Essay
The Changing Nature of Management in Child Care Centres in Queensland: A Review of Directors’ Perspectives Hannele Nupponen
The aim of this paper is to produce an understanding of directors’ work; perceptions of
their role as managers in the centre; their experiences; and the nature of management
within the context of the child care field in a complex social, legislative and economic
climate. In the current context of the delivery of child care services in a market-driven
climate, the language of business and organisational theory has entered the lexicon of the
early childhood field. The findings indicate that the director of a child care centre needs
to have knowledge, skills and experience in business management to enhance their
competencies for management of centres in today’s competitive environment.
Introduction
Centre-based child care services in Queensland, Australia are regulated under the
Child Care Act 2002 (Qld) and Child Care (Child Care Centres) Regulations 2003.
Child care centres in Australia are required to participate in the National Childcare
Accreditation Quality Improvement System to be eligible for Childcare Benefit, which
is a fee subsidy to offset fees paid by the parents. This accreditation system has been
operational since 1994, and is the first of its kind in the world, where funding is
linked to centre performance.
Practitioners and researchers alike in the early childhood field are probably aware
that management issues in child care services have received increasing attention in the
past two decades because of the demand for, and the expansion of, service provision
in formal child care settings, such as long-day care centres. The Australian
Government, Department of Family and Community Services (2002) Census of
Child Care Services showed that in Queensland alone 14,576 children younger than
12 years old attended community-based long-day care services (total number of
children younger than 12 years of age in community-based long-day care services in
Hannele Nupponen is at Queensland University of Technology. Correspondence to: Dr Hannele Nupponen, 258
Miller Road, Logan Village Qld 4207, Australia. Tel: 61 7 55 468843; Email: hannanup@bigpond.net.au
ISSN 1357-5279 print/1476-489X online/06/040347-17 # 2006 The Child Care in Practice Group
DOI: 10.1080/13575270600863259
Child Care in Practice
Vol. 12, No. 4, October 2006, pp. 347 �363
Australia was 107,317) and 65,108 children younger than 12 years of age attended
private long-day care services (total number of children younger than 12 years of age
in private long-day care services in Australia was 200,815). Consequently interest in
the management of child care services has increased, evidenced by the range of
professional child care publications in the 1990s (for example, see Farmer, 1995;
Hayden, 1999; Rodd, 1998).
Many developments have occurred in the provision and delivery of child care
services for young children and their families in Australia in the past three decades.
Specifically, the development of an extensive child care system in the community and
private sector has been significant. Some of the key developments are outlined in the
following.
. In 1972, the Commonwealth Child Care Act gave capital and operating subsidies to support community-based child care centres.
. Since the early 1980s, child care has been integral to Commonwealth labour market policies. The private sector and employers have been encouraged to
provide services to meet the demand for work-related care.
. In 1991, the Commonwealth Government extended Childcare Benefit (fee subsidy to offset fees paid by parents) to the private sector. This led to a rapid increase in
the number of private child care centres.
. In 1994, the Commonwealth Government introduced the Quality Improvement and Accreditation System. Only accredited centres can access Childcare Benefit.
. During 1996�1998, the Commonwealth Government introduced a number of changes to child care funding, such as removal of the operational subsidy from the
community-based child care sector. This made child care less affordable to many
families and increased competition within the child care industry. This issue is still
critical in the sector.
Three decades ago, there were minimal privately managed child care services to
enable women with young children to work outside the home. Typically, local child
care services that were available were established under the auspices of community
organisations, church or neighbourhood groups. Consequently, and in order to
remain viable in a competitive environment, child care centres are expected to adopt
management practices similar to those of small business (Nupponen, 2005). The
notion of a ‘‘child care industry’’ is current phraseology that sits uneasily with those
who are committed to a non-profit view of services to children and families. Large
commercial child care chains have emerged in the past few years and it is likely that
they will become an even stronger force in the child care industry. The 2002 Census of
Child Care Services showed that nationally in Australia there were 2,178 privately
owned centres, compared with 1,253 community-based centres. The private sector
was double the not-for-profit sector. In 2004, a chain of private child care centres
dominated the field, nationally, with 550 company-owned centres and a further 228
managed facilities (Murdoch, 2004).
348 H. Nupponen
Consequently, community-based child care services now need to become self-
funding, as well as more entrepreneurial, because of competition with the private
sector to maintain their market share (Press & Hayes, 2000). There is an increasing
focus on the performance of child care centres as business enterprises requiring
skilled management and leadership. This has occurred even while advocacy is
maintained to retain the community service orientation and a not-for-profit identity.
