Activity
Disability & Higher Education
Academic Ableism
“The Retrofit” by Jay Timothy Dolmage
Key topics include:
The retrofit
Defeat devices
Retrofits as exclusion
Affect of accommodation
#AcademicAbleism
“Retrofits like ramps ‘fix’ space, but retrofits also have a chronicity – a timing and a time logic – that renders them highly temporary yet also relatively unimportant. Thus the experience of seeking a retrofit usually reveals that they are slow to come and fast to expire. Anyone who has waited for a wheelchair bus, or the key to an accessible elevator, or waited around while either of these things broke down and needed to be repaired, can identify this chronicity or timing.” – Jay Timothy Dolmage (pg 70)
The Retrofit
Retrofit: adding new technologies and features to older systems
Dolmage argues in the chapter that the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) is a retrofit for higher education
Delivers very little and ensures that very little is done
Has similar patterns of “progress and retrenchment” to laws meant to promote racial equity and equality
The law is too easy to avoid and ignore
Academia is ableist: it mandates able-bodiedness and able-mindedness
Accommodations and trigger warnings operate as retrofits in higher education
“That is, when the accommodations that students with disabilities have access to, over and over again, are intended to simply temporarily even the playing field for them in a single class or activity, it is clear that these retrofits are not designed for people to live and thrive with a disability, but rather to temporarily make the disability go away” (pg 70)
Accommodations
Implies that disability is individually located
Accommodations imply that one person be adapted to the curriculum, not that the curriculum be accessible to begin with
Trigger Warnings
Trigger warnings operate as retrofits
Faculty and institutions may position themselves against trigger warnings
Implies a false binary and false opposition between student needs and faculty needs
Being against trigger warnings can be an attempt to not mention their own complicity in violence
Prevents real conversations of trauma
“A trigger warning can save a student (or reader of a book) from being, metaphorically, thrown down a set of stairs. But trigger warnings also need to incite a larger discussion about structural ableism and systemic violence” – pg 73
Defeat Device
Accommodations are designed to meet a legal definition
Designed to be bare minimum
Syllabus as a defeat device
Some students will say that the class meets their needs based on the syllabus
Teaching takes place over time, so future accommodations may be needed
Faculty’s beliefs as a defeat device
Claiming to know student needs and more of an expert than students or the accessibility resource centers
Extended time as an accommodation can serve as a defeat device
Little research showing that this is an effective accommodation
Most common accommodation given at universities
Cover Your Ass: Retrofits as Exclusion
Many retrofits are to cover the university legally, but do very little to create access
Abeyance structures: “allowing for access, but disallowing the possibility of action for change” (pg 77)
“Reasonable accommodations” in higher education
Industry of lawyers, HR managers, and admin determining what “undue hardship” and “undue burden” is for accommodations
Cover Your Ass: Retrofits as Exclusion
Cornell University: determined a university website does not need to be accessible until it has been viewed by a certain number of people
U.C. Berkeley: Department of Ed. Determined 20,000 videos were not accessible and the university removed them from their website rather than captioning them
The Affect of Accommodation
Accommodations are determined by disability services or accessibility services in universities
Enforcing ”reasonable accommodations” mandated by the ADA and other laws
Students must prove they need accommodations
Using medical experts as gatekeepers
Refusal to provide support unless it is legally mandated
Compliance is the goal for accommodation and accessibility in universities
Contributes to negative views of students with disabilities
Viewed as “cutting the line”
Viewed as an act of charity
The financial cost of disability is debated
#AcademicAbleism
Online movements to call out colleges and universities for their ableism
Hashtag was started by Navi Dhanota (@zaranosaur) in 2014
Protesting the Guardian newspaper’s article on the mental health “survival strategies” of graduate students
