for Daisy Arabella only

SOURCES OF INDIAN TRADITION

VOLUME I

INTRODUCTION TO

ORIENTAL CIVILIZATIONS

WM. THEODORE DE BARY, EDITOR

Sources of

Indian Tradition

VOLUME I

GENERAL EDITOR

Ww. Theodore (k Bary CO MPILERS

A L, B&sham R. H Dawlefear Peter Uariy V. Raghavan Royal Weiler

COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS New

The addition to the "Records of Civilization: Sources and Studies"

of a group of translations of Oriental historical materials in a clothbound

edition, from which this volume is taken, was made possible by funds

granted by Carnegie Corporation of New York. That Corporation is not, however, the author, owner, publisher, or proprietor of this publication,

and is not to be understood as approving by virtue of its grant any of the

statements made or views expressed therein.

Clothbound editions of Columbia University Press books

are Smyth-sewn and printed on permanent and durable acid-free paper.

ISBN 0-231-08600-8 Copyright 1958 Columbia University Press

Printed in the United States of America

15

PREFACE

This book is part of a new edition o Introduction to Oriental Civiliza-

tions, the three-volume work dealing with the civilizations of Japan,

China, and India and Pakistan published by Columbia University Press

in the series Records of Civilization. It contains source readings that tell

us what the peoples of India have thought about the world they lived in

and the problems they faced living together. It is meant to provide the

general reader with an understanding of the intellectual and spiritual traditions which remain alive in India and Pakistan today. Thus, much

attention is given to religious and philosophical developments in earlier

times which still form part of the Indian heritage and have experienced a considerable revival in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. On the other hand, attention is also given to political, economic, and social

thought, which other surveys, concentrating on classical Indian philos-

ophy, have generally omitted.

Although our aim has been to combine variety with balance in the

selection and presentation of materials, a few words are perhaps neces-

sary concerning special points of emphasis. A glance at the contents will show that religion has furnished the general categories under which tradi-

tional Indian civilization is treated. This implies no judgment that

religion was always the dominant factor in Indian life, but only that in

the body of literature which provides us our texts, religious identities and

continuities are more clearly distinguishable than are those based upon historical chronology or dynastic associations. Next, in this volume some-

what more attention is given to Theravada Buddhism than to Mahayana because the latter is given fuller treatment in the volumes in this series

dealing with China and Japan. In the case of Hinduism the reader will

find that relatively greater emphasis is placed upon the social and devo-

tional aspects of the religion, which have affected great numbers of Hin-

[v]

dus, than upon the philosophical speculations which have generally com-

manded the first attention o educated Indians and Westerners and have

already been widely reproduced in translation. In this volume, dealing

with traditional Indian and Muslim civilization, most o the translations

are new and many of them are of texts previously untranslated into any Western language.

Because of the unfamiliarity and complexity of many subjects not previ-

ously presented in translation, we have found it necessary to include more

historical and explanatory material than is usual in a set of source readings.

Nevertheless, the reader who seeks a fuller knowledge of historical and

institutional background will do well to supplement this text by referring

to a general survey of Indian history and culture.

Given the limitations of an introductory text, we could not hope to deal

with every thinker or movement of importance, but have had to select

those examples which seem best to illustrate the major patterns of Indian

thought in so far as they have been expressed and preserved in writing. In

the modern period the necessity for such selectivity is most apparent. Here

particular prominence has been given to persons actively engaged in lead-

ing organized religious and political movements.

Compilation of Sources of Indian Tradition was originally undertaken

by Andrew Yarrow in connection with the general education program in

Columbia College. These readings were then substantially revised by the

general editor with the assistance of Dr. Royal Weiler of Columbia and

supplemented by Dr. Stephen N. Hay of the University of Chicago. In

making revisions for the present edition, the general editor was assisted by Ainslie T. Embree of Columbia University. It goes without saying that this

volume could not have been compiled without the cooperation of our prin-

cipal contributors: R. N. Dandekar of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research

Institute, Poona, prepared the materials for Chapters I, II, III, X, XI, and

the selection from the Bhagavad Gita in Chapter XIII; A. L. Basham of

the School o Oriental and African Studies, University of London, pre-

pared Chapters IV, V, VI, VII, and VIII; V. Raghavan of the University of Madras prepared Chapters IX, XII, and XIII; Peter Hardy of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, prepared Chapters XIV, XV, XVII, XVIII, and XIX. Their contribution is all the more ap~ preciated because of the patience and forbearance they have shown in re-

[vi]

gard to adjustments which the general editor has had to make in order to achieve uniformity and balance in the volume as a whole. For this reason, it should be emphasized, the editor must bear primary responsibility for

the selection and presentation of the materials contained here.

The final version of these readings owes much to the critical examina- tion and comment of scholarly colleagues. Dr. Basham wishes to record his appreciation to Dr. A. K. Warder for his reading of the draft on Jain- ism and Buddhism. S. M. Ikram, then of the Center for Pakistan Studies, Columbia University, is also to be thanked for reading the chapters on

Muslim India. Visudh Busyakul of the University of Pennsylvania gave Dr. Weiler invaluable advice and assistance, as did Marjorie A. Weiler. Hans Guggenheim performed the exacting task of preparing the chapter decorations for Chapters I-XIX.

This series of readings has been produced in connection with the Co-

lumbia College General Education Program in Oriental Studies, which has been encouraged and supported by the Carnegie Corporation of New York. For whatever value it may have to the general reader or college student seeking a liberal education that embraces both East and West, a

great debt is owed to Dean Emeritus Harry J. Carman, Dr. Taraknath

Das, and Dean Lawrence H. Chamberlain of Columbia College, who contributed much to the initiation and furtherance of this program.

WM. THEODORE DE BARY

[vii]

EXPLANATORY NOTE

The sources of translations given at the beginning of each selection are rendered as concisely as possible. Full bibliographical data can be obtained

from the list of sources in the clothbound edition. In the reference at the

head of each selection, unless otherwise indicated, the author of the book

is the writer whose name precedes the selection. Where excerpts have been taken from existing translations, they have sometimes been adapted or

edited in the interests of uniformity with the book as a whole.

Indie words appearing in italics as technical terms or tides of works are

rendered in accordance with the standard system of transliteration as

found in Louis Renou's Grammaire Sanskrite (Paris, 1930), pp. xi-xiii, with the exception that here s is regularly used for c. To facilitate pro- nunciation, other Sanskrit terms and proper names appearing in roman

letters are rendered according to the usage of Webster's New International Dictionary, 2d edition, Unabridged, except that here the macron is used

to indicate long vowels and the Sanskrit symbols for s (c) and are uni-

formly transcribed as sh. Similarly, the standard Sanskrit transcription of

c is given as ch. In connection with Theravada Buddhism, the form of

technical terms is that of Pali rather than Sanskrit; the latter, however, is

retained in connection with Jamism. Thus, in Buddhism Pali dhamrna

for Sanskrit dharma, but in Jainism Sanskrit posadha for Prakrit fosaha. Deviations from these principles may occur in passages directly quoted from Indian writers of the seventeenth through twentieth centuries. A word list giving standard Indie equivalents for roman transcriptions will

be found at the end of this volume.

In the pronunciation of Indie words, the accent is usually on tie next

to final syllable if long; otherwise on the nearest long syllable before it.

The long syllable is indicated by the macron (e.g., a, I, u) or a diphthong

(e, o, ai, au), or a vowel followed by more than one consonant (except h).

[ix]

Guide to Pronunciation

a as u in but

a as a in father

i as / in pin I as i in machine

u as u in pull u as u in rule

ri (r), a vowel as er in river

e as ay in say ai as ai in aisle

as o in go au as ow in how ch (c) as in church

sh (s, s) as sh in shape

g as g in get kh as ty in lakehouse

gh as gh in doghouse th as th in anthill

dh as dh in roundhouse

bh as bh in clubhouse

ph as ph in uphill m or n as ng in sing

Guide to the Pronunciation o] Persian and Indo-Persian Words

Short Vowels

a Intermediate between the vowels in the

English words bed and bad

1 As the vowel sound in the English fen u As in the English word put

Long Vowels a as a in father

T as t in police

u as u in prude

Diphthongs ai as ey in they

au as ou in out

In Indo-Persian the majhul vowel sound 6 rhymes with toe; the short vowel

a is closer to the u in sun; and the diphthong au tends more to the majhul

sound, as the o in hose or toe, *

represents the Arabic and Persian letter 'ayn. In Arabic 'ayn is a strong

guttural preceding a vowel. In Persian, however, 'ayn at the beginning of a

word is not pronounced separately from the vowel which goes with it; in the

middle of a word, it has a sound sa'd (or sefd) like the bleating of a sheep; at

the end of a word, in Persian, it is either silent or, more usually given a slight

pronunciation between short "a" and "e" on a rising intonation. *

represents the hamza or glottal stop in Arabic words. It is a jerked hiatus; the Cockney pronunciation of "butter," "better," or "bottle" gives the sound

in the middle of Arabic words; at the beginning of Arabic words it is in-

distinguishable from the vowel that goes with it; at the end it is like the

Persian pronunciation of 'ayn at the end of words.

In Persian words, '

also represents hamza when used to indicate a hiatus between two long vowels, as in the English pronunciation (very distinct) of

"India Office," i.e., "India" (pause) "Office." (Example: Bada'um.)

R.W. AND PH.

[xi]

Without the assistance of many publishers, a book of source readings such as

this is not possible, and we are grateful for the cooperation of the following: Advaita Ashrama, Almora, India; Allen & Unwin, Ltd., London; All-Pakistan

Political Science Association, Lahore; Mohammad Ashraf, Lahore; Asiatic

Society of Mangal, Calcutta; Sri Aurobindo Ashram, Pondich&y, India; The

Bodley Head, Ltd., London; Clarendon Press, Oxford; Current Book House,

Bombay; Ganesh and Co., Ltd., Madras, India; S. P. Gokhale, Poona, India; Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass*; Hero Publications, Lahore; Indian Printing Works, Lahore; The India Press, Allahabad, India; Kitabistan,

Allahabad, India; S. K. Lahin and Co., Calcutta; Luzac and Co., London; Mao millan & Co., Ltd., London and New York; al-Manar Academy, Lahore; Modern Review, Calcutta; John Murray, London, and the "Wisdom of the

East" series; The Muslim World; G. A. Natesan and Co., Madras, India; The

Navajivaa Trust, Ahmedabad, India; P. M. Neogi, Calcutta; Orient Longmans

Ltd., Calcutta; Oxford University Press, London; Pakistan Herald Press, Ka-

rachi; Panjab University Press, Lahore; People's Publishing House, Ltd., Bom-

bay; Renaissance Publishers, Ltd., Calcutta; Roy and Son, Calcutta; A. W.

Sahasvabuddhe, Sevagram, India; Sadharan Brahmo Samaj, Calcutta; Sar-

vodaya, Bombay; Thcosophical Publishing Society, Banaras, India; Thomas

and Co., Calcutta; Thompson and Co. Ltd., Madras, India; R, B. Tilak, Poona,

India; The Vcdanta Society, New York; Vedic Yantralaya, Ajmer, India; The

Viking Press, Inc., New York; Visvabharati, Calcutta,

CONTENTS

Chronological Table xx

Brahmanism i

Chapter I: The Cosmic Order in the Vedic Hymns 5

Agni, 7; Heaven and Earth, 8; Varuna, 9; Dawn, 10; Indra, n; The

Primeval Sacrifice, 13; The Origin -of the World, 15; The Brah-

machari, 16; A Charm Against Jaundice, 18; Exorcism of Serpents, 18

Chapter 11: The Ritual Order in the Brahmanas 19

The Collection of Materials for the Sacred Fires, 20; The Fetching of

Sacrificial Grass, 22

Chapter III: The Ultimate Reality in the Upantshads 24

The Sacrificial Horse, 25; Sacrifices Unsteady Boats on the Ocean

of Life, 26; The Five Sheaths, 27; The Real Self, 28; The Essential

Reality Underlying the World, 31

The Background of Jainism and Buddhism 35

Chapter IV: The Basic Doctrines of Jainism 42

THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF JAINISM 42

JAIN DOCTRINES AND PRACTICES 46

JAIN LITERATO&E 51

Of Human Bondage^ 53; The Man in the Well, 53; Kinsfolk Are No

Comfort in Old Age, 55; All Creation Groans Together in Torment,

56; Crc#urs Gttat and Sjpaall, 57; The Eternal Law, 58; Respect for

[xiii]

Life, 59; The Hero of Penance and Self-Control, 61; Cheerfully En-

dure All Things, 61; Wise Men and Fools, 62; Two Ways of Life,

63; The Refuge of All Creatures, 65; The Final Penance, 65; Moral

Verses, 66

Chapter V, Jain Philosophy and Political Thought 70

Of Space and Time, 72; There is No Creator, 75; The Plurality of

Souls, 78; A Modern Jain Apologist, 80; The Ideal King, I, 83; II, 85; Practical Advice on War and Peace, 86; The Miseries and Dangers of