It has been argued that a competitive environment in child care ensures quality
because consumers (parents) selecting services will buy the best service they can for
their children (Press, 1999). The increasing privatisation and the competitive nature
of the sector point to a need to review how child care centres are currently managed
within a complex, continually changing environment.
The aim of this study was to investigate management and leadership arrangements
in child care in Queensland within the current social, legislative and economic
context.
Director’s Role and Responsibilities
Traditionally, most early childhood education programmes in kindergartens and
preschools have been relatively independent (Brennan, 1994). Programmes were
delivered with less involvement of a wider bureaucracy, for example on curriculum
issues, than occurs in school-based education systems. While many child care
centres both in Australia and internationally operate under the auspices of
community or religious organisations to which the director may be answerable,
the day-to-day management of the service rests with the director (Hayden, 1997a,
1997b; Jorde Bloom, 1995; Nupponen, 2005; Rodd, 1998). This occurs even when
child care centres or kindergartens are part of a larger organisation, such as the
Creche and Kindergarten Association in Queensland that sets and provides advice
on policy and procedures for affiliated centres. Despite being part of larger
organisations, many child care centres operate with relative independence; this
enables them to respond to local community needs. There is evidence in early
childhood research (Jorde Bloom, 1991; Nupponen, 2005; Seplocha, 1998) that, in
child care, a director’s job description and role varies according to the employing
organisation. Most, however, share common responsibilities such as the planning,
the implementation and the evaluation of the programme. There are decisions to be
made about health and safety, nutrition, and working with families. There are
administrative decisions about finance and budgeting and purchasing equipment.
There is also a need to contribute to the profession through advocacy on behalf of
young children and families. A director’s responsibilities are focused on planning,
organising, staffing, and controlling within all elements of centre procedures and
processes.
The quality of management practices assists in creating a coherent and collegial
working environment, where the focus is on careful planning of routines and tasks to
reach specific organisational aims and objectives. Management activities aim to
coordinate action so that goals can be reached in an efficient and effective way.
Child Care in Practice 349
Furthermore, innovative directors/managers make continual improvements to ensure
that the organisation will thrive in a changing environment.
The Present Study
This paper considers interviews conducted with directors, using questions that
focused on organisational management of child care centres and the social and
legislative context in which centres operate in today’s competitive environment. It is
critical that we listen to those with day-to-day experience of working in this field and
ensure that their experience and feedback informs future practice.
A Social Systems Approach to Viewing Child Care Centres
In this study the child care centre was viewed as a social system taking into account
the structure of the centre, processes, and people that contribute to the culture of the
centre. The external environmental influences were taken into account and
perceptions of outcomes were explored (see Nupponen, 2005).
In the broad systems model proposed by Jorde Bloom and colleagues (Jorde Bloom
& Sheerer, 1992; Jorde Bloom, Sheerer, & Britz, 1991), independent components
within the social system of the child care centre include structure, people and
processes. These parts collectively determine a unique ethos for any child care
centre*its culture. Many factors operating in the external environment also affect the operation of the centre. Therefore in combination, the structure, people, and
processes all contribute to the centre culture, which together with the influence of
external environmental factors affect how well the child care centre can achieve
desired outcomes. This broad Social Systems Model with its relevant components is
presented in Figure 1.
A social systems’ view of organisations provides a way of looking at child care
centres as an integrated whole, made up of interrelated and interacting parts (Jorde
Bloom, 1991; Mumford, Zaccaro, Harding, Jacobs, & Fleishman, 2000). As will be
discussed later in this paper, this study proposes that, within the Social Systems
Model, the director is ‘‘centrally’’ positioned. The director is required to think
strategically about all the systems in which a centre operates*structures, processes, people, culture and the external environment in making decisions. Understanding
parts of the interconnecting components within the systemic model is critical to
understanding centre performance. The Jorde Bloom (1991) Social Systems Model
was considered appropriate for this study because of the specific character of the
framework in this model. For instance, wider literature on social systems has
generally looked at large populations and/or institutions (Espejo, 2000; Mwita,
2000), with some organisations consisting of many layers of hierarchical structures;
whereas child care centres usually consist of flat lines of management (Applebaum,
Herbert, & Leroux, 1999; Khaleelee & Woolf, 1996) and, until recently, have
operated in isolation from the larger corporate entities. Furthermore, the Social
Systems Model provided a fitting framework for this research as the model had
350 H. Nupponen
previously been used in the United States, specifically when conducting research on
child care directors.
