SPCH 324 FINAL ASSESSMENT

A. The Definitions of Gender Roles and Stereotypes

We spent a lot of time defining key terms in the study of gender and communication in module 1. Again, we must define some key terms in this module so that we have a common understanding of what we are discussing.

In module 1, we defined sex role as "a prescribed set of behaviors assigned to different sexes" (Neuliep, 2000, p. 198). Gender roles may sound similar. According to Jackson and Dangerfield (2003), "Gender roles refer to ways women and men are socially and culturally assigned feminine and masculine behaviors" (p. 122). Similarly, Rathus (1993) asserts that gender roles are complex groupings of stereotypes brought about by cultural expectations attached to being male and female. Gender roles identify how men and women are expected to behave.

Diamond, however, seeks to make a clear distinction between sex roles and gender roles. He states, "A sex role usually involves the acting out of one's biological predisposition" and provides the following examples to illustrate his point. Young men are often linked to higher levels of aggressive, confrontational, and competitive behavior. The sex roles of young women are frequently demonstrated through nurturing and compromising behaviors that are found far less frequently in men. Diamond argues that these behaviors represent sex-typical behavior. He believes that "Gender roles are those behaviors imposed overtly and covertly by society." Gender roles are learned behaviors, such as how girls learn to apply make-up or how boys memorize the rules of sports (Diamond, 2002).

Other terms that you will come across as you study gender are gender identity and sexual identity. You should be aware of the profound differences in the definitions of sex and gender from module 1. As you will recall, sex refers to innate biological differences commonly associated with genitalia, and gender refers to the societal and cultural attributions associated with masculinity and femininity.

Diamond believes there are clear distinctions between sexual identity and gender identity. He argues that the manner in which a person sees him/herself as a male or female is one's sexual identity, and that gender identity is the realization "… of the perceived social gender attributed to a person" (Diamond, 2002). Usually a male is viewed as boy or man, and a female is seen as a girl or a woman. Cultural and societal expectations are attached to being a boy/man or a girl/woman. Later in this module we will explore various theories about how gender develops.

Take a moment to reflect on your responses to Try This 2.1, above. What did you choose as feminine characteristics? How about masculine characteristics? Do you know any women that could be described with your choice of masculine characteristics? How about any men? Think about yourself and these characteristics. Do you fit into one area or the other?

We often see the world in broad categories, and this is a consequence of the abstract nature of language and the symbolic word in which we live (Wood, 2007). Language categorizes people by sex, gender, roles, physical characteristics, abilities, personality characteristics, culture, and so forth. A person may be identified as a male or a female, masculine or feminine, a student or a teacher, talented or untalented, warm or aloof, intelligent or unintelligent, and Western or Middle Eastern. We use categories to organize phenomena, make our lives more predictable, and make sense of the world.

Wood (2007) warns that seeing the world in broad categories can lead to stereotyping. Categorizing is a normal cognitive behavior, but when the process becomes rigid and inflexible, it results in stereotyping. What is stereotyping? A stereotype is an unchanging, conventional belief about a group (Rathus, 1993). This definition emphasizes the inflexibility that goes beyond simple categorization. Trenholm and Jensen (2004) argue that stereotyping not only involves categorizing people, but also includes predicting behavior. If you held the stereotype that powerful women have to be "bitchy" and aggressive to maintain their positions, you would expect your new female director to behave accordingly.

Adler and Towne (2003) believe that stereotyping refers to a rigid categorization of a person. They suggest that when generalizations move to stereotyping, any of the following three behaviors occur:

1. You frequently classify people based on characteristics that are easy to identify. For example, all blondes are dumb or all redheads have a fiery personality.

2. You assign a set of traits to most or all members of a group. For example, you assume that all homosexual men are impeccable dressers or that all Asian students excel in math and science.

3. You apply the same set of traits to any individual member of the group. For example, you are introduced to an Asian student and you expect her or him to be gifted in math and science.

The above characteristics describe rigid stereotyping. As you'll remember from our module 1 discussion, you essentialize when you engage in rigid sex- and gender-role stereotyping. 

Stewart, Cooper, Stewart, and Friedley (2003) note that "Stereotypes may have some basis in reality and may help us to understand our social world better, but they may not be accurate descriptions of particular individuals" (p. 6). Stereotyping simplifies our need to accurately perceive, investigate, and analyze others, but often the result is that the rigid categories we place people into are not representative of who they really are and ultimately, our relationships suffer.