Politics, 87

Chapter VI: Theravada Buddhism - 90

BASIC DOCTRINES OF THERAVADA BUDDHISM 98

The Four Noble Truths, 98; The Nature of Consciousness and the

Chain of Causation, 99; False Doctrines About the Soul, 102; The

Simile of the Chariot, 103; Change and Identity, 105; The Process

of Rebirth, 106; Karma, 106; Right Mindfulness, 107; The Last In-

structions of the Buddha, 109; The Buddha in Nirvana, in; The

City of Righteousness, in

THE ETHICS OF THERAVADA BUDDHISM 113 The Morals of the Monk, 114; Care of the Body, 115; "Lay Not Up for Yourselves Treasures upon Earth. . . ,", 116; The Virtue of

Friendliness, 117; Hatred and Love, 118; Buddhism and Everyday

Life, 119

SOCIETY AND THE STATE IN THERAVADA BUDDHISM 124 How the World Evolved, 127; The Origin of Society and the State, 128; The Ideal of Government, and the Decay and Growth o Civiliza-

tion, 133; Conditions of the Welfare of Societies, 139; Birth is No Criterion of Worth, 140; Ashoka: The Buddhist Emperor, 142

Chapter VII: Mahayana Buddhism: "The Greater Vehicle" 151

The Bodhisattva, 158; The Mahayana Ideal Is Higher Than That of the Theravada, 159; The Suffering Savior, 159; The Lost Sonr 162; Against Self-Mortification, 166; Joy in All Things, 168; The Good Deeds of the Bodhisattva, 169; The Evils of Meat-Eating, 169; The Gift of Food, 170; The Three Bodies of the Buddha, 172; Emp- tiness, 173; Faith in Emptiness, 175; Karma and Rebirth, 175; Such-

ness, 176; All Depends on the Mind, 177; Nirvana Is Here and Now,

177; Praise of Dharma, 178; Perfect Wisdom Personified, 180; The

Blessings of Peace, 181; The Divine Right (and Duty) of Kings, 182;

Magical Utterances, 185

Chapter VIII: The Vehicle of the Thunderbolt and the Decline of Bud- dhism in India 187

To the Pure All Things Are Pure, 194; Everything Is Buddha, 196

Hinduism 200

Chapter IX: The Four Ends of Man 206

From the Science of Dharma, 208; From the Science of Material Gain: The Conduct of the Ideal King, 209; From the Science of Love,

209; From the Ramayana, 210; From Kahdasa, 210

Chapter X: Dharma, The First End of Man 211

What is Dharma? 215; The Sources and Extent of Dharma, 216; Dharma Is Not Static, 218; Varna-Dharma or Organization of the Four Classes, 219; The Origin of Mixed Castes, 221; Initiation to

Studentship, 223; Marriage and Householder's Duties, 225; The

Position of Women, 227; The Hermit and the Ascetic, 228; The

Sacraments, 230

Chapter XI: Artha, The Second End of Man 231

Dharma As the Supreme Authority, 235; The Origin of Kingship,

236; The Science of Polity, 239; Duties of a King, 241; The Seven

Limbs of the State, 243; The Circle of States and Interstate Policy,

246; State Administration, 249

Chapter XII: Kama, The Third End of Man 253

The Man of Taste and Culture, 254

AESTHETIC SPECULATIONS ^55

Dramaturgy: Bharata's Treatise on Dramaturgy, 261

Poetics: Mammata's Illumination of Poetry, 265; The Ocean of Aes-

thetic Emotion, 268

Music: From a Brahmana, 268; From an Upanishad, 269; From a

Lawbook, 269; From the Puranas, 269; From a Tantra, 269; From a

Standard Music Treatise, 270; From the Songs of Tyagaraja, 270

Chapter XIII: Marsha, The Fourth End of Man 271

THE BHAGAVAD GITA 274

You Have to Fight, 278; Why Karma-Yoga? 281; The Technique of

Karma-Yoga, 283; The Doctrine of Devotion, 286; Divine Manifes-

tations, 287; Philosophical Synthesis, 291; The Ideal Man, 293

HINDU PHILOSOPHY 295

TSHVARAKRISHNA: The Sankhya Karikas, 303

SHANKARA: Commentary on the Vedanta Sutras, 310

THE WAY OF DEVOTION 322

The Teachers 327

NARADA: Aphorisms on Devotion, 327

KAPILA: The Purana of the Lord, 331

LOKACHARYA: The Triad of Categories, 337

Hymns' in Sanskrit 340 Devotion Alone Essential, 341; The Lord's Incarnation, 341; The

Lord's Name, 342; The Lord's Compassion, 342; Serving the Lord,

343; Laying All Burdens on the Lord and Surrendering to His Grace,

344

The Songs of the Saints of Medieval Hinduism 345

TIRUNAVUKKARASHU: 348

JNANASAMBANDHA, 348: The Lord's Names, 349; The Lord Is Every-

thing, 349

MANIKKAVACHAKAR; 349

SUNDARAMURTI; 349

POIHAI, BHftTAM, AND PEY: 350

NAMMALVAR: The Lord As Lover, 350; The God with Form and

Beyond Form, 351 PERIYALVAR OR VISHNUCHITTA : 351

TIRUMANGAIMANNAR: The Lord's Name Narayana, 351

BASAVARAJA: 352

PURANDARADASA: 352

JNANADEVA OR JNANESHVARA: 353

TUKARAM: 353

MIRABAI: 354

LALLA: 354

KABIR: 355

SURDAS: 357

TULASIDAS: Where the Lord Dwells, 358

SHANKARADEVA: 359

RAMAPRASAD: 359

An Anonymous Bhajan Song, 360

TYAGARAJA: 360

Islam in Medieval India 3^2

Chapter XIV: The Foundations of Medieval Islam 364

ISLAM AS REVEALED IN THE QUR JAN AND THE SUNNA 365

UNORTHODOX ISLAM 3^7

THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 37

The Corning of Islam to India 375

FUNDAMENTALS OF MUSLIM FAITH 37^

The Legacy of Al-Ghazall 383

Muslim Orthodoxy in India 3^5

Piety: The Key to Paradise, 386; Theology: The Perfection of Faith,

388; Propaganda: The Indian Proof, 393

[xvii]

The Shari'a or Holy Law of Islam 395 The Bases of Jurisprudence, 397; Guidance in the Holy Law, 400

Chapter XV: The Mystics 404

SUFISM IN INDIA DURING THE SULTANATE PERIOD 410 The Love of God, 411; Contemplation, 411; Seeking the Path, 413 Renunciation, 414

The Quest for God the Beloved and for Knowledge of God 415 Repentance, 415; The Steps of a Disciple, 415; The Final Stage, 417

The Preservation of God's Transcendence at the Supreme Stage of

Mystic Experience 417 Subsistence and Annihilation, 418; True Contemplation Is Ineffable,

422

Sufi Acceptance of Orthodox Formalist Islam 423 Orthodox Practice and Spiritual Experience Both Necessary, 423; The

Superiority of the Prophets Over the Saints, 425; The Morals of the

Heart, 426

Chapter XVI' Religious Tension Under the Mughals 429

AKBAR'S RELIGIOUS OUTLOOK 430 The Discussion in the Hall of Worship, 432; The Divine Faith, 436

DARA SHIKOH AND PANTHEISM 437 Data Shikoh and the Mystic Path, 438; The Upanishads: God's Most Perfect Revelation, 439

THE REACTION AGAINST PANTHEISTIC MYSTICISM 44! Mystic Union With God Is Only Subjective, 442; The Sharfa Is the True Religious Way, 444; Revelation and Inspiration Reconciled, 445; Against Rulers Misled by Wicked Ulama, 447

SHAH WALI-ULLAH 448

Legal Interpretation, 449; Shah Wall-Ullah and Mysticism, 453

Chapter XVII: The Muslim Ruler in India 455

The Final End of Human Society Is the Worhip of God, 458; Proph- ets and Kings, 459; Obedience to the Sultan Is Commanded by God,

462; Kingship Is Incompatible With Religious Ideals, 462; The War Between Good and Evil, 468; Man's Opposing Qualities and Their

"Political" Implications, 469; The Duties and Responsibilities of the

True King, 470; Justice Is Indispensable to Temporal Rulership, 483;

Rulership Is a Sacred Trust, 485; The Selection of Officials, 487; The

Importance of Consultation, 490; Organizing the Government, 491; The Army, 494; The Perfect Rule, 495; Abu'l Fazl's Theory of Ruler-

ship, 496; The Declaration of Akbar's Status As a Mujtahid, 499

Chapter XVIII: The Ideal Social Order 501

The Four-Class Division of Society, 503; Social Precedence, 505; Di-

vine Origin of the "Division of Labor," 506; Rulers to Preserve the

Social Order Willed by God, 508

Chapter XIX: The Importance of the Study of History 5 1 1

The Study of History As an Integral Support of the Orthodox Mus-

lim Conception of World Order, 513; Historical Literature in the

Service of Autocracy, 519

Indie Word List 521

Index 525

Map: India before 1200, page 37

[xix]

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE

Brahmanism

PREHISTORIC PERIOD

B.C. .2700-1700 Indus Valley civilization and height of Harappa Culture,

c. 1500-1200 Aryan invasions of the Indian subcontinent; composition of

the earliest hymns of the Rig Veda.

VEDIC PERIOD

.1200-900 Composition of the Rig Veda.

.900 The great war depicted in the Mahabhdrata epic.

.900-500 Period of later Vedas, Brahmanas, and early Upanishads. c.8oo Aryans reach eastern Bihar and Bengal, c.6oo End of Brahmana period.

Jainism and Buddhism

B,C. 817 Traditional date of the birth of the Jain savior Parshva-

natha.

.563-483 [or, 558-478] Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha,

.542-490 Bimbisara, king of Magadha.

.490-458 Ajatashatru, king of Magadha.

.480 First Buddhist Council at Rajagriha.

.468 [or, 487, 477] Death of Vardhamana Mahavlra.

327-325 Invasion by Alexander of Macedon.

MAURYA PERIOD

.322-298 [or, 317-293] Chandragupta

.300 Megastheiies, Greek ambassador of Seleucus Nicator visits court of Chandragupta.

.298-273 Bindusara.

.273-237 [or, 269-232; 268-233] Ashoka.

.247-207 King Devanampiya Tissa of Ceylon converted to Bud- dhism by Thera Mahinda.

c.200-200 A.D. Period of greatest Buddhist and Jain influence in India.

.190 Greek Kingdoms in North-West India*

.185 [or, 183] End of dynasty*

AGE OF INVASIONS

A.D.

0.185-173 [or, 183-171] Shunga Dynasty. 0.185-149 Pushyamitra Shunga.

0.170-165 Yueh-chi (Iranians) invade India.

0.150 Milinda (Gk. Menander), greatest of Indo-Greek kings.

.90 Shakas invade North-West India.

c.early ist century Kushanas invade India.

0.79 [or, 82] Division of Jains into Shvetambara and Digambara sects.

.78-101 C.IOO-200

.200-400

.400-500

.454

,500-1000

.600-700

.700-800

.770-810

.900-1000

.1192

Hinduism

B.C. C.500-500 A.D.

.300

C.IOO-IOO A.D.

A.D. C.IOO-200

C.20O-40O

Kanishka.

Rise of Mahayana Buddhism. Ashvaghosha's Buddhaca-

nta. Prominence of Madhyamika School of Nagarjuna (until 5th century).

Kundakunda, Jain teacher of Digambara sect.

Mahayana philosophers Asanga and Vasubandhu. Found-

ing of great Buddhist monastery at Nalanda.

Writing of Jain oral tradition at Council at Valabhl in

Saurashtra.

Prominence of Mahayana Buddhist School of Yogachara or Vijnanavada,

Appearance of Tantricism in organized Buddhism.

Buddhism spreads to Nepal and Tibet.

Buddhist King Dharmapala rules in Bihar and Bengal.

Sahajayana or Sahajiya Tantric School marks last phase of Buddhism in India.

Muslim defeat of Hindus under Prithivi Raj. Buddhism

disappears as an organized religious force in India.

Period of Hindu lawbooks, epics, and development of the

six orthodox systems of philosophy.

Earliest core of Kautilya's Artha Sastra.

Composition of Bhagavad Gita.

Early law code of Yajnavalkya. Bharata's Treatise on Dramaturgy.

GUPTA PEB.IOD

.300-500

.300-888

Ishvarakrishna's Santyya Kansas. Christian community

of the Nestorian (Syrian) sect in existence at Cochin in

South India.

Pallava rulers of Kanchi in South India.

[ni]

0.319 [or 3*83 32o]~335 Chandragupta I.

0.335-376 Samudragupta.

0.376-415 Chandragupta II.

0400-500 Vatsyayana's Aphorisms on Love.

0.405 Fa-hsien, Chinese pilgrim arrives in Magadha.

0.454 First Huna invasion.

0.495 Second Huna invasion.

0.540 End of Gupta dynasty. c'55~753 [ r 757] Kingdom of Western Chalukyas in Deccan.

606-647 Ruk ^ King Harsha of Kanauj in North India.

0.629-645 Chinese pilgrim Hsiian-tsang visits India.

0.630-970 Eastern Chalukyas in Deccan.

MEDIEVAL INDIA

0.700-800 Tamil saint Mamkkavachakar in Mathurai. Dandin, San- skrit author and rhetorician.

0.760-1142 Palas of Bihar and Bengal.

0.788-820 Traditional dates of Shankara.

0.800-900 "Bhagavata Purana. Policy of SAufya. Jinasena's Great

Legend (Mahdpurdna). Sundaramurti, Shaiva Ndyandr of South India, Vamana and Anandavardhana, Hindu rhetoricians and aesthetic philosophers.