A social systems framework accounts for features of the external environment that
impact on the operation of the centre and specific systems within the centre. In this
research, through interviews with child care directors, using the systemic model as a
focus for the interview questions, the management role of the director in
contemporary Australian child care centres was explored.
Child Care Centres as a Business Organisation
As the data collection progressed, it became evident that, due to specific responses
from the directors pertaining to issues relating to business management, there was a
need to utilise another model that would enable the researcher to analyse these data
effectively. Thus, as well as using the Social Systems Model as a framework for this
study, an additional model was considered by Bergin-Seers and Breen (2002) for
analysing the business performance of child care centres. Their model, as presented in
Figure 2, is based on the work of Lumpkin and Dess (1996), and focuses on the
external environmental factors that affect child care centres, such as the level of
change in the industry in which an organisation operates and the profitability of the
industry. The model accounts for community perceptions and engagement; as well as
the organisational factors in terms of structure, resources, strategies and culture. The
EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT
CULTURE
PEOPLE PROCESSES
OUTCOMES
THE CHILD CARE CENTRE
STRUCTURE
Figure 1 A Social Systems Model in Child Care Centres (Jorde Bloom et al ., 1991, p. 8).
Child Care in Practice 351
entrepreneurial orientation of directors through their capacities to be innovative,
proactive and creative is viewed as important.
The model recognises the relationships between key components such as
organisational structures, processes and characteristics of the business environment
on performance outcomes. These factors are also evident in Figure 1, within the
Social Systems Model (Jorde Bloom, 1991) as applied in this study, where structure,
processes and the external environment are all influential in achieving desired
outcomes. However, Figure 2 has a stronger focus on the language of business, and
discusses ‘‘sales growth’’, ‘‘market share’’, and ‘‘profitability’’, when compared with the
Jorde Bloom (1991) Social Systems Model.
Organisational factors such as size, structure, and resources contribute to
outcomes, but are also highly influenced by the entrepreneurial orientation of the
manager (the child care director). The business framework proposed by Lumpkin and
Dess (1996) and presented here (Bergin-Seers & Breen, 2002) identifies key factors
contributing to outcomes for the centre from a business orientation of service
delivery that may affect the relationship between a manager of an organisation and
performance measurement. Although not clearly articulated by either Lumpkin and
Dess or Bergin-Seers and Breen, the arrows presented here in Figure 2 hypothesise
Environmental Factors • Dynamism (level of
continuity or change) • Munificence
(profitability or growth) • Complexity • Industry Characteristics
Manager: Entrepreneurial Orientation
• Autonomy • Innovativeness • Risk taking • Pro-activeness
Centre Performance • Sales growth • Market Share • Profitability • Overall
performance • Stakeholder
satisfaction
Centre: Organisational Factors
• Size • Structure • Strategy • Strategy-making
processes • Firm resources • Culture • Management team
Figure 2 Conceptual Framework of Business Performance (Bergin-Seers & Breen, 2002,
p. 25).
352 H. Nupponen
that at various points these organisational and environmental factors interlink and
interact, and influence overall organisational outcomes.
Methodology
Eight child care directors participated in the research. All the directors were female.
In the early childhood sector, female teachers dominate the field and thus directors of
early education services are almost always women. In 2002 in Australia, the child care
workforce consisted of an estimated 60,000 paid staff providing care in Common-
wealth-funded child care services (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2002). The ABS
1996 Census showed that only 3.3% of Australian child care workers are male. This
finding is similar to the situation in the United States, where Saluja, Early, and
Clifford (2002) found that only 1% of the staff employed in early childhood
programmes were male.
Specific criteria were used for inviting child care centre directors to participate. The
criteria included the nature of their qualifications, number of years in the current
child care centre and the accreditation status under the Quality Improvement and
Accreditation System (QIAS) of the centre. In selecting the participants, criteria were
considered in the following ways.
Qualifications
First, the directors would hold an early childhood or child care qualification, a
minimum of a Diploma of Child Care and/or a Bachelor degree in Early Childhood
Education. Secondly, only directors who had been in the field for a minimum of
five years and had two years experience as director within their current centre were
included. Thirdly, the centres in which the directors were employed needed to be an
accredited centre under the National Childcare Quality Improvement and
Accreditation System as an indication that directors were providing quality
programmes.
