Effect of advertisement
INTRODUCTION
There are a large number of studies focusing on the effect of advertisement on product choices and decision making among customers. Although there exist a large number of studies focusing on the general public’s attitude towards advertising as a marketing tool, in only a few cases has an attempt been made to deal with areas of specific concern to those interested in children’s television advertising. However little information is available on children as consumers and the impact of television advertising on their consumption behavior. Bearing in mind this research gap a study has been made on children’s perception towards advertisement and its influence on family purchase decisions.
The advertising industry worldwide is experiencing tremendous changes. Munusamy and Wong (2007) argue that advertising has become one of the important elements in our modern life.
According to Arens (2006), Advertising is, ‘the structured and composed non- personal communication of information, usually paid for and usually persuasive in nature, about products by identified sponsor through various Medias’. Advertisements have two basic purposes: to inform and persuade. It informs the consumers about the product- when it is available, where it is available and at what price and there by persuades them to buy the product. It enables the consumers to compare and choose from the products and services available. This helps them to exercise the right of free choice among the various alternatives available in the market.
Advertising on social aspects has been criticized on grounds of various issues such as:
1) It is deceptive.
2) It makes false and exaggerated claims
3) It manipulates buyers mind to the advantage of advertisers.
4) It promotes materialistic value system.
5) It advertises products which are harmful for consumption.
6) Even the special audience such as children, mothers, and students are easily carried away by misleading advertisements.
7) Certain advertisements are obscene and morally degrading.
8) It promotes stereotyping.
9) It influences the buying and spending pattern of the consumers.
Will Roger once said, “Let advertisers spend the same amount of money improving their products as they do advertising, and they wouldn’t have to advertise it”. This statement is an example of the negative view that many people have of advertising and it appears to be prevalent in today’s business environment.
Furthermore, advertising theory suggests that an individual’s attitude to advertising in general will influence people’s attitudinal and behavioural responses (Mehta 2000). The Polley and Mittal study (1993) indicated that, most respondents had a conflict between an appreciation of advertising value and an appreciation of advertising effects on culture. They called for change in the practice of advertising which they believed would result in a more positive perception of advertising. Importantly, since Pollay and Mittal’s (1993) seminal study was published, there have been significant changes in media and advertising, with the introduction of the world wide web, e-marketing, social media, and social networking sites.
Understanding of TV advertising has been measured by verbal methods and/or by non-verbal methods. In research using verbal methods, the child is typically asked to verbalize an answer to questions like “What is the purpose of TV commercials?” or “What according to you is the difference between a program and a commercial?” Such verbal methods are used by Butter et al. (198 1) among others. In research using non-verbal methods, the child provides his/her answer by selecting a photograph or a drawing, or even by acting out the answer (see Macklin 1987). In both cases, verbal or non-verbal responses are typically obtained during a personal interview conducted after the child has watched TV. Alternatively, these measures are collected while the child is watching TV. Such a simultaneous verbal method is used by Butter et al. (198 1) and a simultaneous non-verbal method is used by Stephens and Stutts (1982).
One of the most effective tools today to reach out and effectively communicate with the target audience is advertising. Advertising has the capability to emotionally motivate and convince customers to buy the product. Strong linkages exist between advertising and entertainment but the proliferation of media has blurred the distinguishing lines between advertisements and entertainment (Moore, 2004).
About advertising and children
Children experience advertising in many forms – on TV, YouTube, apps, radio, billboards, magazines, newspapers, movies, the internet, advergames, text messages, social media and more.
And advertising works on children. For example, the more TV a child watches, the more toys that child is likely to want and ask for.
This is why it’s important for children to learn that advertisements are trying to make you buy something. Ads are trying to influence the way you think or change your mind about something. And advertisers always aim to make their products look good, perhaps even better than they really are.
Advertising affects children in different ways. How children react to advertising can depend on several things, including their age, what they know or have experienced, and how much opportunity they’ve had to question and talk about what they see in the media.
Young children and advertising
At 0-2 years, children can’t tell the difference between advertising and actual programs.
And at 3-6 years, children:
· can identify advertisements and distinguish them from programs, but they don’t understand that ads are trying to sell something
· tend to think of advertisements as being entertaining or helpful announcements
· won’t generally be critical of the claims advertisers are making.
You can limit the effects of advertising on your young child by limiting the amount of commercial TV or YouTube she watches.