0.907-1310 [or, 0.850-1267] Chola Empire at Tanjore.

0.973-1189 Second Chalukya dynasty in Western and Central Dec-

can.

c.rooo-1100 Abhinavagupta. Yamuna Acharya's (Tamil Alavandar) Agamapramanya. Saraha's Dohatysa. Rise of Hindu Tantricism.

c.io 18-1055 King Bhoja of Malwa.

c.noo-1200 Mammata's KavyaprafySsa. Basavaraja founds Vlrashaiva

movement in South India.

0.1137 Death of Ramanuja*

0.1197-1276 [or, 1199-1278] Madhva Acharya.

0.1200-1300 Sharngadcva's treatise on music, Sangitaratnafyra. Lo-

kacharya's Triad of Categories,

1216-1327 Pandyas of Mathura.

0.1275-1296 Jnaneshvara's Jndnefoari.

0.1300-1400 Lalla, poetess of Kashmir.

1336-1565 Vijayanagara, last great Hindu kingdom in India.

0.1420 [or, 1550] Mira BIT, Rajput poetess.

1440-1518 Kabir.

Shankaradeva, Vaishnava saint of Assam.

c.1475 [or, 14791-1531 Vallabha, Vcdanta philosopher. .1480-1564 Purandaradasa, poet-saint of Karnataka.

0.1485-1533 Chaitanya of Bengal.

0.1500-1600 Surdas, blind poet of Agra. Vadiraja's Krsnastuti and

Haryasfafa. c. 1532-1623 Tulasi Das.

0.1542 St. Francis Xavier arrives in India.

0.1609-1649 [or, 1598-1649] Tukarama, Maharashtra poet-saint. 0.1700-1800 Baladeva, Vaishnava mystic in Bengal.

.1718-1775 Ramaprasad in Bengal,

.1767 [or, 17591-1847 Tyagaraja, saint-musician of South India.

Islam in Medieval India

.570-632 Life and mission of Muhammad the Prophet. 711-715 Conquest of Sind by the Arabs under Muhammad ibn Qasim. 962 Foundation of Turkish principality of Ghaznln.

988 Capture of Kabul by Sabuktigin of Ghaznln.

999-1026 Mahmud of Ghaznln raids India. 102 1 Foundation of Ghaznavid principality at Lahore.

1040 Battle of Dandanqan. Ghaznavids lose bulk of empire to Saljuqs. 1151 Burning of Ghaznln by Jahan-Suz. Rise of principality of Ghor. 1 186 Ghorids capture Lahore. End of Ghaznavid principality. 1192 Ghond defeat of Prithivi Raj. Delhi becomes Ghorid headquar-

ters in India.

DELHI SULTANATE

1211-1236 Reign of lltutmish, first founder-sultan of Delhi.

1266-1287 Reign of Balban, consolidator of Delhi sultanate.

1296-1316 Reign of Ala al-din KhaljI. Imperial phase of Delhi sultanate.

1306-1310 Conquest of South India by Delhi. Foundation of independent Bahmam sultanate in the Deccan.

1325-1351 Sultan Muhammad ibn Tughluq, patron of historian and political theorist Barni.

1351-1388 Reign of Delhi sultan, Flruz Shah Tughluq. End of imperial

phase of Delhi sultanate.

1398-1399 Tlmur's invasion of India and sack of Delhi. Rise of independent

"provincial" Muslim principalities. Probable birth of Kabir.

1451-1526 Lodi sultanate of Delhi.

1469 Birth of Guru Nanak, founder of Sikhism.

1504 Babur occupies Kabul.

[ xxiii ]

MUGHAL EMPIRE

1526 First battle of Panipat. Mughals displace Lodis as rulers of Delhi and Agra.

1540 Mughal ruler, Humayun, expelled from India by Sher Shah Sur.

1555 Humayun recovers Delhi.

1556 Accession of Akbar.

1569-1586 Mughal conquest of Chitor, Gujarat. Bengal, Kashmir.

1582 Promulgation of Din-i-Ilahi, Akbar J

s "Divine Faith."

io~oo Charter of incorporation granted to the East India Company. 1605-1627 Reign of Jahanglr.

1627-1658 Reign of Shah Jahan.

1651 Foundation of East India Company's factory at Hugli.

1657-1658 War of Succession between Dara Shikoh and Aurangzib. 1707 Birth of Shah Wali-Ullah. Death of Aurangzib.

1739 Sack of Delhi by Nadir Shah.

1757 Battle of Plassey.

[xxiv]

BRAHMANISM

Brahmanism, while not necessarily representing the most ancient religion of the Indian subcontinent, is that system of belief and ritual practice to

which Indians have, historically, looked back as the source of their re-

ligious traditions. Whether in later Hinduism, which tenaciously holds

to much of the Brahmanical tradition, or in Buddhism, which rejects much of it, there is presupposed this highly conscious and articulate cult, the central feature of a way of life made known through the ages by the earliest body of formal literature, the Veda.

As seen today, the earliest religious thought in India is known or de- duced from archaeological evidence, such as seals, figurines, tablets, and

other artifacts, belonging to a pre-Aryan civilization which existed in the

valley of the Indus River during the latter part of the third millennium

B.C. The only conclusions which may be drawn with any certainty, how-

ever, from materials associated with the culture uncovered at the site of

Harappa, are a preoccupation with fertility symbols (e.g., terra-cotta

figurines of pregnant females, stone phallic symbols, and the like) and

the worship of a divinity similar to the god Shiva, the ascetic par excel-

lence of historic Hinduism, who is frequently associated with a bull and

is also often represented by a phallic symbol. Besides representations of

fertility symbols, which imply the existence of a Mother or Earth Goddess

cult, and the divinity reminiscent of Shiva, the Indus civilization also

seemed to attach religious significance to certain animals, such as the

tiger, buffalo, crocodile, elephant, and even multiheaded monsters and

hybrid creatures, as well as trees and auspicious symbols, such as the

swastika. Some seals point to religious motifs found in Mesopotamia, such as the Gilgamesh legend, the ibex, trefoil designs, and others, and

suggest a possible origin of religious ideas even earlier than the datable

artifacts of the Indus Valley civilization. Though it is difficult to establish

a definite continuity in the development of religious ideas in India dating

from the Indus civilization to modern times, it is, however, possible to

distinguish a clearly non-Aryan which may or may not be pre-Aryan source for many of the concepts which characterize that religion which

is known as "Hinduism' 1

in India today.

A second, and perhaps somewhat more significant, source of Indian reli- gious ideas was introduced by the Aryans who invaded India from the

northwest about 1500 B.C., or earlier, and who may themselves have been

responsible for the destruction of the Indus civilization. These Aryan invaders brought with them religious concepts consisting mainly of a

pantheon of naturalistic or functional gods, a ritualistic cult involving

the sacrificial use of fire and an exhilarating drink called soma, as well as

the rudiments of a social order. To a certain extent their religion derived from primitive Indo-European times; that is to say, some of the gods mentioned in the scriptures of these people are found to have mythological

counterparts in other Indo-European traditions, particularly those of

Iran, Greece, and Rome, and thus indicate a common origin of such gods in antiquity. In addition to such specifically Indo-European concepts, the

religion of the Aryans involved other ideas which may have developed in the course of their eastward migrations or may have resulted from the assimilation of indigenous religious notions encountered in the Indian

subcontinent itself, From a sociological standpoint, the religion intro-

duced by the Aryan invaders was limited to persons of Aryan birth,

though some non-Aryan beliefs seem to have been accepted in a modified

form or at least tolerated by the priesthood of the conquering Aryans. The religion thus developed by the Aryans from the time of their

invasion of India until roughly 500 B.C. was embodied in a collection of

hymns, ritual texts, and philosophical treatises, called the Veda. From

Aryan times down to the present, Hindus have regarded the Veda as a

body of eternal and revealed scripture. Its final authority is accepted to

some extent by all Hindus as embodying the essential truths of Hinduism.

The earliest portion of the Veda consists of four metrical hymnals, known as Samhitas, being the Rig Veda, Yajur Vedat Sdma Vedat and Aiharva

Veda. The earliest of these texts is that of the Rig Veda, and it is this col- lection of hymns (re) which constitutes the earliest source of knowledge

concerning the Aryan religion. The most recent of these canonical collec- tions is the Atharva Veda, which is somewhat more representative of the

popular religion of Vedic times than are the other Vedas, which are more

sacerdotal in character* The metrical hymns and chants of these texts gave

rise to elaborate ritualistic prose interpretations called Brdhmanas and

Aranyafos ("forest books"). Toward the end of the Vedic period, the earlier emphasis on ritual was translated symbolically. Thus, Vedic ideas

of sacrifice and mythology were reinterpreted in terms of the macrocosm

and microcosm. Cosmological inquiries of some of the later hymns of the

Rig Veda were extended and an investigation of the human soul was undertaken. The speculations and interpretations along these lines were formulated by various philosophical schools in treatises collectively called

Upanishads. Thus, the whole of Vedic literature consists of four Vedas

or Samhitas, several expository ritual texts attached to each of these Vedas

called Brahmanas, and speculative treatises, or Upanishads, concerned

chiefly with a mystical interpretation of the Vedic ritual and its relation

to man and the universe.

Although the relationship between the various deities of the Rig Veda

is not always clear, and different deities often personifications of natural

forces may each in turn be regarded as the supreme god, nevertheless Indra (often referred to as c\a deva "One God") stands out as pre-eminent and the core myth of the Rig Veda recounts his deeds. In terms of this

central myth, creation proceeded when Indra, the champion of the celestial

gods, slew a serpent demon, Vritra, who enclosed the waters and the sun

requisite for human life. When Indra split open the belly of this demon the essentials of creation moisture, heat, light were released and cosmic

order (rita) was established under the administration of the god Varuna.

Gods and men then had specific functions (yrata) to perform in accordance with this cosmic order. After death those individuals who had fulfilled

their obligations under the cosmic order went to a heavenly realm presided

over by Yama, the first mortal. Two mythical dogs guarded the righteous on the path to this region, but the sinful were fettered and, unprotected, fell prey to various demons.

Cult practices developed an elaborate ritual based on a fire sacrifice,

personified as the god Agni, and included various oblations of clarified

butter and the production of the soma juice, deified as the god Soma,

from an unidentified plant known also from Iranian sources. This ritual

naturally necessitated a highly specialized priesthood. Just as the crack-

ling of the sacrificial fire was viewed as the voice of Agni, the priest

par excellence, so, too, great significance was attached to the chanting of

hymns and invocations by the human priesthood. Later the sacrifice itself

[3]

was viewed cosmologically and the correct performance of the sacrifice pos- sessed a magical potency which could coerce even the gods. This magical

power inherent in the sacrificial prayers thus developed into spells, called

br&hman. He who recited them was a "pray-er" (brahman), or one related to prayer (brdhmana). From this concept developed the brahman, or

priestly, caste.

The spiritualization o prayer (brahman) and its relation to the gods and the universe through ritual sacrifice constitute the central conception of this early phase of Indian religious thought. When the Upanishads coupled this notion with an investigation of the individual self (atman)

an idea closely allied to the earlier personification and deification of

"Wind" or "Air" (Vayu) and referring to human "breath" the brahman

came to be viewed as a universal principle. Thus, an essential feature of

Vedic ritual, the "prayer" itself, was given cosmological and cosmogonic

implications and became the principal subject of later Indian philosophical

inquiry. It is on the basis of these ritualistic Vedic concepts that the ear-

liest definable religious thought of India is identified as Brahmanism.

R. WEILER

r .

e

CHAPTER I

THE COSMIC ORDER IN THE VEDIC HYMNS

Long before they entered into India the Vedic Aryans must have started

producing prayers and songs (mantras) relating to their religion. The character of this religion was determined by the kind of life they had

been living. At that early stage of their cultural history, the Vedic Aryans lived close to nature as a part of it, rather than apart from it. It was,

therefore, the vastness and brilliance of nature, its blessings and maledic-

tions, and, above all, the inexorable and subtly operating law which

regulated all its manifestations, that dominated their religious ideology. The earliest hymns of the Vedic Aryans, accordingly, pertained to this cosmic religion, to which they gave expression through such mythological

concepts as those of the divine parents, Heaven and Earth, the cosmic law

(rita), and the sustainer of that law, Varuna. Side by side with this cosmic

religion, the Vedic Aryans had also developed a kind of fire worship. The cosmic religion of the Vedic Aryans tended toward anthropo- morphism, but it was not idolatrous. Fke was, therefore, regarded as the

liaison between gods and men.

Sun worship, which also figures prominently in the Veda, is, in a

sense, just an aspect of fire worship; but it has greatly influenced many

mythological concepts in the Veda with the result that divinities like

Vishnu, who had originally little to do with the solar phenomenon, came

to be regarded as sun-gods at some stage in the evolution of their

character.

In the course of time there occurred a change in the conditions of life

of the Vedic Aryans and consequently in their religious ideology. They set out toward India on campaigns of conquest and colonization, fought

on their way a series of battles with several antagonistic tribes, whom

they collectively called Dasas, and finally emerged as victorious colonizers

of that part of India which was known as the land of seven rivers, the

[5]

present Punjab* In this epoch-making warlike enterprise the Vedic Aryans were apparently led by their heroic leader, Indra, whom they soon made into a god. Gradually history came to be transformed into mythology. In this process several elements were derived from an ancient primitive

myth of the Hero and the Dragon. And later the Vedic Aryan war-god came to be invested with a cosmic character. This hero-religion even-

tually dominated the hymns produced by the Vedic poets, priests, and

warriors.