Review the Twitter hashtag # AcademicAbleism
Overview of Higher Education
Key topics include:
Education disparities
Rates of disability
Barriers & supports
Education Disparities for Disabled College Students
Newman, L., Wagner, M., Knokey, A.M., Marder, C., Nagle, K., Shaver, D., Wei, X., Cameto, R., Contreras, E., Ferguson, K., Greene, S., and Schwarting, M. (2011). The Post High-School Outcomes of Young Adults with Disabilities Up to 8 Years After High School. A Report from the National Longitudinal Transition Study-2 (NLTS2) (NCSER 2011-3005). Menlo Park, CA: SRI International. Retrieved from https://ies.ed.gov/ncser/pubs/20113005/pdf/20113005.pdf
Sanford, C., Newman, L., Wagner, M., Cameto, R., Knokey, A.M., and Shaver, D. (2011). The Post-High School Outcomes of Young Adults with Disabilties up to 6 Years After High School. Key Findings from the National Longitudinal Transition Sutdy-2 (NLTS2) (NCSER 2011-2014). Menlo Park, CA: SRI International. Retrieved from https://ies.ed.gov/ncser/pubs/20113004/pdf/20113004.pdf
Have lower graduation rates compared to students without disabilities (Sanford et al., 2011; Newman et al., 2011)
38% graduate a program within 6 years of graduating high school compared to 51% of students without disabilities (Sanford et al, 2011)
Disparity exists even after 8 years after finishing high school (Newman et al., 2011)
Rates of Disability
Students with disabilities account for approximately 19% of all undergrads (2015-2016 academic year)
Some sub-populations of students report higher rates of disability
Veterans
Students over 30 years old
Students who are independent and not married
American Indian/Alaska Native
Pacific Islander
Students who identify with two or more races
Source: NCES, 2019, N=19,308
National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) (2019). Students with Disabilities. Institute of Education Services. Retrieved from https://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=60
How does this compare to the general U.S. population?
About 25% of adults report having any disability (Okoro et al., 2019)
16% of younger adults (18-44 years old) report a disability
Cognitive disability most common, self-care disability least common
Women and people who are low income report higher rates of disability (Okoro et al., 2019)
Racial minorities report higher rates of disability (Okoro et al., 2019)
American Indian/Alaska Native people (~28%)
Biracial or multiracial people (~25%)
Black people (~18%)
LGBTQ people report higher rates of disability (Fredriksen-Goldsen et al., 2012; James et al., 2016)
Fredriksen-Goldsen, K.R., Kim, H., & Barkan, S.E. (2012). Disability Among Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Adults: Disparities in Prevalence and Risk. American Journal of Public Health, 102(1), e16-e21. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3490559/
James, S.E., Herman, J.L., Keisling, M., Mottet, L., & Anafi, M. (2016). The Report of the 2015 U.S. Transgender Survey. Washington, DC: National Center for Transgender Equality. Retrieved from https://transequality.org/sites/default/files/docs/usts/USTS-Full-Report-Dec17.pdf
Okoro, C.A., Hollis, N.D., Cyrus, A.C., & Griffin-Blake, S. (2018). Prevalence of Disabilities and Health Care Access by Disability Status Type Among Adults – United States, 2016. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 67(32), 882-887.
Barriers Reported by Students with Disabilities
| Work with the Disability Resource Office | Classroom and Instructional Environment | Campus Access and Support | Campus Climate |
| Unaware of office and services Difficulty navigating procedures Inadequate accommodations Lacking support for self-advocacy and disclosure skills | Uninformed faculty Instructor pushback Non-responsive instructors | Physical barriers Gaps in programs and services | Negative interaction with peers Stigma of disability Added work of disability management |
Source: Scott, 2019
Scott, S. (2019). Access and Participation in Higher Education: Perspectives on College Students with Disabilities. NCCSD Research Brief, 2(2). Huntersville, NC: National Center for College Students with Disabilities, Association on Higher Education and Disability. Available at http://NCCSDclearinghouse.org
Supports Reported by Students with Disabilities
| Disability Resource Office | Inclusive Classroom | Disability Community | Self-Determination |