Centre Descriptions
The child care directors were employed in both community-based and privately
owned centres. The centres were all located within the greater Brisbane area. Four
were adjacent to the city and four were in outer Brisbane. The selection of these
varying locations and diverse organisations brought greater variation in the directors’
experiences. In different geographical contexts, centres cater for families with
different socio-demographics. Additionally, different organisational structures (e.g.,
community-based centres versus private centres) were anticipated to impact on how
programmes were delivered and how centres were managed.
Child Care in Practice 353
Data Analysis
This research was based on a qualitative paradigm. The research was exploratory and
interpretative and a qualitative approach was considered appropriate in order to gain
greater understanding of the role and responsibilities of directors in child care centres
within a climate of policy change and an increasingly competitive child care industry
environment. A narrative about the experiences of each child care director was
developed through interview data. Each child care director was interviewed on two
occasions. Data from the directors were collected through semi-structured interviews
gaining insight into specific issues. The interview questions were developed in line
with the Social Systems Model (Jorde Bloom, 1991), which provided the focal
framework for this study. In this research, an interview guide was used to assist in
covering the major issues to be addressed and supplementary questions were
developed to explore emerging issues.
The primary goal within the data analysis in this research was to create substantive
categories that emerged in the participants’ responses in focal areas. The data were
transcribed and themes were identified for areas of the analysis. A process of
reiteration was used. The transcripts were read as a whole and then reread a number
of times to identify categories in the data, and draw out the evidence to substantiate
these categories. The sequential processes in the data analysis encompassed
familiarisation with the text of each interview, identifying categories of description,
comparisons of categories across interviews, and the identification of exceptions
when the common categories did not appear to fit the ‘‘general case’’.
Results
Specific practices and beliefs that the directors held about their organisational roles
were explored. Conceptualising the work environment of child care centres within a
systemic model provided understanding about the impact of the external environ-
ment, structure of the centre, specific centre processes, working with people, culture
of the centre and impact of outcomes that accounts for a variety of influences
impacting on the day-to-day work of directors.
The following section outlines key themes from the directors’ responses that relate
to the Business Model of service delivery in child care centres as adopted from Bergin
Seers and Breen (2002). As earlier mentioned, the Bergin Seers and Breen Model
extends the Social Systems Model that provided the framework for the interview
questions by providing an additional focus on child care centres from a business
perspective.
Environmental Factors
All directors were concerned about the accountability and the status of child care; and
funding issues, not least because the withdrawal of the operational subsidies to
community-based child care centres in 1997 (Nupponen, 2005), still remains an issue
354 H. Nupponen
to debate in 2006. This significant shift had been a central policy component, in that
for more than 25 years Australia’s child care services had been organised within local
communities while being supported by public funding.
Key themes about the changing policy and social context of child care noted by the
directors were:
. competition policy in the child care industry has had a significant impact; and
. finding new ways to respond to the diverse needs of children and families.
The directors had mixed feelings about the current fee subsidy available to families
(childcare subsidy to offset fees paid by parents), noting that ‘‘For [some] parents it
has made child care much more affordable, and for some centres it has made them
scarcely viable’’. One director commented that changes to funding meant that ‘‘we
had to become more aware of advertising ourselves. We became more inclined to
make sure that everything was presented perfectly. We had to work very hard on
advertising’’.
A director who worked in a community centre commented on the loss of the
operational subsidy due to the many changes at the policy level. This has meant that
existing staff have had to take on added responsibilities to ensure to remain viable in a
competitive field:
It’s forced us to make choices about services for children. You cannot lose $63,000
out of your budget and not feel the impact of that. It means [that] staff and you,
have had to take on extra roles. As an organisation we have accepted that we would
bear the cost of not doing away with the domestic roles. . . . And we have struggled to maintain a fee that is competitive.
Increasing commercialisation has meant that directors need to be constantly
vigilant in maintaining enrolments to ensure of their centre’s viability. Meeting the
diverse needs of children and families was deemed difficult. According to the
participants, the greatest challenge was to establish services or centres that were
appropriate for children and appropriate for families.
Centre Performance
The majority of the directors in this study were concerned about the increasing
accountability to various government departments. Key themes relating to centre
performance (including quality) and outcomes were as follows:
. child care services must be more accountable for quality outcomes; and
. quality care is about meeting the needs of the children.