Primary school-age children and advertising
At 7-11 years, children:
· can understand that advertisements are trying to sell them something
· can remember advertising messages
· can recognise some advertising techniques like advertisements overstating how good products are
· can’t always defend themselves by questioning what advertisements are doing
· might not always understand that products aren’t as good as advertisements say they are, or that advertisers might not be telling them any of the bad points.
To limit the effects of advertising on school-age children, the most important thing you can do is talk about advertisements and encourage children to think about what they’re trying to do.
It’s a good idea to focus on the advertisements that your child sees most often. For example, you can get your child thinking and developing a questioning attitude towards advertisers’ claims by asking him to think about what’s being advertised. That is, what’s the product in this advertisement? What is it for? Who is it for?
You can also ask your child about the strategies that are being used to sell a particular product. This can help your child work out how an advertisement makes its product look good. Here are some questions to help children start thinking:
· Does the advertisement use popular celebrities or sports stars to promote the product?
· Does the advertisement link an idea with the product – for example, does the ad make children seem more grown up when they use the product?
· Is the advertisement promoting the product by giving you something for free – for example, do you get a toy if you buy a kids’ meal from a fast food chain?
This will help make the point that you can’t believe everything you see on TV, online or in other media – especially what you see in advertisements.
Teenagers and advertising
At 12-13 years, children:
· can usually understand the purpose of advertising, and can use advertised information to decide what they want
· might not understand how advertising makes things more expensive
· might not recognise tricky product placement strategies.
Over 14 years, children can understand how the marketplace works and can be sceptical about advertisers’ claims.
You can limit the effects of advertising on teenagers by talking about the way advertisements work to sell ideas as well as products. For example, some advertisements link products with the ‘perfect’ life the people in the ads seem to have.
Older children can also start thinking about the subtle impacts of advertising. For example, you could encourage your child to think about how advertisements influence ideas about what girls, boys, women and men should look like, wear, do, eat and drink.
Here are some questions to get older children and teenagers thinking:
· How real is the lifestyle being advertised? Do you know anyone who lives like that?
· Are the foods and drinks in advertisements healthy choices? Why aren’t vegies and fruit advertised like burgers?
· What do advertisements say about gender, families, body shape and cultural diversity? Do they reflect real life?
Kids are consumers in a way and have their own purchasing power, therefore represent an important demographic segment to marketers. Since they influence their parents' buying behavior and decision making, they represent the future adult consumers. Research has shown that children hold a certain power as consumers, and their influence on family purchases goes beyond the selection of toys and cereals. Whether a company wants to sell electronic gadgets, insurance policies or even cars they fall back on children (Dewan and Thomson, 2010).
PROMOTIONAL APPEAL
In general message appeals can be categorized into two overarching categories; Rational and Emotional.
A rational appeal follows the hierarchy of effects stages of awareness, knowledge, liking, preference, conviction, and purchase. An advertising with a rational appeals leads to a stronger conviction about a product’s benefits, so that the purchase is eventually made. They are generated in traditional models of information processing where consumers are expected to make purchase decisions based on an individual’s sense of logic and reasoning. The purpose of a rational appeal is to emphasize the characteristic features, and benefits of the product to demonstrate the value of owing or using that particular brand. Such appeals may include detailed information about a product such as specific features, durability and value. Successful rational appeals rely on their persuasive power of arguments or reasoning. Examples of rational appeals include price, quality, performance, reason why, and comparative advertising.
Emotional appeals are directed primarily at an individual’s psychological, social or symbolic needs. Emotional appeals touch on a variety of feelings including fear, humor, love, anxiety and sex. Most creatives view emotional advertising as the key to developing brand loyalty. Creatives want customers to feel a bond with the brand. Emotional appeals reach the more creative right side of the brain. Visual cues in ads are important in emotional appeals. To potentially enhance their persuasive effects; an advertisement can actually include more than one type of emotional appeal. Since they are designed to persuade by manipulating one’s feelings, emotional appeals often come under security.
Family Purchase decisions
Consumer purchases are influenced strongly by cultural, social, personal and psychological characteristics. For the most part, marketers cannot control such factors, but they must take them into account. Family members can strongly influence buyer behavior. The family is the most important consumer buying organization in society. Marketers are interested in the roles and influence of the husband, wife, and children on the purchase of different products and services (Norgaard, 2007).
