 300 marks, extorted 6,000 marks from Jews arrested on a charge of "having despoiled his [Chris- tian] populace" and a further 2,000 marks from "some rich Jews" who had confessed under torture oj having killed an eleven-year-old boy at Mutzig, after the body was found under a millwheel "bearing infinite wounds on one side."
CHRONICLE 153
many other matters which were an offense to his most high majesty [King Pedro IV of Aragon]. *
But in order to appease an agitated public, some Jews in Strasbourg were put on the wheel and then immediately executed, so that the liv- ing couldn't say anything against the accused.! For this reason, the aldermen began to be greatly distrusted. In addition, an extreme hatred was conceived by both nobles and commoners against the aforesaid mayor of Strasbourg, Peter [Swarber], on account of his over-mighty influence. And debate turned bitter among the aldermen, who desired to have four burghermeisters, each in office for part of the year, as was the practice from ancient times ....
Then on the Sunday before Valentine's Day [February 8] in the year of our Lord 1349, the bishop and lords of Strasbourg held a con· ference on this business of the Jews, and on the morrow, some butch- ers came to the house of the aforesaid Peter and asked that some of the Jews' money be given to the workmen. And he became alarmed and wished to contain some of the crowd in his courtyard, except that on one occasion they ran through the streets shouting: "To arms!" And then the workmen came with banners to the cathedral, and the nobles also were armed as were their accomplices. And when the mayor came accompanied by his retinue carrying many banners, he, although terrified, ordered that they all go back to their homes. But when he warned and threatened the butchers with banishment, the skinners in the front of the crowd stood by them. Furthermore, when this was told to the other commoners who had gone away, they straightaway turned back to assist the butchers and remain there with them. Also, when the guildmasters were ordered to go away, they had to be persuaded to do so at sword-point. Then Peter went back to his house, while two other officials went to a public platform near the monastery, where by popular demand they resigned their office.! And likewise they came to the house of Peter, where they renounced their oath of office, and they asked that he also resign his office and give them the keys to the city gates and to the bell tower, his seal of office, and all other such paraphernalia. After this was fearfully done and he
*Compare this account to that of Document 35. tAccording to Fritsche Closener, these sacrificial victims were first tortured with
thumbscrews and then broken on the wheel, yet never confessed to the poisoning. Meanwhile, the Jewish quarter was sealed off and an armed guard posted to prevent lynching by the mob.
*According to Closener, these officials were the two other burghermeisters who sat on the city council alongside Peter Swarber as Lord Mayor. Claus Lappe, speaking on behalf of the guilds, called for their resignation, after a conference of guildmen, knights, and burghers.
154 THE PSYCHE OF HYSTERIA
was stripped of his office, four burghermeisters and a master of the butchers' guild serving one year terms were created, and new council lors were appointed. And many articles of accusation were read out and brought against Peter.*
And so, on the following Saturday [February 14], the Jews, who had been brought by the new burghermeisters to the Stoltzenecke so that they could be led away from there, were conducted to their ceme tery to be burnt in a specially prepared house. And two hundred of them were completely stripped of their clothes by the mob, who found a lot of money in them. But the few who chose baptism were spared, and many beautiful women were persuaded to accept baptism, and many children were baptized after they were snatched from mothers who refused this invitation. All the rest were burnt, and many were killed as they leaped out of the fire. t
But the duke of Austria [Albert II of Hapsburg] and the duke of Moravia [Emperor Charles IV] protected their Jews, who were said to have poisoned many baptized Jews and Christians. And afterwards many of these Jews, having confessed their crimes, were burnt And many Christians confessed under torture that they had t.aken money and received instructions from the Jews, in which they promised to will ingly kill all Christians by poisoning them, which approaches severe madness. Therefore, one after another, all the Jews who had been bap tized were burnt, because they confessed that they were all guilty.