A few of the directors indicated that centres themselves should take more
responsibility to ensure that they are providing a quality service within the
community:
Child Care in Practice 355
In terms of the regulations, and the changes to Accreditation, I would hope, and it
is yet to be seen, that it makes centres nationwide just more accountable. I really
think that we have a responsibility to maintain standards and follow these
regulations that are really more or less aiming towards higher standards of care and
quality. I believe every centre should be toeing the line and becoming more
accountable.
One director spoke strongly about government policy and legislation:
Policies and legislation are there to protect children, yet government departments
are hesitant to act on issues that are clearly a breach of the regulations [that is,
inadequate staff/child ratios].
Clearly, increasing accountability to both state and federal government has added
to the directors’ workload. One director accentuated the importance of child care and
early education by commenting that ‘‘as long as the centres are providing quality
learning and a nurturing environment for children, child care can be a really positive
part of families’ lives’’. All directors agreed that it is important to meet the needs of
the children as well as to consider the needs of the wider community. Throughout the
data, emphasis was placed on the importance of considering the child within the
context of the family. The service provided care and education for the child, but
equally important was ensuring that families were satisfied that their particular needs
were being met through the provision of appropriate, financially affordable services.
Organisational Factors
One of the most influential elements of the external environment that impacts on
child care centres is the nature of the ownership or the sponsorship of the centre. This
influences centre policies and structures, and the role and the responsibilities of the
director. The nature of the ownership and sponsorship determines how directors go
about their work and what they do. Most directors noted that the nature of the
sponsoring organisation influenced policies because decisions might pass through
several layers of management before gaining final approval. Collaboration and
engagement of families in centre decision-making was deemed important. Evaluation
was seen as an ongoing process.
Two significant themes in the directors’ responses were:
. the sponsoring organisation has an impact on policy development; and
. evaluation is an ongoing process which requires input from parents and staff.
The director of the centre operated by a university commented that, irrespective of
university operating procedures, she was still able to influence policy through the
centre’s advisory committee, which included parents and staff. There are similarities
in the way policies are developed and implemented in a centre operated by a large
community-based organisation. For example, both directors are involved in meetings
356 H. Nupponen
with higher management regarding specific policies and practices that need to be
developed and implemented within their child care centres.
The directors were asked about their approach to evaluation of their centres. All
directors identified the importance of getting different perspectives by obtaining
information from parents and staff and by using different processes for evaluation,
such as meetings or questionnaires. One comment was that evaluation occurs
naturally during staff meetings where organisational plans are reviewed and modified
as needed.
Another director conducts an annual evaluation through the Quality Improvement
and Accreditation System (National Childcare Accreditation Council, 1993, 2001)
with support from the larger organisation. Other issues were dealt with as they
occurred. It was noted that evaluation is difficult. Most directors felt that it was
important to let families know in-depth information about the programme on
enrolment, to enable them to make informed decisions about future directions. The
findings show that only one director mentioned the QIAS process as a form of
evaluation. This process is an in-depth self-study process that considers all aspects of
operating a child care centre, and thus needs to be recognised as a valuable evaluation
strategy for continual improvement that is already in place in most child care centres
in Australia.
Entrepreneurial Orientation
Because child care directors deal directly with families they are very aware of the
issues faced by families with young children. Directors in the interviews for this study
were concerned about stressors both financial and those related to complexity of
needs on families. Key themes reflective of entrepreneurial orientation to manage-
ment in child care centres were:
. child care centres are required to meet increasingly complex family needs; and
. the director needs to have commitment and vision toward organisational goals.
One director commented on the social and economic pressures on families and the
need for child care staff to respond:
I see more stressed families, more single mums, families struggling. . . . Child care is not a choice anymore but a case of having to [place your child in care]. . . . It has a lot to do with stress levels, economics and things that are going on around them.
. . . People are starting to realise child care is not just a babysitting service. There is a lot more going on there and the importance of it.
To address the complexity of families’ needs one director envisaged an expansion of
child care staffing by engaging professionals like counselors and social workers in
child care centres for families. She felt that directors are good listeners but aren’t
skilled enough to see someone in need of [professional] help.
Child Care in Practice 357
The participants discussed team work and the vision that allows all the team
members to work toward the same organisational goals. Research affirms that
managers with a clear vision of the future can empower others through their personal
authority (Khaleelee & Woolf, 1996). These aspects were apparent in how the
directors discussed their role but they also focused on management in relation to
others and saw the manager’s role to engender respect, being a role model, and to
guide and nurture others.
Director of a Child Care Centre
The directors noted several forms of training and education that would enhance their
skills and knowledge about management practices. They stressed the importance of
developing and implementing a pathway for those aspiring toward director positions.