Television advertising offers product and brand-related ideas and information to children that results in purchase request to parents (Sullivan, 2005). This issue— to what extent television advertisements are effective in defining and changing the buying behavior of children—is worth investigating, and has motivated us to undertake this study.
Materialism among today‘s youth has also received strong interest among educators, parents, consumer activist and government regulators for several reasons (Korten, 1999). For instance, in a study conducted by Korten (1999) in the U.S, it was found that two-thirds of college students in 1967 mentioned the importance of developing a meaningful philosophy of life was very important to them, and money was not at the forefront of their preoccupation. However, by 1997, those figures were reversed.
What is Pester Power?
The power children have, of influencing their parents, to buy items they want is referred to as Pester Power. Sheth G. et. al. (2008) define pester power as "the nagging ability of children to purchase the product they desire due to some reason." It is also described as the technique of selling to adults (who have the money) by aealing to children (who do not) and relying on them to pester their parents into buying the item for them.
Pester Power in India
It's an era of rise in consumerism, thanks to speed of information flow all over the world and India is also witnessing the same pattern in increasing power of consumers. Many powerful groups emerged in recent period, children are one of the most influencing power. Among all the contributing factors in growth of pester power, the most significant ones seems to be penetration of TV as a major media and economically upward shift of the family. This has resulted in many channels being bombarded with products from Parle, Nestle, Britannia, Kellogg's, ITC, Hotwheels.com and even unusual ones like Actilife, LG and Expert burtan bar whose primary target is not children. Soni and Upadhyaya (2007) concluded that the top 5 products for which the kids pester their parents - Fast Food Restaurants, Own clothing, Chips Chocolates and games and toys. Also, there are different tactics used by children to nag their parents. Researchers have classified these tactics into 8 categories :
1. Pressure (using demands, threats, and persistent reminders to influence).
2. Upward aeal (saying that the request is aroved or suorted by an older of the family, teacher or even a family friend).
3. Exchange (offering an exchange of favors with a target).
4. Coalition (seeking the aid of others to persuade a target).
5. Ingratiation (seeking to get a target in a good mood or to think favorably before asking the target to do something).
6. Rational persuasion (using logical arguments and factual evidence to persuade a target that a request will result in something beneficial).
7. Inspirational aeal (arousing a target's enthusiasm by aealing to values, ideals, and aspirations).
8. Consultation (seeking a target's participation in planning and evaluation of purchase).
Time spend on television advertisements
Television viewers consider it a mode of relaxation, when they are watching TV, and this state continues until television sets are on. Different sports and hobbies consisting physical work are the source of energy whereas Television viewing is a source of useless energy (Bartsch and London, 2000). On the other side, positive impacts of television viewing are that it helps in enlightening audience knowledge, provide information, educate them and make available skills how to handle different people in different situations. Television is a persistent medium which is every time available to nearly all children. Most of the children around the globe almost spend about three to four hours daily watching television. In the start, children face problems in understanding television programs. But being immediate learners, they can make balanced decisions about right or wrong under proper guidance of the parents. Thus it is desirable for the parents of young children to monitor the TV viewing habits of their children (Bartsch and London, 2000).
According to a recent survey in the US, children spend more time watching television than they do anything else and children between ages of 6 and 14 watch about 25 hours of television per week and are exposed to 20,000 commercials in a single year. Television advertisements stimulate wants in children and they pester parents for advertised products (Leonhardt and Kerwin, 1997).
Hopf et al. (2008) concluded that most children who watched violent horror movies in their childhood and adolescents who played violent games exhibited more violence and crime at the age of 14 years. Also, another research showed that violent content in most of the media has a small but significant effect in the real world such as learning aggressive behavior, decreased sensitivity, and causing fear Whitney C, Wartella E. (2001)
Moussapoor N, Dor Taj F .(2008) Studies have shown that even infants watch television for half hour, and children aged 4-6 years watch television for 2.5 hours and 6-8 hours on holidays. Also, one third of 7-year-old children spend 4 hours a day watching television, and only 10% of children have never watched television. Primary school children spend 1460 hours a year watching television. In contrast, they have less than 1000 hours of school training, and each family annually spends about 4000 hours watching television program, which has reached to 100000 hours in the late 20th century. Children in the age group of 7-17 years spend 25 hours per week watching television. Moreover, 20% of 2- to 7-year-old children, 46% of 8- to 12-yearold children and 56% of 13- to 17-year-old teens have private television in their room.