| Supportive interactions with staff Easy procedures Accommodations that meet the need | Informed instructors Supportive interactions with faculty | Peer support Campus structures | Confidence with self-advocacy Claiming disability |
Source: Scott, 2019
Scott, S. (2019). Access and Participation in Higher Education: Perspectives on College Students with Disabilities. NCCSD Research Brief, 2(2). Huntersville, NC: National Center for College Students with Disabilities, Association on Higher Education and Disability. Available at http://NCCSDclearinghouse.org
Campus Climate
Multiple definitions of campus climate
Campus climate includes people’s behaviors, attitudes, the climate is multifaceted, and policies and practices affect the climate (Reason, 2013)
Institutions have a lack of resources and services that can accommodate a range of students with disabilities (GAO, 2009)
Majority of recent graduates do not strongly agree that their alma mater would have investigated an issue on discrimination if they reported it (Marken, 2020)
Black, Hispanic, LGBTQ, and female students were less confident
Marken, S. (2020). Alumni Rate Colleges’ Responsiveness to Discrimination. Gallup. Retrieved from https://news.gallup.com/poll/311297/alumni-rate-colleges-responsiveness-discrimination.aspx
Government Accountability Office (GAO) (2009). Higher Education and Disability: Education Needs a Coordinated Approach to Improve Its Assistance to Schools in Supporting Students. Retrieved from https://www.gao.gov/assets/300/297433.pdf
Reason, R.D. (2013). Creating and Assessing Campus Climates that Support Personal and Social Responsibility. Liberal Education, 99(1). Retrieved from https://www.aacu.org/publications-research/periodicals/creating-and-assessing-campus-climates-support-personal-and-social
Mental Health in Higher Education
Key topics include:
College student mental health
Impact on persistence and completion
Impact of COVID-19 on student mental health
Mental health of students with disabilities
Mental health of faculty
College Student Mental Health
Critical age for seeking counseling
About ¾ of all lifetime mental disorders start by mid-20’s (Kessler et al., 2007)
MH treatment for college students increased from 19% to 34% between 2007 and 2017 (Lipson et al., 2019)
Corresponds to increasing rates of lifetime diagnoses, depression, and suicidality
Untreated mental disorders are very prevalent and the majority of students with mental health disorders do not receive treatment (Hunt & Eisenberg, 2010; Blanco et al., 2008)
Untreated mental health problems is still prevalent even in accounting for the increase in help-seeking behavior (Hunt & Eisenberg, 2010)
College Student Mental Health
Studies find that among college students, women and racial and ethnic minorities report higher rates of mental health problems (Eisenberg et al., 2013; Smith et al., 2014; Lipson et al., 2018)
Younger people report increasingly positive attitudes toward help-seeking for mental health issues (Motjabai, 2007)
Barriers such as stigma only partially explain why there are high rates of untreated disorders (Eisenberg et al., 2012)
Students who have untreated mental health problems report low stigma and positive beliefs about treatment
Many students who do not use or do not plan to use mental health services are willing to use self-help resources (Levin et al., 2018)
Eisenberg, D. Hunt, J., Speer, N. (2013). Mental Health in American Colleges and Universities: Variation Across Student Subgroups and Across Campuses. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 201(1), 60-67.
Eisenberg, D., Hunt, J., Speer, N. (2012a) Help Seeking for Mental Health on College Campuses: Review of Evidence and Next Steps for Research and Practice. Harv Rev Psychiatry, 20(4), 222-232.
Eisenberg, D., Speer, N, & Hunt, J.B. (2012b). Attitudes and Beliefs About Treatment Among College Students with Untreated Mental Health Problems. Psychiatric Services, 63(7), 711-713.
Levin, M.E., Krafft, J., Levin, C. (2018). Does Self-Help Increase Rates of Help Seeking for Student Mental Health Problems by Minimizing Stigma as a Barrier? Journal of American College Health, 66(4), 302-309.
Mojtabai, R. (2007). Americans’ Attitudes Toward Mental Health Treatment Seeking: 1990-2003. Psychiatric Services, 58(5), 642-651.
Smith, K.M., Chesin, M.S., Jeglic, E.L. (2014). Minority College Student Mental Health: Does Majority Status Matter? Implications for College Counseling Services. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 42, 77-92.