This pathway would consist of streams such as provision of formal courses of study in
business and management in university courses, opportunity for mentoring schemes
and opportunity to network within the wider community.
Directors identified important skill areas in which professional training was
required. Key themes in the area of professional development were:
. a stronger focus on skills in business management was needed;
. programmes for the development of communication skills are important; and
. a professional pathway for directors is needed.
All directors recognised that they need a clear understanding of their role and
responsibilities and require more training in managing a small business, including
human resources. The challenge is to provide training that would be relevant to
specific communities.
One director commented that a director apprenticeship for a 12-month period
would assist interested applicants for directorship to learn about the role before
accepting the position. This could mean that an assistant director would shadow an
experienced director for a 12-month period to learn about the requirements of the
role to be better informed before taking on the position of a director.
Table 1 presents a summary of the key themes as derived from the directors’
comments. These findings are now summarised in the final section of this paper.
Summary
The directors in this study indicated they are concerned that child care centres are
increasingly required to respond to diverse and complex family needs. While societal
understanding of the purpose of child care centres remains focused on care for
children while parents are engaged in work or study, directors in this study saw that
their services have a broader role in helping families in their parenting role. They
noted that child care centres are well placed within the community to fulfil this role.
While directors are sensitive to these additional responsibilities and believe that they
358 H. Nupponen
are in a key position to assist families seeking a variety of supports, it was reported
that directors alone cannot meet the complexity of families’ needs; rather,
engagement of other professionals (such as counsellors and social workers) in child
care centres may address this need. This is evident in research (Tennent, Tayler, &
Farrell, 2002) pointing out that early childhood centres provide an opportune place
to support families in a variety of ways through integrating support services to
address the underlying social, economic and policy factors that affect young children
and their families.
The directors recognised the increased demands placed upon them by various
government accountability processes in maintaining their centre’s eligibility for the
Childcare Benefit and engagement in the QIAS accreditation system. Centres are also
required to meet the state regulations for the operation of child care centres.
Managers in educational settings, including child care centres, are increasingly
required to take account of these external environmental influences in their practices
(Foskett & Lumby, 2003; Fraser, 2000), while at the same time they are required to
make complex decisions about day-to-day practice, finances and human resources.
Directors emphasised that the sponsoring organisation influences how decisions are
made. This is an important finding as previous literature in the field has not explored
this issue. Further research is needed to find out more about the influence of the
sponsoring organisation on centre management and how this impacts on the
director’s role and responsibilities. The child care director’s position requires teaching
expertise to lead staff in quality practice but also many other responsibilities in order
to be an effective administrator to meet the regulatory and accountability
requirements of government, as well as to adhere to organisational polices.
Evident from the directors in this study was that their role was changing through
the nature of the business environment in which centres increasingly operated.
Table 1 Key Themes Derived from Director Responses
Area of analysis Key theme
Environmental factors
Competition policy in the child care industry has had a significant impact
Finding new ways to respond to the diverse needs of children and families Centre performance
Child care services must be more accountable for quality outcomes
Quality care is about meeting the needs of the children Organisational factors
The sponsoring organisation has an impact on policy development
Evaluation is an ongoing process which requires input from parents and staff Entrepreneurial orientation
Child care centres are required to meet increasingly complex family needs
The director needs to have commitment and vision toward organisational goals
Director of a child care centre
A stronger focus on skills in business management was needed
Programmes for the development of communication skills are important A professional pathway for directors is needed
Child Care in Practice 359
Competition policy in the child care industry has had a significant impact. There has
been a considerable shift away from a community-based non-profit system in the
delivery of long-day care service to the commercialisation of the industry in a market-
driven system (Press & Hayes, 2000; Murdoch, 2004). Whether employed in the
community-based sector or in the commercial sector, the directors recognised the
need to acknowledge this shift and respond to it. As mentioned earlier, Bergin-Seers
and Breen’s (2002) model was used to analyse the business performance of child care
centres as noted in Figure 1. Their model focuses on the external environmental
factors that can affect child care centres. The model reflects many of the issues, which
the directors in this study identified in respect to how centres now need to operate
within the social, economic and legislative climate. While the directors did not
specifically identify the need for an entrepreneurial orientation, this was implicit in
how they discussed their work. They presented needing to be proactive in being
accountable, and maintaining the reputation and quality of their centre. The Bergin-
Seers and Breen model complements the original Social Systems Model proposed by
Jorde Bloom (1991). It extends that model by emphasising that child care centres
operate in a dynamic business environment. The shift to a business culture was
apparent in this study as directors discussed the importance of maintaining
enrolments, responding to reduced funding and the importance of marketing their
centre in a competitive environment.