Nejati V.(2012) Studies have also reported that 15 to 22% of children need treatment interventions and 70 to 80% do not receive appropriate intervention for their behavioral problems. Behavioral problems begin in the early years of primary school children and reach the peak at 8 to 15 years of age. The findings of Ozmert (2002) on behavioral problems caused by watching too much television revealed that problems such as isolation, social problems, attention problems, thought problems, delinquent behavior, and aggressive behavior are positively correlated with the amount of time spent in television watching. In a study by Garvis and Pendergast (2011), it was pointed out that television is used in families as educator and babysitter and is also used in motivating children’s physical exercise.
In addition, families also believe education programs on television to be positive. Juncal Cunado et de Gracia (2012) concluded that those who spend only one to two hours watching television reported a higher level of happiness than those who spend more time watching television. Naghdi Do Robati (2001) concluded that pre-school education does not affect children’s social adaptability. Esmi et al. (2010) concluded that there is a positive relationship between watching commercials and the use of feed, accessories, and service facilities in that they significantly increase the adherence of children and adolescents to recreational and saving behavior, safety issues, and traffic regulations. The results of Seyedamini et al.’s study (2010) indicate that there was no significant relationship between the behavior of primary school children and watching television a lot; however, there was a significant positive correlation with childhood obesity.
Kids
Indian viewers, on an average, are watching television for 3 hour 44 minutes every day, as per the viewership monitoring agency BARC India. BARC’s latest Broadcast India 2018 survey states that in urban areas, average time spent (ATS) per viewer is about 4 hour 06 minutes, while in rural India, it is about 3 hours and 27 minutes. ET had reported on July 23 that BARC India will release the findings of its Broadcast India (BI) 2018 Survey, based on a sample study of 3 lakh homes ..
As per the survey, TV homes in the country have seen a 7.5% jump, outpacing the growth of homes in India which grew at 4.5%. India currently boasts of 298 million homes, of which 197 million have a TV set, having an opportunity of almost 100 million more TV homes in the country. The survey also suggests that out of the total 836 million TV viewing universe, 429 million are male viewers and 407 million are female. Male viewers grew by 6.9%, while female viewers saw a growth of 7.5% over ..
With BI 2018 we have been able to showcase the changing face of India. However, what hasn’t changed is the fact that TV remains the most effective platform for both content creators and advertisers to reach their audiences,” said Partho Dasgupta, CEO, BARC India.
Through this newsletter, we will explore the seasonal nature of television viewing by analyzing BARC’s robust viewership data over the past two years. We will attempt to uncover some trends & insights which may be of value to these stakeholders in anticipating and formulating annual plans.
Since the Kids TG (television genres) has not been considered in this analysis, one would expect the viewership for Kids channels to be lower. However, it is interesting to see that Kids genre continues to receive substantial viewership in comparison to the remaining genres. While some of these viewers may include the older teens, it is also indicative of co-viewership of the older groups along with the kids, as a large percentage (>90%) of TV households in India are single TV homes. Kids channels could potentially be a good platform for brands to capture the attention of the parents and leverage the pester power of the kids at the same time, especially during the summer vacation months. While most genres see similar seasonal fluctuation patterns, the Kids genre witnesses a substantial increase in viewership during this period as kids are at home and would be spending more time watching television. In addition to Movies genre, the Kids genre too exhibits regular viewership spikes due to increased consumption of such channels on a weekend as opposed to a weekday.
Since the core TG for the Kids channels is the 2-14-year-old segment, it is only fair that we also take a look at the viewership graph for this target group.
While we know that there is a general increase in the viewership of Kids Genre in the summer months, an interesting story emerges when we break it up by zones.
The various zones across India have different vacation schedules, and these local trends clearly emerge in the viewership graph.
The schools in South typically break for vacation at the end of March and re-open early in June. In the West, schools go on vacation from mid-April till mid-June. The rise and fall in kids’ viewership in both these regions also corresponds with this. In North India on the other hand, schools break for summer vacation much later in mid-May and remain closed till end of June, which is also clearly reflected from the graph. The general vacation period in the East zone is typically May-June, as also indicated by the corresponding rise in viewership visible in the graph.
While these months include multiple factors that cause viewership fluctuations, the fact that the variance in viewership spikes lines up perfectly with the respective regions’ vacation period shows us the high sensitivity of kids’ viewership to vacations. Regional broadcasters may therefore look at introducing limited period kids programming in these months to take advantage of the seasonal viewership increase.