Perhaps with a view to counteracting the growing influence of a

mythology glorifying military prowess, the Vedic poets and priests deified

the magical potency of their prayers and priestcraft in the forms of

Brahmanaspati (Lord of Prayer), who is in some respects modeled after

Indra, and Vach, the goddess of Speech or Holy Word. He embodies prayer (brahman) itself, as well as ritual activity in general. Moreover, in the

person of Brahmanaspati ritual and cosmological aspects are blended. He is often associated frith Agni, the sacrifice personified, on the one hand,

and Indra, the later cosmogonic principal (tad efom), on the other. Thus

the hymns dedicated to this god represent the emergence of prayer (brah-

man) as an extremely significant concept in early Vedic thought. It is not

at all surprising then that the importance of ritual in Vedic religion should

give rise to the central conception of later Vedic philosophical speculation

regarding the true nature of the cosmological concept brahman and its re-

lation to the human self.

Like many other primitive communities, the Vedic Aryans believed that the creation of the universe and the procreation of the human race were the result of a primeval sacrifice, namely of the self-immolation of a cosmic

being. This cosmic being is represented in the Veda as the male, Purusha,

Apart from this concept of the primeval cosmic sacrifice as the starting

point of creation, there are represented in the Veda other significant cur-

rents of cosmogonic thought- According to one of them the source of all

powers and existences, divine as well as earthly, was conceived as the

"golden germ" (hiranyagarbha) a form assumed by an unnamed Ur-god. This "golden germ" is the precursor of the universal egg (brahma^a) of

the later cosmogony. Another cosmogonic theory is far more profound. It

seeks to controvert the view that the world has evolved out of "nonbeing"

(asat) . At the same time this theory asserts that the source of this world can-

not be, strictly speaking, characterized as "being" (sat). In the beginning there was neither "nonbeing" nor "being," nevertheless That One (tad c\am) breathed, though breathless, through its own inherent power. Be- sides it nothing existed. This idea may suggest the mythological creation of the world by Indra, the One God (e\a deva), who destroyed the cosmic demon Vritra. Finally, in the Atharva Veda both "being" and "nonbeing" have brahman as their source.

Side by side with the ritual, eschatology, mythology, and cosmogony of the upper classes among the Vedic Aryans there had also existed a

religion o the non-Aryan subject peoples. This religion comprised a variety of charms, imprecations, and exorcistic practices which were primarily intended "to appease, to bless, and to curse." The motif recurring through- out this religion was, of course, magic,

Agni

The discovery of fire constitutes a significant landmark in the history of hu- man civilization and it is not unnatural that fire should have been held in

great awe from early times. The Aryans, however, developed the worship of

Agni or Fire to an extraordinary degree. The god Agni is the personification and deification especially of the sacri-

ficial fire. He is the priest of the gods and the god of the priests. In the Rig Veda he is second only to Indra in prominence. He has three forms: terrestrial as fire, atmospheric as lightning, and celestial as the sun. Thus, his function as

the sacrificial fire of the priests serves as a kind of liaison between man and the

heavenly gods specifically he carries the oblations which the brahman priests

pour into the fire to the gods. The correct propitiation of Agni in the Vedic ritual was thus of considerable importance to Aryan man.

[From Rig Veda, i.i]

I extol Agni, the household priest, the divine minister of the sacrifice,

the chief priest, the bestower of blessings.

May that Agni, who is to be extoled by ancient and modern seers, con- duct the gods here.

Through Agni may one gain day by day wealth and welfare which is

glorious and replete with heroic sons.

O Agni, the sacrifice and ritual which you encompass on every side, that indeed goes to the gods.

May Agni, the chief priest, who possesses the insight of a sage, who

[7]

is truthful, widely renowned, and divine, come here with the gods. O Agni, O Angiras ["messenger"], whatever prosperity you bring to

the pious is indeed in accordance with your true function.

O Agni, illuminator o darkness, day by day we approach you with holy thought bringing homage to you,

Presiding at ritual functions, the brightly shining custodian of the cos-

mic order (rita), thriving in your own realm, O Agni, be easy of access to us as a father to his son. Join us for our

wellbeing.

Heaven and Earth

As the divine parents, Heaven and Earth are symbolic of the vastness, bright- ness, and bounty of nature. The myth of their conjugal union dates from primi- tive Indo-European times and probably represents the earliest Vedic concep- tion of creation based on an indissoluble connection of the two worlds, celestial

and terrestrial.

Note the constant emphasis in these prayers on the hope of obtaining material

rewards.

[From Rig Veda, 6.70]

Rich in ghee [i.e., clarified butter considered as fertilizing rain], exceed-

ingly glorious among beings, wide, broad, honey-dispensing, with beau-

tiful forms, Heaven and Earth are, in accordance with Varuna's cosmic

law (dharma), held asunder, both ageless and rich in seed.

Nonexhausting, many-streamed, full of milk, and of pure ordinance, the two dispense ghee for the pious one. You two, O Heaven and Earth, ruling over this creation, pour down for us the seed [rainj which is wholesome to mankind*

The mortal, who, for the sake of a straightforward course of life, has offered sacrifice unto you, O Heaven and Earth, O Sacrificial Bowls, he succeeds; he is reborn through his progeny in accordance with the cosmic

law. Your poured semen becomes beings of manifold forms, each fulfilling his own function. With ghee are covered Heaven and Earth, glorious in ghee, mingled

with ghee, growing in ghee. Wide and broad, these two have precedence at the time of the selection of officiating priests* The wise ones invoke these two with a view to asking them for blessings.

May Heaven and Earth, honey-dropping, honey-dispensing, with hon-

m

eyed courses, shower down honey for us, bringing unto the gods sacrifice and wealth, and for us great glory, reward, and heroic strength.

May Heaven and Earth swell our nourishment, the two who are father and mother, all-knowing, doing wondrous work. Communicative and

wholesome unto all, may Heaven and Earth bring unto us gain, reward, and riches.

Varuna

Varuna is the administrator of the cosmic law (rita, dharma), which regulates all activities in this world, big and small. It is he, for instance, who has spread out the earth and set the sun in motion, and who pours out the rain but sees to it that the one ocean is not filled to overflowing by many rivers. He is, there- fore, rightly called the world-sovereign. Naturally enough, this upholder of

cosmic order is also regarded as the lord of human morality. It is the function of Varuna to ensure that there occurs no transgression of the law, cosmic or human.

[From Rig Veda, 5.85]

Unto the sovereign lord sing a sublime and solemn prayer (brahman), one dear unto glorious Varuna, who has spread out the earth, as the butcher does the hide, by way of a carpet for the sun.

Varuna has extended the air above the trees; he has put strength in

horses, milk in cows, will-power in hearts, fire in waters, the sun in the

heaven, and soma upon the mountain.

Varuna poured out the leather-bag, opening downward, upon the

heaven and the earth and the mid-region. Thereby does the lord of the

whole creation moisten thoroughly the expanse of earth, as rain does the

corn.

He moistens the broad earth and the heaven. When Varuna would have it milked [i.e., would shower rain] then, indeed, do the mountains

clothe themselves with clouds and the heroes, showing off their might,

loosen those clothes [i.e., disperse the clouds].

This great magic-work (maya) of renowned spiritual Varuna will I

proclaim loudly; of Varuna, who, standing in the mid-region, has meas-

ured the earth with the sun as with a measuring rod.

No one, indeed, dare impugn this great magic-work of the wisest god, namely, that the many glistening streams, pouring forth, do not fill up one ocean with water.

[9]

If we, O Varuna, have offended against a friend, befriended through Aryaman or through Mitra [i.e., gods of hospitality and friendship], or

if we have offended against an all-time comrade or a brother or an inmate

whether belonging to us, O Varuna, or a stranger do you remove that offense from us.

If we have deceived, like gamblers in a game of dice, and whether we

really know it or not, all that do you unbind from us, like loosened fetters, O god. Thus may we be dear unto you, O Varuna.

Dawn

In hymns such as this we find most movingly expressed the profound awe and

sensitivity to the beauties of nature which underlie much of Vedic mythology. Here, however, there is less of the tendency to personify and deify natural forces

which is so prominent a feature of Vedic religious thought, than a majestic

description of the actual dawn itself in metaphorical language, giving us an

insight into the cosmic harmony of man and nature. While later Indian

philosophies often viewed nature and the visible world as in some sense evil

or unreal, this loving appreciation of nature is characteristic not only of the

more optimistic, life-affirming attitude of the Vedas but also of an important strain in Indian literature from the early epics and plays of Kalidasa down to the modern works of Rabindranath Tagore. We have chosen the excellent metrical translation of Professor Macdonell

which suggests the stately rhythm and cumulative power of the original.

[From A, A. Macdonell, Hymns from the Rigveda, p. 38, hymn 1.113]

This light has come, of all the lights the fairest:

The brilliant brightness has been born effulgent.

Urged onward for god Savitar's uprising,

Night now has yielded up her place to morning.

Bringing a radiant calf she comes resplendent: To her the Black One has givfen up her mansions*

Akin, immortal, following each other,

Morning and Night fare on, exchanging colors.

The sisters* pathway is the same, unending: Taught by the gods alternately they tread it.

Fair-shaped, of form diverse, yet single-minded,

Morning and Night clash not, nor do they tarry.

f ml

Bright leader of glad sounds she shines effulgent:

Widely she has unclosed for us her portals.

Pervading all the world she shows us riches :

Dawn has awakened every living creature.

Men lying on the ground she wakes to action : Some rise to seek enjoyment of great riches, Some, seeing little, to behold the distant:

Dawn has awakened every living creature.

One for dominion, and for fame another; Another is aroused for winning greatness; Another seeks the goal of varied nurture:

Dawn has awakened every living creature.

Daughter of Heaven, she has appeared before us, A maiden shining in resplendent raiment. Thou sovereign lady of all earthly treasure, Auspicious Dawn, shine here today upon us. . ,

Indra

Indra is the most prominent divinity in the Rig Veda. He is an atmospheric god often identified with thunder and wielding a weapon, called vajra ("thunder-

bolt"). As such he destroys the demons of drought and darkness and heralds

the approach of the rain so vital to life in India. In the Veda, the most significant

myth which recounts his deeds centers about his slaying of the demon Vritra, who encloses the waters (i.e., the rains) and the sun, and who is the very em- bodiment of cosmic chaos. Historically considered, this myth may represent the conquest of India by the Aryans inspired by a warrior-champion, Indra.

From a mythological standpoint, the destruction of Vritra and the subsequent release of the essentials of life water, heat, light may be allegorically regarded as an early cosmogonic theory.

[From Rig Veda, 1.32]

Indra's heroic deeds, indeed, will I proclaim, the first ones which the

wielder of the vajra accomplished. He killed the dragon, released the

waters, and split open the sides of the mountains.

He killed the dragon lying spread out on the mountain; for him

Tvashtar fashioned the roaring vajra. Like bellowing cows, the waters,

gliding, have gone down straightway to the ocean.

Showing off his virile power he chose soma; l from the three \adru\as

2

he drank of the extracted soma. The bounteous god took up the missile, the vajra; he killed the first-born among the dragons,. When you, O Indra, killed the first-born among the dragons and further

overpowered the wily tricks (maya) of the tricksters, bringing forth, at

that very moment, the sun, the heaven, and the dawn since then, indeed, have you not come across another enemy. Indra killed Vntra, the greater enemy, the shoulderless one, with his

mighty and fatal weapon, the vajra. Like branches of a tree lopped off

with an axe, the dragon lies prostrate upon the earth.

For, like an incapable fighter, in an intoxicated state, he [Vritra] had

challenged the great hero [Indra], the mighty overwhelmer, the drinker

of soma to the dregs. He did not surmount the onslaught of his fatal

weapon. Indra's enemy, broken [-nosed], 8 was completely crushed.

Footless and handless he gave battle to Indra. He [Indra] struck him with the vajra upon the back. The castrated bull, seeking to become a

compeer of the virile bull, Vritra lay shattered in many places. Over him, who lay in that manner like a shattered reed

4 flowed the

waters for the sake of man.6 At the feet of the very waters, which Vritra

had [once] enclosed with his might, the dragon [now] lay [prostrate]. Vritra's mother had her vital energy ebbing out; Indra had hurled his

fatal weapon at her. The mother lay above, the son below; Danu 6

lay

down like a cow with her calf.

In the midst of the water-streams, which never stood still nor had any

resting place, the body lay. The waters flow in all directions over Vritra's

secret place; Indra's enemy lay sunk in long darkness.

With the Dasa as their lord 7 and with the dragon as their warder, the

waters remained imprisoned, like cows held by the Pani. 8 Having killed

1 Presumably the juice of soma was originally used for ritualistic purposes only. In view

of the peculiar strength-giving, entrancing properties of the drink, however, the war-lord

Indra later used it to inspirit himself for his heroic deeds. * Kadruk,as are traditionally explained as the three days in a six-day soma-sacrirlce. Perhaps

the word originally meant the three wooden bowls from which soma was drunk. * Or, the breaker of chariots,

* Or, bull.