Impact on Persistence and Completion
Of students who drop out of college, 64% reported they are no longer enrolled due to a mental health related reason (NAMI, 2012)
45% did not receive accommodations
50% did not access mental health services and supports
50% of students did not disclose their mental health condition to their college (NAMI, 2012)
| What might have helped you stay in school? |
| Receiving accommodations (tutoring, lower course loads, communicating with professors, online classes) |
| Accessing mental health services and supports on campus |
| Connecting with mental health providers earlier |
| Having peer-run support groups available |
| Getting assistance with medical bills and transportation |
| Managing side effects of medications |
| Getting support from family and friends |
Source: NAMI, 2012
National Alliance on Mental Illness (NAMI). (2012). College Students Speak: A Survey Report on Mental Health. Retrieved from https://www.nami.org/getattachment/About-NAMI/Publications-Reports/Survey-Reports/College-Students-Speak_A-Survey-Report-on-Mental-Health-NAMI-2012.pdf
Impact of COVID-19 on Student Mental Health
Active Minds (2020) conducted a study during the Spring 2020 semester (April 10-18th) about the impact of COVID-19 on students’ mental health
20% reported their MH has significantly worsened
80% reported that the pandemic has negatively impacted their mental health
55% did not know where to seek help for their mental health
Students report interacting most with parents
Returning to unsafe or abusive homes can be detrimental to student mental health (Green, Dorison, & Price-Feeney, 2020)
Can disproportionately impact LGBTQ+ students who return to homophobic, biphobic, and transphobic homes
Active Minds. (2020) The Impact of COVID-19 on Student Mental Health: April 2020 Survey Data. Active Minds. Retrieved from https://www.activeminds.org/studentsurvey/
Green, A., Dorison, S., & Price-Feeney, M. (2020). Implications of COVID-19 for LGBTQ Youth Mental Health and Suicide Prevention. The Trevor Project. Retrieved from https://www.thetrevorproject.org/2020/04/03/implications-of-covid-19-for-lgbtq-youth-mental-health-and-suicide-prevention/
Mental Health of Students with Disabilities
Little research on the mental health of college students with disabilities
Some larger studies include one question to determine if students are registered with accessibility services, but do not include any analyses or findings on disability (CCMH, 2019)
The stressors related to college and oppressive college environments can exacerbate negative mental health symptoms or cause negative mental health (such as anxiety, etc.)
Diagnosed mental health conditions do qualify under the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) and students can receive accommodations due to mental health
Mental Health of Students with Disabilities
One study: Conduti et al (2016) specifically focuses on students with disabilities for the 2013-2014 academic year using data from Center for Collegiate Mental Health and a non-clinical sample from 45 institutions
Report high rates of anxiety, academic-related distress, high rates of suicide ideation, suicide attempts, and non-suicidal self-injury
Students with psychological disabilities reported higher mental health needs than students with physical disabilities
In the general population: people with disabilities report worse MH than people without disabilities (Honey et al., 2011)
Rates are similar when there is high social support and low financial hardship
Honey, A., Emerson, E., & Llewellyn, G. (2011). The Mental Health of Young People with Disabilities: Impact of Social Conditions. Soc Psychiat Epidemiol, 46, 1-10.
Mental Health of Academics
Little research on the mental health of academics (faculty, researchers) and little research on disabled academics
One study conducted in the UK (Guthrie et al., 2017) found:
Higher burnout compared to the general population
Only about 6.2% disclosed their mental health condition to the university
Depression (75%), panic attacks (42%), eating disorders (15%), and self-harm (11%) were among the most common mental health conditions reported by academics
The ADA is designed to protect academics who have mental health diagnoses and/or disabilities
Majority of faculty report having no or limited knowledge of accommodations (Price et al., 2017)
Higher education expects academics to be able-minded, meaning having mental health problems or a diagnosis can be stigmatized and viewed as not able to do the job
Price, M., Salzer, M.S., O’Shea, A., and Kerschbaum, S.L. (2017). Disclosure of Mental Disability by College and University Faculty: The Negotiation of Accommodations, Supports, and Barriers. Disability Studies Quarterly, 37(2),
Guthrie, S., Lichten, C. Belle, J.V., Ball, S., Knack, A., and Hofamn, J. 2017. Understanding Mental Health in the Research Environment. RAND Europe