Now that you have a basic understanding of stereotyping, let's revisit Try This exercise 2.2. When completing the sentences, did you engage primarily in broad categorizations of men and women, or did you think of strong and inflexible beliefs that you may hold regarding men and women? For example, if you completed the sentence "Attractive women are…" with "interested only in wealthy men," you may be guilty of stereotyping.

It is important to realize that once you have a stereotype in your mind, you are inclined to look for behaviors that reinforce the stereotype, regardless of the legitimacy of your perception. If you think men are better at spatial relationships and directions, you would most likely ask a man for directions when you are lost, even though there might have been a woman available who could have provided you with the same directions to your destination. Receiving the "correct" directions from a man merely reinforces your belief that a sense of direction is a strength found only in men.

With culturally assigned gender roles, it is easy to see how stereotypes form. It is important to mention that gender roles and stereotypes may differ among ethnic groups and cultures. Let's take a look at some of the gender roles and stereotypes attached to femininity and masculinity in Western society.

What does being feminine mean? What visual and behavioral expectations come to mind when a female child is described as a girlie girl? You may envision a young, attractive girl in a frilly dress and flowing curls, playing with a doll and a porcelain tea set. Her behavior would be prim and proper, and she would use words and phrases like please, thank you, and may I. Probably we have all met girlie girls, but most of us would argue that they are not the norm. Children, however, begin to behave in gender-specific ways at very young ages.

Do you consider yourself feminine? Do you wear make-up, perfume, and jewelry? Do you carry a purse? Is your clothing considered representative of what a woman would wear? Is your interaction style characterized by the stereotypical feminine communication mentioned in module 1? Are you soft-spoken, submissive, compliant, emotional, and modest?

Traditional feminine gender roles include being gentle, dependent, patient, mild, kind, helpful, cooperative, sensitive, and supportive. Women are expected to have maternal instincts and desires. Ivy and Backlund argue that many of the traditional stereotypes previously mentioned were founded more than 100 years ago, and society has clearly changed—especially in the last 30 years. Perceptions of femininity are slowly evolving, however, and this evolution affects perceptions of body image, athletics, clothing styles, and nonconformity (2004).

Today, women may choose from a wider range of actions, options, opinions, and attitudes that are perceived as feminine (Ivy & Backlund, 2004). For example, almost half of the women who graduated from college in 1960 obtained employment as teachers (Leonhardt, 2003), but that figure had dropped to less than 10 percent by 1990. More employment opportunities are available to women as society's female gender roles have expanded.

What does being masculine encompass? Imagine the typical boy. What does he look like? How does he behave? Active, energetic, and sometimes mischievous little boys who are quick to explore, engage in physical activities, or challenge others to competitions may come to mind.

Society begins to socialize us and teach us cultural norms from birth. Remember that it is our culture that teaches us what is masculine and what is feminine. The socialization process takes place when a girl baby is given a pink blanket and a boy baby is given a blue blanket, often in the hospital shortly after birth. Differences in treatment and experience continue as children grow and mature. Gender roles influence and often shape children's behavior. Sex differences influence gender as well, as you will note in our discussion below regarding the biological perspective of gender development.

Do you define yourself as masculine? Do you have shorter hair than most women, carry a wallet, and watch televised sports programs regularly? Do you enjoy playing golf and poker? Do you tell off-color jokes and prefer to maintain possession of the television remote? Is your clothing considered representative of what a man would wear? Is your interaction style characterized by the stereotypical masculine communication mentioned in module one? Is your style direct, domineering, and unemotional? Are you a poor listener? Masculinity is associated with competitiveness, aggression, and independence (Ivy & Backlund, 2004). Men are expected to be tough, protective, and logical. Men who defy the masculine stereotypical style and embrace a more feminine style are often labeled effeminate or wimpy.

Note that the above descriptions are of Western stereotypes and gender roles. These roles may differ in other cultures. Now, we need to build on your understanding of stereotypes and gender roles by examining the various theories of how gender develops. How do we gain our sense of who we are?