* Manu. The exact meaning is unclear. * Vritra*s mother.

7 Literally ''having the demon as their lord" (ddwpatnis}. After Indra's victory over the

demon, the waters became ttrya-ptunis (Rig Veda, 10.43,8), that is, "having the Aryan* as their lord." Apart from its mythological significance, this fact may have an historical basis in the conflict of the Aryan invaders with indigenous tribal people. 'That is, the leader of the Panfo, a gypsy-like, nomadic, trading people, who stole the

cows belonging to the Aryan*.

Vritra, [Indra] threw open the cleft o waters which had been closed.

You became the hair of a horse's tail, O Indra, when he [Vritra] struck at your sharp-pointed vajra the one god (e\a deva) though you were.

You won the cows, O brave one, you won soma; you released the seven rivers, so that they should flow.

Neither did lightning nor thunder, nor mist nor hailstorm, which he

[Vritra] had spread out, prove efficacious when Indra and the dragon fought. And the bounteous god remained victorious for all time to come.

Whom did you see, O Indra, as the avenger of the dragon, that fear entered into your heart, after you had killed the dragon, and frightened,

you crossed nine and ninety rivers and the aerial regions like the fal-

con? *

Indra, who wields the vajra in his hand, is the lord of what moves and what remains rested, of what is peaceful and what is horned.

10 He alone rules over the tribes as their king; he encloses them as does a rim the

spokes.

The Primeval Sacrifice

The origin of the universe from a primeval sacrifice, in which a cosmic being offers himself as an oblation, is not unknown in primitive mythological tradi- tions. However, the sacrifice of the male Purusha here is not so much the

primordial sacrifice of a world-giant or the type Ur-mensch found in Norse or

Germanic mythology, as it is a cosmogonic idea based on ritual sacrifice itself

as the origin of the universe. Thus, the nature of the Purusha is a secondary blend of characteristics derived from the Vedic deities Agni, the sacrifice per- sonified and the typical male principle; Surya, the sun; and Vishnu, another

solar deity who embraces earth, atmosphere, and sky. Emphasized here is the

universality of Purusha and his function as the cosmic sacrifice. In this way the ritual sacrifice performed on earth by a priestly class eventually was .translated into terms of cosmological significance by a process identifying microcosmic, with macrocosmic, elements.

This hymn makes the earliest reference to the four social orders, later known as castes. The passage is important in that it emphasizes the magico-ritualistic origin of castes. The brahmans formed the highest social order, the literate

intelligentsia which gave India its priests, thinkers, law-givers, judges, and

ministers of state. The rajanyas, later called kshatriyas or rulers, were the

"Docs this refer to some temporary setback which Indra suffered in his battles with the

Dasas? 10 And, therefore, aggressive.

[13]

second social order, the Indian counterpart of feudal nobility: from this class

were recruited kings, vassals, and warriors. The vaishyas formed the class of

landowners, merchants, and moneylenders, while the shudras, originally those

peoples conquered by the Aryans, were workers, artisans, or serfs.

[From Rig Veda, 10.90]

Thousand-headed Purusha, thousand-eyed, thousand-footed he, having

pervaded the earth on all sides, still extends ten fingers beyond it.

Purusha alone is all this whatever has been and whatever is going to

be. Further, he is the lord of immortality and also of what grows on ac-

count of food.

Such is his greatness; greater, indeed, than this is Purusha, All creatures

constitute but one quarter of him, his three quarters are the immortal in

the heaven.

With his three quarters did Purusha rise up; one quarter of him again remains here. With it did he variously spread out on all sides over what

eats and what eats not.

From him was Viraj u

born, from Viraj the evolved Purusha, He, being

born, projected himself behind the earth as also before it.

When the gods performed the sacrifice with Purusha as the oblation, then the spring was its clarified butter, the summer the sacrificial fuel, and the autumn the oblation.

The sacrificial victim, namely, Purusha, born at the very beginning,

they sprinkled with sacred water upon the sacrificial grass* With him as

oblation the gods performed the sacrifice, and also the Sadhyas [a class of

semidivine beings] and the rishis [ancient seers]. From that wholly offered sacrificial oblation were born the verses [re]

and the sacred chants; from it were born the meters (chandas) ; the sacri-

ficial formula was born from it.12

From it horses were born and also those animals who have double rows

[i.e., upper and lower] of teeth; cows were born from it, from it were born

goats and sheep. When they divided Purusha, in how many different portions did they

arrange him? What became of his mouth, what of hi$ two arms? What were his two thighs and his two feet called?

11 The precise meaning of Viraj is uncertain, Here it seems to represent a kind of cosmic source perhaps the waters themselves from which creation proceeds. "The verses (re), the sacred chants (sama), and the sacrificial formula (yajus) may re-

fer to the three Veda*.

His mouth became the brahman; his two arms were made into the

rajanya; his two thighs the vaishyas; from his two feet the shudra was

born.

The moon was born from the mind, from the eye the sun was born; from the mouth Indra and Agni, from the breath (prana) the wind

(vayu) was born.

From the navel was the atmosphere created, from the head the heaven issued forth; from the two feet was born the earth and the quarters (the cardinal directions) from the ear. Thus did they fashion the worlds.

Seven were the enclosing sticks in this sacrifice, thrice seven were the

fire-sticks made, when the gods, performing the sacrifice, bound down

Purusha, the sacrificial victim.

With this sacrificial oblation did the gods offer the sacrifice. These were

the first norms (dharma) of sacrifice. 13 These greatnesses reached to the

sky wherein live the ancient Sadhyas and gods.

The Origin of the World

In the early Indra creation myth, the demon Vritra had to be slain before creation could proceed. Indra as the personal demiurge brought order out

of chaos (asat); that is to say, he brought about the existent (sat) from the

nonexistent (asat). In later Vedic cosmogonic speculation, the personal creator, Indra as the One God (eJ(a deva) is conceived of as an impersonal creative im-

pulse called That One (tad e\am). When the question arises (vs. i) as to "what enclosed all," the answer is no longer Vritra according to the old myth, but

rather that creation proceeds from a principle motivated by desire outside, or

over and beyond, "being" and "non-being." In terms of this new cosmological interpretation of creation, only the sages were able to fathom in their hearts

the relation of "being" and "nonbeing." The hymn ends on a note of skepticism, which anticipates the questioning mood of the Upanishads "he who is the

highest overseer in heaven, he certainly knows, on the other hand, perhaps he

does not."

[From Rig Veda, 10.129]

Neither not-being nor being was there at that time; there was no air-filled

space nor was there the sky which is beyond it. What enveloped all? And

where? Under whose protection? Wtiat was the unfathomable deep water?

\

"The later sacrifices are modeled after the primeval cosmic sacrifice and are believed to be actually furthering the purpose of that sacrifice by ensuring the proper organization and

functioning of the world and human society.

[15]

Neither was death there, nor even immortality at that time; there was

no distinguishing mark of day and night. That One breathed without

wind in its own special manner. Other than It, indeed, and beyond, there

did not exist anything whatsoever.

In the beginning there was darkness concealed in darkness; all this was

an indistinguishable flood of water. That, which, possessing life-force, was

enclosed by the vacuum, the One, was born through the power of heat

from its austerity.

Upon It rose up, in the beginning, desire, which was the mind's first seed.

Having sought in their hearts, the wise ones discovered, through delibera-

tion, the bond of being and nonbeing.

Right across was their [i.e., the wise ones'] dividing line extended. Did

the below exist then, was there the above? There were the seed-planters, there were the great forces of expansion. Below there was self-impulse, above active imparting.

Who knows it for certain; who can proclaim it here; namely, out of what it was born and wherefrom this creation issued? The gods appeared

only later after the creation of the world. Who knows, then, out of what it has evolved?

Wherefrom this creation has issued, whether he has made it or whether

he has not he who is the superintendent of this world in the highest heaven he alone knows, or, perhaps, even he does not know.

The Brahmachari

The term brahmachari means "going to, or according to, brdhman (the holy word)." Since the prayer or sacred word (brahman) came to be identified with the Vedic hymns or invocations themselves, a brahmachari was regarded as a student of the Veda as well as a disciple of Brahman. In later Hinduism this

remnant of early Brahmanism was preserved as the first prescribed stage

(ashrama) of Aryan life, characterized by studentship under a competent teacher

(guru) or authority on the Vedic texts, and adherence to a vow of celibacy. This

stage itself is called brahrnacharya. In this particular hymn, from the Atharva

Veda, the brahmachari is glorified in a cosmological sense as the sun "clothed

in heat** and "with a long beard" (that is, with many rays), who is the primeval principle of the universe. The heat of the sun and the fervor generated through austerities are both called tapas, often seen as a factor in creation. Thus when Mahatma Gandhi later glorified brahmachctrya, it was as a creative force sub- limated by sexual continence.

[From Atharva Veda, 11.5,1-8, 17-26] r _ri

The Brahmachari travels animating the two hemispheres; the gods be-

come like-minded in him. He sustains earth and heaven; he fills his teacher with fervor.

The fathers, the god-folk, and all the gods collectively follow the

Brahmachari; the six thousand three hundred and thirty-three Gan-

dharvas went after him. He fills all the gods with fervor. When the teacher accepts the Brahmachari as a disciple, he treats him

as an embryo within his own body. He carries him for three nights in his belly; when he is born, the gods assemble to see him. . . . Born prior to Brahman, clothing himself in heat, the Brahmachari

arose with his fervor. From him were born Brahmahood, the highest Brahman, and all the gods together with immortality. The Brahmachari goes forth, kindled by sacred fire-sticks, clothing him-

self with black-antelope skin, consecrated, long-bearded. Within one sin-

gle day does he go from the eastern to the northern ocean; having gath- ered together the worlds, he fashions them repeatedly. The Brahmachari, begetting Brahman, the waters, the world, Prajapati

[Lord of Creatures], the most exalted one, creative force, having become

an embryo in the womb of immortality, indeed, having become Indra, has shattered the demons.

The preceptor fashioned both these hemispheres, the wide and the

deep, namely, earth and heaven. These two the Brahmachari protects with

his fervor; in him the gods become like-minded. . . .

Through Brahmacharya, through fervor, a king protects his kingdom. A teacher through Brahmacharya seeks a Brahmachari for his student. Through Brahmacharya a maiden finds a young husband. Through

Bramacharya a steer or horse strives to obtain food.

Through Brahmacharya, through fervor, the gods dispelled death.

Through Brahmacharya Indra brought heaven to the gods.

Plants, past and future, trees, the year and its seasons were all born

from the Brahmachari.

Animals of the earth and those of heaven, wild and domestic, wingless

and winged, were all born from the Brahmachari. . , .

The Brahmachari fashioned these things on the back of the waters. He

stood in the sea performing austerities. When he has performed ritual

ablution, he shines extensively over the earth, brown and ruddy.

A Charm Against Jaundice

The contents of the Atharva Veda relate mainly to what may be considered

indigenous traditions of popular religion. This religion consists of charms and

imprecations accompanied by certain exorcistic practices, for the proper knowl-

edge of which one has to depend entirely on an ancillary text of the Veda, like

the Kauhfa Sutra. It is needless to add that the principal basis of these practices is symbolic magic.

[From Atharva Veda, 1.22]

Unto the sun let them both go up your heartburn and your yellowness; with the color of the red bull do we envelop you. With red colors do we envelop you for the sake of long life; so that

this person may be free from harm and may become non-yellow. Those cows l that have Rohini [the Red One] as presiding divinity, as

also cows which are red their every form and every power with them

do we envelop you. Into the parrots do we put your yellowness and into the yellow-green

ropanal(d-bird$. Similarly into the turmeric [or yellow wagtail?] do we

deposit your yellowness.

Exorcism of Serpents

The tradition designates this charm specifically to keep serpents away from the

premises.

[From Atharva Veda, 6*56]

Let not the serpent, O gods, sky us with our children and with our men. The closed jaw shall not snap open, the open one shall not close. Hom-

age to the divine folk [i.e., the serpents, by way of exorcistic euphemism].

Homage be to the black serpent, homage to the one with stripes across

its body, homage to the brown constrictor [ ?], homage to the divine folk.

I smite your teeth with tooth, I smite your two jaws with jaw; I smite

your tongue with tongue; I smite your mouth, O Serpent, with mouth. 2

'Or herbs. 1 Presumably the exorcist strikes the tooth, jaw, etc. of the symbolic figure of a serpent

with the tooth, jaw, etc. of, perhaps, a dead serpent

CHAPTER II

THE RITUAL ORDER IN THE BRAHMANAS

To each of the four Samhitas or collections of hymns are attached certain

expository liturgical texts called Brahmanas. These somewhat bulky prose treatises give, in tedious detail, explanations of the Vedic ritual and its

performance. Thus their principal concern is with the nature and use of

the holy word, utterance, prayer, invocation, or divine power in the sacri-

fice, that is, brahman. The Sanskrit term brdhmana means "relating to

Brahman" or simply "brahmanic." Since the Veda contains both terms

brdhman "prayer" and brahmdn "pray-er," the Brahmanas can be consid-

ered as either referring to the knowledge of brdhman or as belonging to the

priesthood (brdhmana), though the former interpretation seems more

likely.