Influence of Advertising on Children
The world is dealing with the paradox of choice and manufacturers are going to new lengths to make their product stand out from the lot. This translates to increased expenditure on advertisements and marketing and innovative ads that are hard to miss. While these advertisements can be informative and help you make an informed choice, they may have certain effects on children and go as far as influence their decisions and even personality, in some cases.
What Are the Effects of Advertising on Kids?
Advertising can have both positive as well as negative effects on children, based on the content, quality and the presentation of the advertisement.
1. Positive Impacts
Some of the positive effects of advertising on children are,
· They can be a source of information. Certain advertisements, especially public service announcements present innovations and technological milestones that can offer a good learning opportunity to the child. Moreover, they also educate the children about the new products in the market.
· Healthy food choices advertised the right way can also prompt the child to opt for a more balanced diet.
· Certain advertisements, those for hygiene products can help inculcate good habits in the child.
· Advertisements may also have motivating content that can encourage children to choose a profession or chase a specific dream. They can help them develop a passion for the same and work towards it from a young age.
· Advertisements that present other children of a similar age engaging in activities like helping out in the house or saving can influence kids to do the same.
· Certain advertisements that carry content relevant to social change can help promote empathy and a sense of duty towards the community in children.
· Environmental protection advertisements also call the attention of children towards the problem and can encourage them to be a part of the solution.
· Cautionary advertisements that reveal the consequences of alcohol and smoking can help children understand the risks associated and urge them to stay clear of such products.
2. Negative Impacts
While there are a few positive influences of advertisements, they indeed fail to outweigh the negatives. Some of the adverse effects of advertising on children are,
· Persuasion to purchase a product they like can be a real problem, as advertisers direct their marketing strategies towards children, the parents may have a stubborn child on their hands demanding that they buy a specific product for him.
· The message of the advertisement may be interpreted the wrong way and children may tend to focus mainly on the negatives rather than the positives.
· Certain advertisements portray stunts that can be very dangerous. Although they do come with a statutory warning, it may often be ignored, and kids may attempt to imitate these stunts.
· Every manufacturer wants recurring business, which leads them to create flashy advertisements. The result of this is the development of an impulse buying habit in children.
· False imaging is another issue with advertisements that present things or events in an unrealistic manner and children tend to fall for it.
· Advertisements may also develop a materialistic idea of the world in the children. When their innocent minds are regularly being exposed to content which portrays that having the best things is necessary for a comfortable life, it may make children give undue importance to materials.
· Brand consciousness and an affinity towards expensive branded items can be developed. This may make them shun inexpensive things that serve the same purpose.
· A large portion of the food items advertised is junk food and has a visually appealing advertise targeting young children. These can influence the eating habits of the child and promote unhealthy diet leading to obesity.
· Advertisements can also be a leading factor in influencing the choice of toys, clothes or luxuries of a child.
· Children may also tend to have lower self-esteem if they believe themselves to be inferior for not owning the various products that are advertised, especially so, if their friends possess these items.
· The sexual objectification of women in some advertisements is a cause for concern, as children grow up to think that this is the norm.
· As many adverts have successfully managed to blur the line between real and reel life, children tend to believe the facade and lose touch with reality.
· Certain advertisements are known to use comparative visuals, which ultimately mock a person using a different product. This can instil the concept of inferior and superior in the child as they start to compare themselves with others.
· The visual portrayal of certain inappropriate acts in the adverts like lying or cheating can make a vulnerable child believe that the behaviour is acceptable
Tips for Parents
Unlike a few years ago, these days, the marketing efforts of brand selling children’s products or even certain adult products, are directly targeted at children. Hence, it becomes important for parents to become active participants in helping the children develop critical judgement of the advertisements and teach them the value of the non-materialistic comforts in life.
Here are a few things that you can do to reduce the negative effects of advertisements on young children.
1. Cut down on the screen time. Limit the amount of time that your children are allowed to watch TV or use the computer. It is also advised, that you monitor the content that your kids are watching.
1. When your child asks for a specific product, initiate a conversation with them about why they want it. This will give you a chance to explain to them how advertising works.
1. Be sure to not give into your child’s demands if you are convinced that the product being asked for is unhealthy for your kid.
1. Point out the flaws in the advertisements that you cannot shield your child from and give a realistic picture to your child. This can help develop a critical judgement in the child.