The model proposed by Bergin-Seers and Breen (2002, p. 25) is modified in Figure
3 to include issues raised by the directors in this study that pertain to a business
model of service delivery in child care centres and recognises important characteristic
of management skills that promote an entrepreneurial orientation to service delivery.
For instance, the category ‘‘Environmental factors’’ that identifies ‘‘Dynamism’’ (level
of continual change) in the Bergin-Seers and Breen (2002) Model is represented here
as ‘‘Competition policy has had a significant impact’’ and ‘‘Finding new ways to
respond to the diverse needs of children and families’’, demonstrating a correlation of
ideas.
The findings indicate that directors require theoretical and professional knowledge
of the early childhood field to enable them to address children’s developmental and
educational milestones, as well as a good understanding of business and manage-
ment. This includes awareness of funding options, operational costs and responsive-
ness to the needs of the local community. Also, directors need to be visionary in their
planning, while also maintaining very high standards in their service delivery as well
as have a commitment to continual improvement of their centres. This requires
strong engagement with the sponsoring organisation, the parents using the service
and external influences. To address complex macro and policy issues, directors
require a broad view of their service and its operation in a complex and competitive
industry, which also has to be value-driven in its care and educational focus in
implementing a philosophy of child-centred practice. To develop these skills,
directors reported that there is a need to instigate a professional pathway to provide
them with an opportunity to learn and, in some cases, enhance their management
and business knowledge.
360 H. Nupponen
The model proposes that, given the increasing growth of the private sector and the
funding constraints in the commercial and community sectors, a different view of
child care is needed. In the presented model, the arrows within indicate the required
skills and knowledge of the director to enable (the director) to adopt a business
orientation to service delivery, providing a framework to represent this business
focus. The model presented here differs from the Bergin-Seers and Breen (2002)
Model in that the director is clearly situated at the core of the organisation and is in
an influential position to interact with all the components of the centre. Furthermore,
this model outlines specific skills and knowledge required, and recognises the
importance of a professional pathway to enable the director to provide effective
management in a child care centre. Whereas the Bergin-Seers and Breen model
broadly outlines a number of organisational and environmental factors that may
Director of a child care centre • Management qualities - intrapersonal and interpersonal qualities • Developing management skills – a professional pathway • A strong focus on business management is needed
Entrepreneurial Orientation • Child care centres are required to meet increasingly complex family needs • The director needs to have commitment and vision toward organisational goals
and advertising • Marketing
Centre Performance • Child care services must be more accountable for quality outcomes
• Quality care is about meeting the needs of children
Environmental Factors • Competition policy has had a significant impact • Finding new ways to respond to the diverse needs of children and families
Organisational Factors • The sponsoring organisation has an impact on policy development • Evaluation is ongoing process which requires input from parents • Programs for development of communication skills are important
•
Figure 3 Business Model of Service Delivery in Child Care Centres (Adapted from
Bergin-Seers & Breen, 2002).
Child Care in Practice 361
influence performance in an organisation, there is limited mention of how these
factors reflect on the skills, role and responsibilities of the manager (or director), and/
or where the manager sits within the organisation. The arrows within the model
presented here show that all the components of the organisation interlink and that
managing is a cyclic process with continual movement from one component to
another for effective monitoring and evaluation of service delivery. This concept is
similar to that presented in the earlier Social Systems Model (Jorde Bloom, 1991).
However, corporatisation of child care services is a concern for many child care
staff. There needs to be an effective analysis of the effects of commercialisation,
including the influence of the sponsoring organisation on the quality aspects of
service delivery, so that the care for children is not compromised in a competitive
environment in which costs have to be carefully managed. Consultations with the
more entrepreneurial centre directors may offer a good starting point for such a
review (Bergin-Seers & Breen, 2002). As Fraser (2000) noted, the professional early
education sector must also develop stronger links with the business community in
order to advocate for early childhood services that enhance the social capital of the
community.