The Brahmanas are significant for several reasons. First of all, they

represent the oldest known specimens of Indo-European prose narrative,

though earlier prose formulae are found in some of the hymn collections.

Secondly, they constitute a fountainhead of information dealing with sac-

rifice, ritual, and priesthood. Thirdly, much of this ritualistic material is

inspirited and illustrated by numerous myths and legends of all types. Even though the personalities of the gods of the Rig Veda tend to lose

their virility and become submerged in a maze of ritual formulae, still

this mythological and legendary lore provides numerous themes for poets

and other writers of later times. Thus the Vedic tradition is kept very much alive even in the minds of that vast majority of Indians belonging to social classes considered beneath the priesthood.

The Brahmana texts deal mainly with the theory and practice of sac-

rifice. The institution of sacrifice, elaborated by the brahmanic priests, is

an amazingly intricate and complex affair. 1

There are three principal cate-

gories of sacrifice the cooked-food sacrifice, to be offered on the domestic

fire, the oblation sacrifice, and the ^om^-sacrifice, the last two to be offered

[19]

on the sacred srauta (Vedic) fires. It is chiefly with the last two cate-

gories that the Brahmana texts concern themselves. Broadly speaking, the

contents of a Brahmana text may be classified under two main heads the

precepts and the explanation. The precepts are detailed injunctions relat-

ing to the place and time, priests and sacred fires, deities and ritualistic

formula, oblations and sacrificial utensils, priests' fees and expiatory rites,

and several sacerdotal details in respect of a particular sacrifice. The ex-

planation, as it were, seeks to "rationalize" these injunctions the method

of such rationalization often being, paradoxical as it may seem, not logical but magical. One of the commonest ways of emphasizing the appropriate- ness of any particular ritualistic detail was by taking recourse to ety-

mology. For instance, water (apah) was used in connection with the

preparation of a fire-place because "by means of water (dpah), indeed, is

all this world obtained [apta from a differentv root, ap]; having thus ob-

tained all this, as it were, by means of water, he sets up the sacred fire."

Obviously most of such etymological exercises will not stand the test of

modern scientific philology. Another way of justifying and, to a certain

extent, glorifying a sacerdotal detail was by presenting it as a significant item in some myth, which latter often took the form of a contest for

superiority between the gods and the demons. Then, too, there was the

usual tendency to establish a kind of mystic bond between an item of the

sacrificial procedure and some aspect of cosmic phenomena.

The Collection of Materials for the Sacred Fires

All irauta (Vedic, as opposed to domestic) sacrifices presuppose the formal

setting up of the sacred fires, usually three in number. The following extract deals with the collection of the specific materials to be used in connection with

the preparation of a fire-place* An attempt is made to make the translation as literal as possible in order to bring out the peculiarities of the style developed in the Brahmanas.

[From Satapatha Brahmana, 2-1.1- 1-14]

Since, indeed, he collects (sam -f- bhr) them from this place and from

that that is why the materials used in connection with the preparation of the fire-place are called "collection" (sambhdra). In whatever place the

essence of Agni (Fire) is inherent, from that very place he collects the

materials. Collecting in this way, he thereby here makes him [Agni] thrive partly with glory, as it were, partly with cattle, as it were, partly

with a mate, as it were. 1 Then the officiating priest draws with the

wooden sword three lines on the spot selected for the fire-place. Whatever

part o this earth is trodden upon or is defiled by being spit upon, that

part of hers, indeed, he thereby symbolically digs up and removes away, and thus he sets up the sacred fires upon the earth which is now rendered

worthy of being sacrificed upon: that is, indeed, why he draws lines upon the spot selected for the fire-place. Then he sprinkles the lines with water.

This, indeed, constitutes the collecting of water [as a material for the

preparation of the fire-place], namely, that he sprinkles the lines with

water. That he collects water as a material in this connection is due to the

fact that water is food; for, water is, indeed, food: hence, when water comes to this world, there is produced plentiful food in this world. By

sprinkling water he makes him [Agni] thrive with plentiful food it- self. Moreover, water is, indeed, female and Agni is male. By sprinkling water he makes him thrive with a procreating mate. By means of water

(dpah), indeed, is all this world obtained \afta\\ having thus obtained

all this, as it were, by means of water, he sets up the sacred fire. That is

why he collects water. . . . [The officiating priest then collects a piece of gold, representing the divine semen virile; saline soil, representing cattle

and the flavors of heaven and earth; earth dug out by a wild rat, represent-

ing the flavor of this earth, affluence; and gravel, representing firmness of

the earth, as proved by an ad hoc mythological story. He thus makes fire thrive with the magic potency derived from these materials.] These five materials (sarnbhara), indeed, does he collect (sam + bhr)\

for, five-fold is the sacrifice, five-fold is the sacrificial victim, five are the

seasons of the year. As for the statement that there are five seasons in a

year, they say: "Six, surely, are the seasons in a year [according to the

Indian system]. There is thus a kind of deficiency in the foregoing pre-

scription." But, verily, this very deficiency (nyuna) is rendered a procre-

ative mate. For, it is from the nyuna [that is, the lower part of the body

a pun on the two meanings of the word nyuna] that progeny is procre- ated. Further, this fact, namely, that there are only five materials instead

of six actually ensures for the sacrificer some scope for progress toward

prosperity in future. That is why there are only five materials collected in

connection with the preparation of the fire-place, even though there are

z The essence of Agni which is scattered in various places is, as it were, collected together

and is again symbolically bestowed upon him so as to make him full and complete.

six seasons in a year. And i they still persist in arguing that there are,

surely, six seasons in a year, we may retort by saying that Agni himself is

the sixth among those materials and that, therefore, this whole procedure,

surely, becomes nondeficient,

The Fetching of Sacrificial Grass

The Srauta Sutras are the most exhaustive and comprehensive manuals of Vedic

sacrifice. They are the outcome of vigorous efforts made to systematize and con-

solidate the brahmanic ritual. It will be seen from the following passage how ritualist teachers added perhaps purposefully to the already existing com-

plexities of the sacrificial procedure by expressing a variety of opinions even

about a minor detail, such as the thickness of the bunch of sacrificial grass for

the new-moon and full-moon sacrifices.

The text of the Baudhayana Srauta Sutra and its supplements, Dvaidha and

Karmanta, has been here rearranged so as to make it yield a connected account

about this particular item in the sacrificial procedure. Baudhayana was the

preceptor of an eminent school of ritualists belonging to the Taittirlya branch

of the Blac\ Yajur Veda. Shaliki was another ritualist-preceptor, whose views

were presumably treated with great respect.

[From Baudhayana Srauta Sutra, 1.3; 20.2; 24.24-25]

With the formula, devanam parisutam asi l [the officiating priest] should

trace [by means of the sickle] a line round as small a cluster of darbha-

grass as he considers to be sufficient for being used as strewing grass. As

for the tracing round: Baudhayana, indeed, says that [the officiating

priest] should recite the formula three times and repeat the action of trac-

ing a line round the darbha cluster also three times. He should act simi-

larly at the time of tracing a hole for the sacrificial post, similarly at the

time of tracing the foot-print [of the cow] with which soma is to be pur-

chased, similarly at the digging of the hole for the branch of the udum*

bora tree, and similarly at the preparation of the [four] resonant pits. Shaliki on the other hand says that he should recite the formula only once,

but should repeat the action of tracing round a line three times.

Then he should brush [the blades in the darbha cluster from the bot-

tom] to the top [by means of the sickle] with the formula, vctr$avrddham

asi, He should seize it by means of the sickle with the formula, dcvabar- hir ma* . * . He should cut off [as mucji grass as can be cut off in one

*In most cases, the Sutra texts give only the initial words of a formula to indicate the

whole formula.

stroke with the formula] dcchettd te ma risam. He should touch the

stumps of grass remaining after the cutting with the formula, devabarhih

satavalsam vi roha. As for cutting off of the grass: The view expressed above is that of Baudhayana. Shaliki on the other hand says that this

formula should, indeed, be regarded as bestowing an indirect blessing, There should, therefore, be only indirect touching [of the stumps] by means of the formula. With the formula, sahasravaUd vi vayam ruhema, he should touch himself [that is, he should touch his own heart]. He should cut off the darbha cluster entirely. Having tied up the darbha

blades into a bunch to serve as strewing grass, he should place it aside

with the formula, prthivydh samprcah pdhi* For being used as strewing grass there should be tied up a bunch of

darbha blades having a circumference equal to the one produced by join-

ing the tips of nails [of the thumb and forefinger] such is the view of

some teachers. A bunch should be tied up of as many darbha blades as could be cut off in one stroke such is the view of some teachers. ... It

should be tied up so as to be as thick as the handle of the sacrificial

spoon such is the view of some teachers. It should be tied up so as to

be as thick as the thigh-bonesuch is the view of some teachers. It should

be tied up so as to be as thick as the thumb-joint such is the view of some

teachers. It should be tied up without being measuredsuch is the view of

some teachers.

CHAPTER III

THE ULTIMATE REALITY IN THE UPAN1SHADS

Toward the end o the Brahmana period, that is, c.6oo B.C., another class

of religious texts appeared called Aranyafas ("forest books"). The exact

implication of this term is uncertain, but it seems probable that these

works were recited by hermits living in the forests. The retirement to the

forest prior to attaining religious salvation is usually considered the third

prescribed stage (ashrama) in the life of the orthodox Hindu even as

studentship (brahmacharya) represented the first. The Aranyakas contain

transitional material between the mythology and ritual of the Samhitas

and Brahmanas on the one hand and the philosophical speculations of

the Upanishads on the other. The ritual is given a symbolic meaning, and

knowledge of this becomes more important than the actual performance of the ritual itself. This principle then becomes the starting point of

Upanishadic speculation.

Like the Brahrnanas, each Upanishad is attached to one of the four

Vedic Samhitas. The Upanishads represent both the final stage in the

development of Vedic religious thought and the last phase of Brahman-

ism. They are thus the end of the Veda (vedanta). Later philosophical schools of classical Hinduism which base their tenets on the authority of

the Upanishads are therefore called Vedanta.

The Upanishads cannot be regarded as presenting a consistent, homo-

geneous, or unified philosophical system, though there are certain doc-

trines held in common. Divergences of method, opinion, and conclusion

are everywhere apparent even within a single Upanishad* It is for this

reason that the Upanishads are considered speculative treatises. Another

significant feature of the Upanishads, particularly the older ones, is that

practically every basic idea expounded has its antecedent in earlier Vedic

texts. What distinguishes the Upanishads is not so much their originality as their probing for new interpretations of the earlier Vedic concepts

to obtain a more coherent view of the universe and man. Here the link between man and the cosmos is, as we have said, no longer the ritual act, but a knowledge o the forces symbolically represented in the ritual. These

allegorical and symbolic interpretations are characteristic of the Upani- shads. They are developed by Upanishadic thinkers in two ways: i) by setting up various levels of comprehension suited to different individual

intellectual capacities, and 2) by identifying partially or by, degrees two

seemingly dissimilar elements and arriving at a type of equation which,

though at first sight irrational, will on further analysis or introspection reveal a unity. This pursuit of a unifying principle suggests that the dual-

ity apparent in the world is to some extent or in some sense unreal. The macrocosm is viewed universally as an extension of Vedic mythological and ritualistic concepts, specifically brahman. As a parallel to this, the

microcosmic nature of the human self or soul (atman) is explained. From this results the most significant equation of the Upanishads: brah- man = dtman. It is the transcendent knowledge of this essential identity that is the chief concern of Upanishadic sages.

The Sacrificial Horse

The most elaborate and stupendous sacrifice described in the Brahmanas is the horse-sacrifice (asvamedha)* It is an ancient rite which a king might under-

take to increase his realm. In the following selection from perhaps the oldest

of the Upanishads, the Brhad Aranyaty (Great Forest Text), the horse-

sacrifice is given cosmological significance by equating various parts of the

sacrificial horse with corresponding elements of the cosmos. To Upanishadic thinkers the real meaning of the horse-sacrifice was gained through a realiza-

tion of the identity of the parts of this sacrifice and the universe. This type of

mystical or transcendent knowledge is based on equations stressed by the word

"verily" (vat) and is characteristic of the early Upanishads in particular. It

should be noted that dawn, the sun, the wind, etc., besides being elements of

the cosmos, were also deified naturalistic forces in Vedic mythology and still

retain their identity as such in the following passage.

[From Brhad A,ranya\a Upanisad, i.i.i]

Dawn verily is the head of the sacrificial horse. The sun is his eye; the

wind, his breath; the universal sacrificial fire (agni-vaifadnara), his

open mouth; the year is the body (atman) of the sacrificial horse. The sky is his back; the atmosphere, his belly; the earth, his underbelly [?]; the

directions, his flanks; the intermediate directions, his ribs; the seasons,

his limbs; the months and half-months, his joints; days and nights, his

feet; the stars, his bones; the clouds, his flesh. Sand is the food in his

stomach; rivers, his entrails; mountains, his liver and lungs; plants and

trees, his hair; the rising sun, his forepart; the setting sun, his hindpart.

When he yawns, then it lightnings; when he shakes himself, then it thun-

ders; when he urinates, then it rains. Speech (vac) is actually his neigh-

ing (vac).