1. Try to download television programs to avoid having to watch advertisements with your child.
1. Help your child learn the difference between ‘needs’ and ‘wants’. And teach them to only ask for something that they need.
REFERENCES
Munusamy, J. & Wong, C. H. (2007). Attitude towards advertising among student at private higher learning institutions in Selangor. Journal of UNITAR, 3(1), 35.
Dewan, N and Thomson M. L., (2010), “When you buy, the kids decide” Economic Times, 18th April, p5.
Arens, Williams,F.(1996). Contemporary Advertising.USA, Richard D Irwin, A.times Morror Higher Education Group Inc Company.
Mehta, A. (2000). Advertising attitudes and advertising effectiveness. Journal of Advertising Research 40(3), 67-72.
Pollay, Richard W. and Mittal, Bewari. (1993). Here’ the beef: factors , determinants and segments in consumer criticism of advertising. Journal of Marketing, Vol. 57 (7),99-114
Butter, Eliot J., Paula M. Popovich, Robert H. Stackhouse, and Roger K. Garner (198 1), “Discrimination of Television Programs and Commercials by Preschool Children,” of Advertising Research, 2 53-56.
Stephens, Nancy and Mary Ann “Preschoolers’ Ability to Distinguish Between Television Programming and Commercials,” Journal 16-26.
Macklin, Carole M. (1987) “Preschoolers’ Understanding of the Informational Function of Television Advertising,” Journal of Consumer Research,229-239
Seth G., Rao G., Radhakrishnan J., Vijan R. S., Musale R. B., Nath S. (2008). "Pester Power: Is a Buyer's Decision Persuaded?", IDEA Research Paper, 1, 1.
Soni S., Upadhyaya M. (2007). "Pester Power Effect of Advertising", International Marketing Conference on Marketing & Society, 8-10 April,IIMK, 313-324.
Norgaard, M., Bruns, K., Christensen, P. and Mikkelsen, M. (2007). Children’ s Influence on and Participation in the Family Decision Process during Food Buying. Journal of Young Consumers, 8.
Korten, D. C. (1999). The post-corporate world: Life after capitalism. West Hartford, CT: Kumarian Press.
Moore, S.E. (2004). Children And Changing World Of Advertisements. Journal of Business Ethics, 52, 161-170.
Bartsch, K., & London K (2000) ‘Children use of mental state information in selecting persuasive arguments, Development of Psychology, 35, pp. 352-365.
Leonhardt D and Kerwin K (1997),“Hey Kid, Buy This!”, Business Week, June 30, pp. 62-67.
Sullivan T (2005), “Advertising andChildren: What do the Kids Think?”, International Journal of Market Research, Vol. 8, No. 4, pp. 371-384.
Hopf WH, Huber GL, Weiß RH. Media violence and youth violence: A 2-year longitudinal study. Journal of Media Psychology. 2008; 20(3):79-96. doi: 10.1027/1864-1105.20.3.79.
Whitney C, Wartella E. Violence and Media. In: Wright J., editor. International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences. London: Elsevier Science Ltd; 2001.
Moussapoor N, Dor Taj F. [Evaluation of religious animations in the IRIB (Persian)]. Journal of Iran Cultural Research. 2008; 1(3):157-82.
Nejati V. [Epidemiology of behavioural problems in elementary school students of Tehran satellite cities (Persian)]. Journal of Medical Council of Iran. 2012; 30(2):162-8.
Özmert E, Toyran M, Yurdakök K. Behavioral correlates of television viewing in primary school children evaluated by the child behavior checklist. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine. 2002; 156(9):910-4. doi: 10.1001/archpedi.156.9.910
Garvis S, Pendergast D. Warning-television viewing may harm your child's health: Parent perceptions of early childhood viewing habits. Australasian Journal of Early Childhood. 2011;36(4):22-8.
Cuñado J, de Gracia FP. Does education affect happiness? Evidence for Spain. Social Indicators Research. 2012; 108(1):185-96. doi: 10.1007/s11205-011-9874-x.
Naghdi Do Robati F. [Studying the relationship between maternal employment and social adaptation of children (Persian)] [MA thesis]. Tehran: Tehran University; 2001.
Esmi R, Sa'idipour E, Assadzadeh H. [The relationship between watching TV commercials and consumption pattern in children and adolescents in Tehran (Persian)]. Communication Research. 2010; 17(1):93-117.