Moreover, the citizens of Alsace resented all those who were pro- . tecting the Jews. In this regard, a minister of the duke of Austria was
barely able to prevail upon him to send a messenger in his· place to Enisheim, Austria, where all his Jews were being held, so that he not be attacked. But Ulrich of Heisenberg, in a characteristic breach of faith, burnt the Jews he was protecting. After this, toward the end of July, all the Jews were killed at Oppenheim. Also they were attacked in Frankfurt after the departure of the emperor [ Charles IV], and they all burnt themselves in their houses and neighborhoods. What is more, toward the end of August, there came many flagellants from Moravia, who spread a rumor against the Jews through cutpurses [i.e., pick pockets] and the people's gullibility. And behold, all th� people rushed to attack the Jews, and when the Jews saw that they could not escape
*According to Closener, Swarber was accused of forcing guild members to take se cret oaths that they would oppose the public will concerning the Jews. Apparently, he fled the mayor's residence in fear of his life and died in exile at Benfeld a few years later.
tAccording to Closener, a total of 2,000 Jews were sentenced to death. He adds that "whatever was owed to the Jews was considered paid up, and all pledges and notes which they held were returned to the people who owed them."
CONCERNING THE MORTALITY IN GERMANY 155
after having killed so many Christians, they burnt their houses and themselves, along with their goods.
158 THE PSYCHE OF HYSTERIA
40
POPE CLEMENT VI
Sicut Judeis (Mandate to Protect the Jews)
October l, 1348
The papacy had a standard bull, Sicut Judeis, which it periodically reissued beginning in the twelfth century to declare the Church's protection of the Jews. Pope Clement VI accordingly reissued it on July 5, 1348, but on September 26 he ordered his clergy to take measures to stop the Jewish pogroms. His reissue of the order on October 1, which is the one included here, adds an important clause about economic motivations for the pogroms. It is possible that Clement personally identified with the Jews as scapegoats. According to Konrad of Megenberg, people blamed the pope for the Plague after he removed himself from the People, apparently on the advice of his physician, Gui de Chauliac.
Even though we justly detest the perfidy of the Jews, who, persisting in their stubbornness, refuse to interpret correctly the sayings of the prophets arid the secret words of their own writings and take notice of Christian faith and salvation, we nevertheless are mindful of our duty to shelter the Jews, by reason of the fact that our Savior, when he
The Apostolic See and the Jews, ed. Shlomo Simonsohn, 8 vols. (foronto: Pontifical Institute of Medieval Studies, 1988-91), 1:396-99.
SICUT JUD EIS (MANDATE TO PROTECT THE JEWS) 159
assumed mortal flesh for the salvation of the human race, deemed it worthy to be born of Jewish stock, and for the sake of humanity- in that the Jews have called upon the assistance of our protection and the clemency of Christian piety-.... Recently, however, it has come to our attention by public fame, or rather infamy, that some Christians out of rashness have impiously slain, several of the Jews, without respect to age or sex, after falsely blaming the pestilence on poisonings by Jews, said to be in league with the devil, when in fact it is the result of an angry God striking at the Christian people for their sins. And it is the assertion of many that some of these Christians are chasing after their own profit and are blinded by greed in getting rid of the Jews, because they owe great sums of money to them. And we have heard that although the Jews are prepared to submit to judgment before a com petent judge concerning this preposterous crime, nevertheless this is not enough to stem Christian violence, but rather their fury rages even more. As long as their error is not corrected, it seems to be approved. And although we would wish that the Jews be suitably and severely punished should perchance they be guilty- of or accessories to such an outrageous crime, for which any penalty that could be devised would barely be sufficient, nevertheless it does not seem credible that the Jews on this occasion are responsible for the crime nor that they caused it, because this nearly universal pestilence, in accordance with God's hidden judgment, has afflicted and continues to afflict the Jews themselves, as well as many other races who had never been known to live alongside them, throughout the various regions of the world.
We order all of you by apostolic writing, and each of you in particu lar who will be asked to do so, to warn your subjects, both the clergy and the people, during the service of the mass in your churches, and to expressly enjoin them on pain of excommunication, which you may then inflict on those who transgress, that they are not to presume to seize, strike, wound, or kill Jews, no matter what the occasion or by what authority (more likely their own rashness), or to demand of them forced labor. But we do not by these presents deprive anyone of the power to proceed justly against the Jews, which they may do con cerning this or any other excesses committed by them, provided that they have grounds for proceeding against them, either in this or any other business, and that they do so before competent judges and fol low judicial procedure.