We will look at four different groups of theories that attempt to explain how gender is developed and how we obtain our gender identities. Before we examine gender theories, however, let's first discuss the usefulness of theories. A theory explains or represents a phenomenon. According to Littlejohn & Foss (2004), theories:

· facilitate the organization and synthesis of information

· aid us in sharing knowledge

· identify key variables and relationships

· promote evaluation and dialogue

· challenge our current cultural experience and provide us with alternatives

The theories we will examine look at gender development and gender identity from four different perspectives: biological, cultural, psychological, and sociobiological. As you read the module commentary, decide which theory or category of theories makes the most sense to you.

A. Biological

Researchers from the biological perspective believe that gender is based primarily on biological differences. We all know the obvious differences between boys and girls at birth, but how do these differences influence our behavior, perceptions, and experiences? Sax (2005) argues that substantial research produced over the last 20 years has shown that sex differences are more profound and important than anyone ever suspected. Sax warns against confusing gender differences with gender stereotypes. He specifically mentions the following inaccurate gender differences that are commonly perpetuated in our society:

· Boys are inherently more skilled at science and math than girls are.

· Girls are inherently more emotional than boys are.

· Girls inherently work together to accomplish things, while boys are more competitive.

Although Sax states that these beliefs are false and not based on substantiated empirical evidence, he is clear in his belief in the existence of many innate gender differences that originate in the brain (2005). We will focus our attention on sex differences in hormones, sex chromosomes, and brain development and structure.

1. Hormonal Differences (Testosterone and Estrogen)

Gamble and Gamble (2003) state that hormonal differences among men and women are central to many of the biological theories of gender development and identity. Although all human bodies contain the three primary hormones known as progestrogens, androgens, and estrogens (Ivy & Backlund, 2004), these hormones exist at different levels in males and females. Testosterone (androgen) and estrogen are the hormones most central to the discussion of gender differences.

Lorber and Moore (2007) note that increases in testosterone and estrogen levels are responsible for shaping boys' and girls' bodies in the teenage years. Some researchers have found that "… men produce ten to twenty times as much testosterone as women do, and testosterone profoundly affects physique, behavior, mood, and self-understanding" (Gamble & Gamble, 2003, p. 35). A high level of testosterone in males produces an increase in bone mass, muscle size, and bone size, and these changes result in growth spurts for males (Lorber & Moore). Testosterone is also responsible for the increase in facial and bodily hair and the deepening of the voice in males.

In females, estrogen brings about menstruation, ovulation, enlarged breasts, and hair under the arms and in the pubic area (Lorber & Moore, 2007). Also, the pelvis expands, while pockets of fat appear in the buttocks, hips, and thighs.

Even with all of these differences, men and women need both of these hormones for healthy bodies. Men who are estrogen-deficient are more likely to suffer from osteoporosis (Ehrenreich, 1999). Women's bodies create and use testosterone, and there are indications that women require testosterone to become sexually aroused.

Ivy and Backlund (2004) have examined the role of female hormones in nurturance, and they report that researchers have found a link between female hormones and a person's propensity to nurture. A woman's neurological experience is more likely to be profoundly affected by hormonal surges that vary over the course of her life (Garofoli, 2006). They also mention, however, that societal pressures, culture, opportunities to fill nurturing roles, and personal experiences also contribute to an individual's ability to nurture others.

A recent study conducted by psychologists at Knox College in Galesburg, Illinois, illustrates how experience can also influence testosterone levels in males. In the study, researchers measured the testosterone levels of male participants and then seated the males individually at a table in an empty room (Carey, 2006). They were asked to choose to disassemble either a game (the board game Mouse Trap) or a gun and then write instructions for the task they chose. The testosterone levels were reassessed after the males completed this task.

The males who disassembled the gun yielded higher levels of testosterone, and the males who disassembled the game held constant testosterone levels. The males were then asked to taste a glass of water that contained a drop of hot sauce, and after doing so they were required to prepare a glass of water with as much hot sauce as they desired for the next participant. The males who disassembled the gun and measured higher levels of testosterone put three times the amount of hot sauce in the water than those who took apart the game (Carey, 2006). This example reveals that biological differences can become more prominent through our experiences.

2. Sex Chromosomes

Other theorists working from the biological perspective have explored the relationship of our chromosomes to our sex. One very interesting area of study examines the genes for intelligence. Many of the genes for intelligence are attached to the X chromosome (Tanouye, 1996). Males inherit an X genetically only from their mothers; therefore, their intelligence comes primarily from their mothers. Because women inherit an X chromosome from both parents, they are able to inherit their intelligence from either parent.