Sacrifices Unsteady Boats on the Ocean of Life

Some later Upanishads represent a reaction to the glorification of the sacrifice

in which the brahmanic ritualists indulged. The teacher of the Munda^a Upanisad quoted below seems to concede a place for sacrifice in man's life

by way of religious discipline; but he concludes that sacrifice is ineffectual as a means to the knowledge of the highest reality and to spiritual emancipation, On the other hand, as is suggested by the passage cited above, some earlier

Upanishadic teachers substituted a kind of "spiritual" or "inner" sacrifice for

the "material" or "external" sacrifice.

[From Mundafy Upanisad, 1.2. I, 2, 7-13]

This is that truth. The sacrificial rites which the sages saw in the hymns are manifoldly spread forth in the three [Vedasj. Do you perform them

constantly, O lovers of truth. This is your path to the world of good deeds. When the flame flickers after the oblation fire has been kindled, then,

between the offerings of the two portions of clarified butter one should

proffer his principal oblations an offering made with faith. . . .

Unsteady, indeed, are these boats in the form of sacrifices, eighteen in

number, in which is prescribed only the inferior work. The fools who

delight in this sacrificial ritual as the highest spiritual good go again and

again through the cycle of old age and death. 1

Abiding in the midst of ignorance, wise only according to their own

estimate, thinking themselves to be learned, but really hard-struck, these

fools go round in a circle like blind men led by one who is himself blind.

Abiding manifoldly in ignorance they, all the same, like immature

children think to themselves: "We have -accomplished our aim.'* Since

*That is, they are reborn again and again b the phenomenal world. The doctrine of transmigration or reincarnation was probably unknown to the brihman ritualists, but in the

Upanishads man's salvation from this cycle of rebirths became a matter of great concern*

It is suggested that the Vcdic sacrifices could bring only a temporary respite in the abode of

a god, not permanent release from the cycle.

the performers of sacrificial ritual do not realize the truth because of pas- sion, therefore, they, the wretched ones, sink down from heaven when the merit which qualified them for the higher world becomes exhausted.

Regarding sacrifice and merit as most important, the deluded ones do

not know of any other higher spiritual good. Having enjoyed themselves

only for a time on top of the heaven won by good deeds [sacrifice, etc.] they re-enter this world or a still lower one.

Those who practice penance (tapas) and faith in the forest, the tranquil ones, the knowers of truth, living the life of wandering mendicancy

they depart, freed from passion, through the door of the sun, to where

dwells, verily, that immortal Purusha, the imperishable Soul (atman).

Having scrutinized the worlds won by sacrificial rites, a Brahman should arrive at nothing but disgust. The world that was not made is not

won by what is done [i.e., by sacrifice]. For the sake of that knowledge he should go with sacrificial fuel in hand as a student, in all humility to

a preceptor (guru) who is well-versed in the [Vedic] scriptures and also

firm in the realization of Brahman.

Unto him who has approached him in proper form, whose mind is

tranquil, who has attained peace, does the knowing teacher teach, in its

very truth, that knowledge about Brahman by means of which one knows

the imperishable Purusha, the only Reality.

The Five Sheaths

In this passage an attempt is made to analyze man on five levels proceeding from the grosser forms to the subtler, and therefore more real, forms. The

"real" man transcends the physical, vital, mental, and intellectual aspects and has to be identified with the innermost, beatific aspect. It is, in the end, sug-

gested that the real self of man is identical with Brahman, the ultimate prin-

ciple, the absolute, which is his raison d'&re.

[From Taittiriya Upamsad, 2.1-6 passim}

From this Self (atman), verily, space arose; from space, wind; from

wind, fire; from fire, water; from water, the earth; from the earth, herbs;

from herbs, food; from food, man (purusha). This man here, verily, con-

sists of the essence of food. Of him possessing the physical body made

up of food, this, indeed, is the head; this, the right side; this, the left side;

this, the body (atman) ; this, the lower part, the foundation. . . . From

food, verily, are produced whatsoever creatures dwell on the earth. More-

over, by food alone do they live. And then also into it do they pass at the end. . . . Verily, different from and within this body which consists of

the essence of food is the body which consists of breath. The former body is filled with the latter. The latter body also is of the shape of man. Ac-

cording to the former one's being of the shape of man this latter body is of the shape of man. Of him possessing the body consisting of breath, the out-breath is head; the diffused breath, the right side; the in-breath,

the left side; space, the body; the earth, the lower part, the foundation.

. . . Verily, different from and within this body which consists of vital

breaths is the body which consists of mind. The former body is filled

with the latter. The latter body is also of the shape of man. . , . Verily, different from and within this body which consists of mind is the body which consists of intellectuality [or consciousness]. The former body is

filled with the latter. That one also is of the shape of man. . * . Verily, different from and within this body which" consists of intellectuality [or

consciousness] is the body which consists of bliss. 1 The former body is

filled with the latter. The latter body also is of the shape of man. . , .

As to that, there is also this verse: "Nonexistent (asat), verily, docs one

become if he knows (believes) that Brahman is nonexistent. 2

If one

knows that Brahman exists, such a one people thereby know as existent."

The Real Self

In this famous parable, the real, essential Self is successively identified with

the bodily self, the dream self, and the self in deep sleep, and it is suggested that all these three teachings are quite inadequate, for in none of the three

conditions, namely, of wakefulness, of dream, and of deep sleep, can the nature

of Self be said to conform to the description given in the very first sentence

of this passage. The real Self is neither body nor mind nor a complete negation of consciousness. The Self is certainly conscious, but of nothing else but itself. It is pure self-consciousness as such and it is in this condition that it is identical

with the highest reality.

[From Chandogya Vpanisad, 8.7-12 passim}

"The Self (atman) who is free from evil, free from old age, free from

death, free from grief, free from hunger, free from thirst, whose desire

*Each succeeding body is within the preceding one and is, therefore, subtler and more

real than it. The body of bliss is the most internal body. Bliss, accordingly, is the true nature of man*

* Man has, indeed, no existence as apart from Brahman. For a man to say that Brahman is a contradiction in terms.

is the Keal \$atya, or truth], whose intention is the Real he should be

sought after, he should be desired to be comprehended. He obtains all worlds and all desires, who, having found out that Self, knows him."

Thus, indeed, did the god Prajapati speak. Verily, the gods and the demons

both heard this. They said among themselves: "Aha! Let us seek after that Self the Self, having sought after whom one obtains all worlds and all desires." Then Indra from among the gods went forth unto

Prajapati, and Virochana from among the demons. Indeed, without com-

municating with each other, those two came into the presence of Prajapati with sacrificial fuel in hand

[i.e., as students willing to serve their pre-

ceptor]. For thirty-two years the two lived under Prajapati the disciplined life of a student of sacred knowledge (brahmacharya). Then Prajapati asked them: "Desiring what have you lived the disciplined life of a stu-

dent of sacred knowledge under me?" They said: "'The Self, who is free from evil, free from old age, free from death, free from grief, free

from hunger, free from durst, whose desire is the Real, whose intention

is the Real he should be sought after, he should be desired to be com-

prehended. He obtains all worlds and all desires, who, having found out that Self, knows him.' These, people declare to be the venerable

master's words. Desiring him [the Self] have we lived the student's life

under you." Prajapati said to them: "That Purusha who is seen in the

eye he is the Self (atman)," said he. "That is the immortal, the fearless;

that is Brahman." "But this one, Sir, who is perceived in water and in a

mirror who is he?" Prajapati replied: "The same one, indeed, is per- ceived in all these." "Having looked at yourself in a pan of water, what-

ever you do not comprehend of the Self, tell that to me," said Prajapati.

They looked at themselves in the pan of water. Prajapati asked them:

"What do you see?" They replied: "We see here, Sir, our own selves

in entirety, the very reproduction of our forms, as it were, correct to the

hairs and the nails." Then Prajapati said to them: "Having become well

ornamented, well dressed, and refined, look at yourselves in a pan of

water." Having become well ornamented, well dressed, and refined, they

looked at themselves in a pan of water. Thereupon Prajapati asked them:

"What do you see?" They replied: "Just as we ourselves here are, Sir, well

ornamented, well dressed, and refined, . . .* "That is the Self," said he.

"That is the immortal, the fearless; that is Brahman." Then they went away

with a tranquil heart. Having looked at them, Prajapati said to himself;

"They are going away without having realized, without having found

out the Self. Whosoever will accept this doctrine as final, be they gods or

demons, they shall perish." Then Virochana, verily, with a tranquil heart, went to the demons and declared to them that doctrine, namely: One's

self [one's bodily self] 1 alone is to be made happy here; one's self is to be

served. Making oneself alone happy here, serving oneself, does one ob-

tain both worlds, this world and the yonder. Therefore, here, even now,

they say of one who is not a giver, who has no faith, who does not offer

sacrifices, that he is, indeed, a demon; for this is the doctrine of the

demons. They adorn the body of the deceased with perfumes, flowers,

etc., which they have begged, with dress and with ornaments, for they think they will thereby win the yonder world.

But then Indra, even before reaching the gods, saw this danger: "Just

as, indeed, the bodily self becomes well ornamented when this body is

well ornamented, well dressed when this body is well dressed, and re-

fined when this body is refined, even so that one becomes blind when this

body is blind, lame when this body is lame, and maimed when this body is maimed. The bodily Self, verily, perishes immediately after the perish-

ing of this body. I see no good in this." With sacrificial fuel in hand, he

again came back to Prajapati. [Indra states his objection to Prajapati, who

admits its truth and asks him to live as a student under him for another

thirty-two years.] Indra lived a student's life under Prajapati for another

thirty-two years. Then, Prajapati said to him: "He who moves about happy in a dream he is the Self," said he. "That is the immortal, the fearless; that is Brahman." Thereupon, with a tranquil heart, Indra went away. But then, even before reaching the gods, he saw this danger: "Now,

even though this body is blind, the Self in the dream-condition does not

become blind; even though this body is lame, he does not become lame;

indeed, he does not suffer any defect through the defect of this body. He is not slain with the slaying of this body. He does not become lame with the lameness of this body. Nevertheless, they, as it were, kill him; they, as it were, unclothe him. He, as it were, becomes the experiencer of what

is not agreeable; he, as it were, even weeps. I see no good in this." [Again Indra returns to Prajapati with his objection. The latter admits its truth but asks Indra to be his student for another thirty-two years.] Then

Prajapati said to him: "Now, when one is sound* asleep, composed, serene, * Atman can refer to one's bodily self as well as the Supreme Self.

[30]

and knows no dream that is the Self,*' said he. "That is the immortal, the fearless; that is Brahman." Thereupon, with a tranquil heart, Indra

went away. But then, even before reaching the gods, he saw this danger: "As-

suredly, this Self in the deep sleep condition does not, indeed, now know himself in the form: 'I am he'; nor indeed does he know these things here. He, as it were, becomes one who has gone to annihilation. I see no

good in this." [Indra once more returns to Prajapati, who promises to tell

him the final truth after another five years of studentship.] Indra lived

a student's life under Prajapati for another five years. The total number

of these years thus came to one hundred and one; thus it is that people

say that, verily, for one hundred and one years Maghavan [Indra, the

Rewarder] lived under Prajapati the disciplined life of a student of

sacred knowledge. Then Prajapati said to him: "O Maghavan, mortal,

indeed, is this body; it is taken over by death. But it is the basis of that

deathless, bodiless Self. Verily, the Self, when embodied, is taken over

by pleasure and pain. Verily, there is no freedom from pleasure and

pain for one who is associated with the body. The wind is bodiless; cloud,

lightning, thunder these are bodiless. Now as these, having risen up from yonder space and having reached the highest light, appear each with

its own form, even so this serene Self, having risen up from this body and

having reached the highest light, appears with its own form. That Self

is the Supreme Person (uttama purusa).

The Essential Reality Underlying the World

Looking "outwards," the Upanishadic thinker comes to the realization that

this world 'is merely a bundle of fleeting names and forms, that there is only one permanent reality underlying this manifold phenomenal world, and that, in the ultimate analysis, that reality (elsewhere called Brahman, but here sat,

i.e., being, essence) is identical with the essential reality in human personality, namely, the Self (atman).

[From Chandogya Upamsad, 6.1-3, 12~J4

There, verily, was Shvetaketu, the son of Uddalaka Aruni. To him his father said: "O Shvetaketu, live the disciplined life of a student of sacred

knowledge (brahmacharya) . No one, indeed, my dear, belonging to our

family, is unlearned in the Veda and remains a brahman only by family

[3']

connections as it were." He, then, having approached a teacher at the age

o twelve and having studied all the Vedas, returned at the age of twenty-

four, conceited, thinking himself to be learned, stiff. To him his father

said: "O Shvetaketu, since, my dear, you are now conceited, think your- self to be learned, and have become stiff, did you also ask for that instruc-

tion whereby what has been unheard becomes heard, what has been un-

thought of becomes thought of, what has been uncomprehended becomes

comprehended?" "How, indeed, Sir, is that instruction?" asked Shveta-

ketu. "Just as, my dear, through the comprehension of one lump of clay all that is made of clay would become comprehended for the modifica-

tion is occasioned only on account of a convention of speech, 2

it is only

a name; while clay as such alone is the reality. Just as, my dear, through the comprehension of one ingot of iron all that is made of iron would

become comprehended for the modification is occasioned only on ac-

count of a convention of speech, it is only a name; while iron as such

alone is the reality. ... So, my dear, is that instruction." "Now, verily, those venerable teachers did not know this; for, if they had known it,

why would they not have told me?" said Shvetaketu. "However, may the venerable sir tell it to me." "So be it, my dear,*' said he.