References
Applebaum, S., Herbert, D., & Leroux, S. (1999). Empowerment: Power, culture and leadership *a strategy or fad for the millenium? Journal of Workplace Learning: Employee Counselling Today,
11 (7), 233�254. Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2002). Year book Australia . Retrieved January 20, 2003, from
www.abs.gov.au
Australian Government, Department of Family and Community Services. (2002). Census of child
care services: Summary booklet . Retrieved July 21, 2004, from http://www.facs.gov.au/
internet/facsinternet.nsf/vIA/cc_census_2002/$file/summary.pdf
Bergin-Seers, S., & Breen, J. (2002). The performance of long-day care centres in rural and remote
areas. Australian Journal of Early Childhood , 27 (1), 24 �32. Brennan, D. (1994). The politics of Australian child care: From philanthropy to feminism . Sydney,
NSW, Cambridge University Press.
Espejo, R. (2000). Self-construction of desirable social systems. Kybernetes , 29 (7/8), 949 �963. Farmer, S. (1995). Policy development in early childhood services . Sydney, NSW, Community Child
Care Cooperative.
Foskett, N., & Lumby, J. (2003). Leading and managing in education: International dimensions .
London, Paul Chapman Publishing.
Fraser, D. (2000). Children’s services: A vision for the future. Australian Journal of Early Childhood ,
25 (1), 1�7. Hayden, J. (1997a). Directors of early childhood services: Experience, preparedness and selection.
Journal of Australian Research in Early Childhood Education , 1 , 49 �61. Hayden, J. (1997b). Administrators of early childhood services: Responsibilities, supports and
training needs. Journal of Australian Research in Early Childhood Education , 2 , 38 �47. Hayden, J. (1999). Delegation: Win �win strategies for managing early childhood settings . Canberra,
ACT, Australian Early Childhood Association.
Jorde Bloom, P. (1991). Child care centers as organisations: A social systems perspective. Child &
Youth Care Forum , 20 (5), 313 �333.
362 H. Nupponen
Jorde Bloom, P. (1995). Shared decisionmaking: The centrepiece of participatory management.
Young Children , May, 55 �60. Jorde Bloom, P., & Sheerer, M. (1992). The effect of leadership training on child care program
quality. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 7 , 579 �594. Jorde Bloom, P., Sheerer, M., & Britz, J. (1991). Leadership style assessment tool. Child Care
Information Exchange , 81 (12), 12 �15. Khaleelee, O., & Woolf, R. (1996). Personality, life experience and leadership capability. Leadership
& Organization Development Journal , 17 (6), 5�11. Lumpkin, G., & Dess, G. (1996). Clarifying the entrepreneurial orientation construct and linking it
to performance. Academy of Management Review , 21 (1), 135 �172. Mumford, M., Zaccaro, S., Harding., F., Jacobs, T., & Fleishman, E. (2000). Leadership skills for a
changing world: Solving complex social problems. Leadership Quarterly, 11 (1), 11 �35. Murdoch, S., (2004, September 10). ABC seals $350m childcare deal. Courier Mail , p. 1.
Mwita, J. (2000). Performance management model: A systems-based approach to public service
quality. The International Journal of Public Sector Management , 13 (1), 19 �37. National Childcare Accreditation Council. (1993). Putting children first: Quality improvement and
accreditation system handbook . Sydney, NSW, National Childcare Accreditation Council.
National Childcare Accreditation Council. (2001). Quality Improvement and accreditation system
source book (1st ed). Sydney, NSW, National Childcare Accreditation Council.
Nupponen, H. (2005). Leadership and management in child care services: Contextual factors and their
impact on practice . Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Queensland University of Technology,
Brisbane, Australia. Retrieved May 7, 2006, from http://adt.caul.edu.au/
Press, F. (1999). The demise of community-owned long-day care centres and the rise of the mythical
consumer. Australian Journal of Early Childhood , 24 (1), 20 �25. Press, F., & Hayes, A. (2000). OECD thematic review of early childhood education and care policy.
Sydney, NSW, Macquarie University.
Rodd, J. (1998). Leadership in early childhood (2nd ed.). Sydney, NSW, Allen & Unwin.
Saluja, G., Early, D. M., & Clifford, R. M. (2002). Demographic characteristics of early childhood
teachers and structural elements of early care and education in the United States . Retrieved
January 25, 2003, from: http://ecrp.uiuc.edu/v4n1
Seplocha, H. (1998). The good preschool: Profiles in leadership . Unpublished doctoral dissertation,
The State University of New Brunswick, NJ.
Tennent, L., Tayler, C., & Farrell, A. (2002). The ACCESS study of child and family services in rural
and disadvantaged communities . Brisbane, Qld, Centre for Applied Studies in Early
Childhood, Queensland University of Technology.
Child Care in Practice 363