Tanouye (1996) notes that males and females have basically the same mean IQ scores, but men make up more of the mentally challenged and genius populations. This may now potentially be explained by this new finding, because males inherit only a single X chromosome and experience the full influence of intelligence genes that lead to either mental handicaps or genius. Because females can receive the gene from both their fathers and their mothers, "the effect of a gene on one X chromosome may be diluted by the matching gene on the other" (Tanouye, 1996, p. B-1). This research provides another interesting piece of evidence to suggest that there are biological differences between the sexes.

3. Brain Development and Structure

Scientists studying brain structures also argue for differences among males and females. Neuropsychiatrist Louann Brizendine of the University of California at San Francisco and founder of the Women's and Teen Girls' Mood and Hormone Clinic, argues that the brains of women and men are different in structure and chemical make-up (Garofolio, 2006). Her research shows that our brains are hardwired for "Stone Age necessities." When we are born, we are already hardwired based on our sex, and this hardwiring will influence our behavior.

Brizendine believes that society must recognize, accept, and appreciate how neurological differences influence behavior. Brizendine feels that understanding and accepting these differences will lead to better relationships (Garofoli, 2006). One of the differences she notes is that, although a man's brain may be larger overall, the area of a woman's brain that creates memories, emotion, and language and decodes emotions in others is larger than that of their male counterparts.

Sax (2005) reviewed the literature on male-female brain differences and shared the following findings:

1. Women have better brain blood flow.

2. In some important portions of the brain, women have larger brain cells that allow them to receive more inputs than men can.

3. "For many tasks, brain imaging studies show that women use the most advanced areas of the brain, the cerebral cortex, whereas men doing the same task use the more 'primitive' areas of the brain such as the globus pallidus, the amygdala, or the hippocampus" (Sax, 2005, p. 31).

4. Girls develop a link between the amygdala (responsible for negative emotions) and the cerebral cortex at a significantly earlier age than boys. This allows younger girls to discuss their feelings, while a boy the same age may be unable to do so.

Biological researchers are clear that nature is an important influence on gender identity and should not be excluded from the equation for the purposes of political correctness or in response to feminist criticism. The majority of researchers today view nature and nurture as working together to form gender identity.

Researchers view biology as a factor that influences gender, not the sole determiner of gender. Scientists such as Neuropsychiatrist Louann Brizendine of the University of California at San Francisco and researcher Bruce S. McEwen of Rockefeller University, who study sex differences in the brain, clearly recognize the roles that experience, parenting, and environment play in molding a person (Garofoli, 2006). Physician and psychologist Leonard Sax (2005) acknowledges that culture, family, and society have powerful roles in influencing gender but urges educators and parents to acknowledge and comprehend sex difference to better understand children and how they learn. Sax is clear, however, in his desire that parents and educators reach beyond gender stereotypes.

Do you think biology alone explains how gender is developed? Or are you like most biological researchers, who think that both nature and nurture play roles?

Some scholars believe that gender is flexible rather than rigid. People who identify an inconsistency between their body and mind are experiencing gender exceptionality (Basu, 2004). For example, a woman with a female body but a male identity may not relate entirely to either sex. For the most part, society reacts uncomfortably with gender exceptionality—those who do not seem to fit nicely into the man/woman categorization.

The medical community believes that your body is tied to your identity, so the solution to "the problem" is to change the body because there must be congruency between a person's body and his or her identity (Basu, 2004). From the medical community's perspective, a man needs a penis to be a man and a woman needs a vagina to be a woman. Sexual-reassignment surgery is their answer.

Basu is critical of this blanket approach for those with gender exceptionality. "…there exists a large number of persons, usually held under the umbrella term 'transgender', who not only demonstrate a wide variety of gender role combinations, but flexibly shift between identities and body identifications, relative to time and space" (Basu, p. 56). Basu argues that when you view gender as fluid, you don't limit people to the current dichotomy of gender. Basu encourages us stop viewing gender flexibility as deviant.

In module 2, we defined gender roles, gender identity, sexual identity, and stereotypes. We examined specific gender roles and stereotypes associated with femininity and masculinity. We also reviewed biological, cultural, psychological, and sociobiological theories of gender development. Finally, we explored the theory of gender fluidity.

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