"In the beginning, my dear, this world was just being (sat), one only, without a second. Some people, no doubt, say: In the beginning, verily, this world was just nonbeing (asat), one only, without a second; from

that nonbeing, being was produced.' 3 But how, indeed, my dear, could

it be so?" said he. "How could being be produced from nonbeing? On the contrary, my dear, in the beginning this world was being alone,

4

one only, without a second. Being thought to itself: 'May I be many;

may I procreate.' It produced fire. That fire thought to itself: 'May I be

many, may I procreate.' It produced water. Therefore, whenever a per- son grieves or perspires, then it is from fire [heat] alone that water is

produced. That water thought to itself: 'May I be many; may I pro- create.' It produced food. Therefore, whenever it rains, then there is

abundant food; it is from water alone that food for eating is produced.

8 The various objects made of clay, such as plate and pitcher, are essentially nothing but clay. But for the sake of convenience different names are, by convention, assigned to the different shapes or modifications which that clay is made to assume. Within the world of the objects made of clay, clay alone is essential, while the different names and forms of those objects are only incidental. This is the doctrine of extreme nominalism.

*As in Rtg Veda, 10.72. 4 Compare Rig Veda, 10.129, above.

[32]

. , . That divinity 5

(Being) thought to itself: 'Well, having entered

into these three divinities [fire, water, and food] by means of this living

Self, let me develop names and forms. 6 Let me make each one of them

tripartite.' That divinity, accordingly, having entered into those three

divinities by means of this living Self, developed names and forms. , . .

It made each one of them tripartite. . . ."

"Bring hither a fig from there." "Here it is, sir." "Break it." "It is

broken, sir." "What do you see there?" "These extremely fine seeds, sir."

"Of these, please break one." "It is broken, sir." "What do you see there?"

"Nothing at all, sir." Then he said to Shvetaketu: "Verily, my dear, that subtle essence which you do not perceive from that very essence, in-

deed, my dear, does this great fig tree thus arise. Believe me, my dear, that which is the subtle essence this whole world has that essence for its

Self; that is the Real [satya, truth]; that is the Self; that [subtle essence] art thou, Shvetaketu."

7 "Still further may the venerable sir instruct me."

"So be it, my dear," said he.

"Having put this salt in the water, come to me in the morning." He did so. Then the father said to him: "That salt which you put in the water

last evening please bring it hither." Even having looked for it, he did

not find it, for it was completely dissolved. "Please take a sip of water

from this end," said the father. "How is it?" "Salt." "Take a sip from the

middle," said he. "How is it?" "Salt." "Take a sip from that end," said he. "How is it?" "Salt." "Throw it away and come to me." Shvetaketu did so thinking to himself: "That salt, though unperceived, still persists in the water." Then Aruni said to him: "Verily, my dear, you do not

perceive Being in this world; but it is, indeed, here only: That which is

the subtle essence this whole -world has that essence for its Self. That is

6 Being, which has been referred to in an impersonal manner so far, is now spoken of as a

personalized divinity with a view to indicating that pure, essential "Being/* as such, is in

no way connected with the process of creation this latter being only the result of

nominalism. 8 Being penetrates into fire, water, and food as their life-force and thereby invests them

with the capacity further to function in the process of creation, thus helping the evolution

of the phenomenal world which is in reality but a bundle of names and forms. 7 In this statement, which is repeated a number of times in this chapter of the Chdndogya

Upanifad, the following important points have been made: sat or Being, which is the cause

of this gross world, is itself subtle and imperceptible. It is Being which constitutes the true

Self (atman) or life-force of this world. In other words, without Being the world cannot

exist. The only absolute reality, therefore, is Being This Being is identical with the Self

(atman), which is the essential reality in human personality. There is, thus, one single essential reality underlying man and the world.

[333

the Real. That is the Self. That art thou, Shvetaketu." "Still further

may the venerable sir instruct me/' "So be it, my dear," said he.

"Just as, my dear, having led away a person from Gandhara 8 with his

eyes bandaged, one might then abandon him in a place where there are no

human beings; and as that person would there drift about toward the east or the north or the south : *I have been led away here with my eyes band- aged, I have been abandoned here with my eyes bandaged'; then as, having released his bandage, one might tell him:

c

ln that direction lies Gandhara;

go in that direction.' Thereupon he, becoming wise and sensible, would, by

asking his way from village to village, certainly reach Gandhara. Even so

does one who has a teacher here know: 'I shall remain here [in this phe- nomenal world] only as long as I shall not be released from the bonds of

nescience. Then I shall reach my home.* "

8 The western limit of Indian civilization.

[34]

THE BACKGROUND OF fAINISM AND BUDDHISM

Between the seventh and the fifth centuries B.C. the intellectual life of

India was in ferment. It has been pointed out many times that this period was a turning point in the intellectual and spiritual development of the

whole world, for it saw the earlier philosophers of Greece, the great He-

brew prophets, Confucius in China, and probably Zarathustra in Persia.

In India this crucial period in the world's history was marked on the one hand by the teaching of the Upanishadic sages, who admitted the in-

spiration of the Vedas and the relative value of Vedic sacrifices, and on

the other hand by the appearance of teachers who were less orthodox than they, and who rejected the Vedas entirely. It was at this time that

Jainism and Buddhism arose, the most successful of a large number of heterodox systems, each based on a distinctive set of doctrines and each

laying down distinctive rules of conduct for winning salvation. The social background of this great development of heterodoxy can-

not be traced as clearly as we would wish from the traditions of Jainism and Buddhism, which have to some extent been worked over by editors

of later centuries. But it would appear that heterodoxy flourished most

strongly in what is now the state of Bihar and the eastern part of Uttar Pradesh. Here the arrival of Aryan civilization and brahmanical religion seems to have been comparatively recent at the time. The people were

probably little affected by the Aryan class system, and the influence of the

brahman was by no means complete. Quite as much attention was de- voted to local chthonic gods such as yakshas and nagas, worshiped at

sacred mounds and groves (chaityas), as to the deities of the Aryan

pantheon. Cities had arisen, where a class of well-to-do merchants lived

in comparative opulence, while the free peasants who made up the major- ity of the population enjoyed, as far as can be gathered, a somewhat higher

[35]

standard of living than they do today, when pressure of population and

exhaustion of the soil have so gravely impoverished them.

The old tribal structure was disintegrating, and a number of small re-

gional kingdoms had appeared, together with political units' of a some-

what different type, which preserved more of the tribal structure, and are

generally referred to as "republics" for want of a better word. Most of

these republics were of little importance politically, and were dependent

on the largest of the kingdoms, Kosala, which controlled most of the

eastern part of modern Uttar Pradesh; one such was that of the Shakyas,

in the Himalayan foothills, which might well have been forgotten en-

tirely were it not for the fact that the founder of Buddhism was the son

of one of its chiefs. The most important of these republics was that

generally referred to as the Vajjian Confederacy, of which the largest

element was the tribe of the Licchavis; this controlled much of Bihar

north of the Ganges, and was apparently governed by a chief who de-

rived his power from a large assembly of tribesmen, and ruled with the

aid of a smaller council of lesser chiefs. Much of Bihar south of the

Ganges formed the kingdom of Magadha. King Bimbisara, who ruled

Magadha during most of the time in which the Buddha taught, seems to

have had more initiative in political organization than his rivals, and

managed his little state with more efficiency and closer centralized con-

trol than any other chief or king of his time. His son, Ajatasattu, who

began to reign some seven years before the Buddha's death, embarked

upon a policy of expansion. Magadha soon absorbed the Vajjis and

Kosala, and her growth continued until, about two hundred years later,

the great emperor Ashoka annexed Kalinga, and Pataliputra (modern

Patna) became the capital of the whole Indian subcontinent except the

southern tip.

The development of organized states and the advance of material cul-

ture were accompanied by the rapid spread of new religious ideas which

were soon to become fundamental to all Indian thought. It is remarkable

that in the Vedas and the earlier Brahmana literature the doctrine of

transmigration 1

is nowhere clearly mentioned, and there is no good reason to believe that the Aryans of Vedic times accepted it. It first ap-

*We use this term, which is the most usual one, with reference to the general Indian doctrine of reincarnation and rebirth; but it must be remembered that it is misleading when

applied to Buddhism, which maintains that no entity of any kind migrates from one body to another-

[36]

*0J*

GANDHAftA

JHbfa

(rt.&*J ' r*

(ecu

\

o

100 200 300 400 609

-^IMHALA

pears, in a rather primitive form, in the early Upanishads as a rare and

new doctrine, to be imparted as a great mystery Toy master-hermits to their

more promising pupils. In the next stratum o India's religious literature,

the Jain and Buddhist scriptures, the doctrine of transmigration is taken

for granted, and has evidently become almost universal. With this belief in

transmigration came a passionate desire for escape, for union with some-

thing which lay beyond the dreary cycle of birth and death and rebirth,

for timeless being, in place of transitory and therefore unsatisfactory ex-

istence. The rapid spread of belief in transmigration throughout the

whole of northern India is hard to account for; it may be that the hum-

bler strata of society had believed in some form of transmigration from

time immemorial, but only now did it begin to affect the upper classes.

It is equally difficult to explain the growth of a sense of dissatisfaction

with the world and of a desire to escape from it. Several reasons have

been suggested to account for this great wave of pessimism, occurring as

it did in an expanding society, and in a culture which was rapidly de-

veloping both intellectually and materially. It has been suggested that

the change in outlook was due to the break-up of old tribes and their

replacement by kingdoms wherein ethnic ties and the sense of security

which they gave were lost or weakened, thus leading to a deep-seated

psychological unease affecting all sections of the people. Another sug-

gested cause of the change in outlook is the revolt of the most intelligent

people of the times against the sterile sacrificial cults of the brahmans.

No explanation is wholly satisfactory, and we must admit our virtual

ignorance of the factors which led to this great change in the direction

of religious thought which was to have such an effect on the life of India

and the world*

Both the sages of the Upanishads and the heresiarchs of the unorthodox

schools taught the way of knowledge, as opposed to the way of works.

Their primary aim was to achieve salvation from the round of birth and

death, and to lead others to achieve it. Most of them maintained that

salvation could only be obtained after a long course of physical and men-

tal discipline, often culminating in extreme asceticism, but this was

chiefly of value as leading to the full realization of the fundamental

truths of the universe, after which the seeker for salvation was emanci-

pated from the cycle of transmigration and reached a state of timeless

bliss in which his limited phenomenal personality disintegrated or was

[38]

absorbed in pure being. The basic truths of the various schools differed

widely.

In many passages of the Buddhist scriptures we read of six unorthodox teachers (often rather inaccurately referred to as "heretics"), each of

whom was the leader of an important body of ascetics and lay followers. In one passage (Digha Nif^aya 147 ff.) short paragraphs are quoted which

purport to give the basic tenets of their systems. A glance at these will give some impression of the bewildering variety of doctrines which were

canvassed by the ascetic groups of the time.

The first of the teachers mentioned, Purana Kassapa, was an anti-

nomian, who believed that virtuous conduct had no effect on a man's karma:

He who performs an act or causes an act to be performed, ... he who de- stroys life, the thief, the housebreaker, the plunderer, ... the adulterer and the liar . . . commit no sin. Even if with a razor-sharp discus a man were to reduce all the life on earth to a single heap of flesh he would commit no

sin, neither would sin approach him. . . . From liberality, self-control, ab-

stinence, and honesty is derived neither merit nor the approach of merit.

The second "heretic/* Makkhali Gosala, was the leader of the sect of

Ajivikas, which survived for some two thousand years after the death of

its founder. He agreed with Purana that good deeds did not affect trans- migration, which proceeded according to a rigid pattern, controlled by an all powerful cosmic principle which he called Ntyati, Fate.

There is no deed performed either by oneself or by others [which can affect

one's future births], no human action, no strength, no courage, no human en- durance or human prowess [which can affect one's destiny in this life]. All

beings, all that have breath, all that are born, all that have life, are without

power, strength, or virtue, but are developed by destiny, chance, and na-

ture. . . . There is no question of bringing unripe karma 2 to fruition, nor of

exhausting karma already ripened, by virtuous conduct, by vows, by penance, or by chastity. That cannot be done. Samsara

s is measured as with a bushel,

Mt is perhaps unnecessary to mention that karma is the effect of any action upon the

agent, whether in this life or in a future one. Most Indian sects believed that karma operated as a sort of automatic moral sanction, ensuring that the evil-doer suffered and the righteous

prospered; but Purana, Makkhali, and Pakudha appear to have disagreed with this view, while Ajita the materialist evidently denied the existence of karma altogether. The Jains, as we shall sec, still look on karma as a sort of substance adhering to the soul, and it would

appear that the "heretics' 1

did likewise, although later Hinduism and Buddhism take a less

materialistic view of it

*The cycle of transmigration, the round of birth, death, and rebirth.

[39]

with its joy and sorrow and its appointed end. It can neither be lessened nor

increased, nor is there any excess or deficiency of it. Just as a ball of thread

will, when thrown, unwind to its full length, so fool and wise alike will take their course, and make an end of sorrow.

The third heterodox teacher, Ajita Kesakambala, was a materialist.

The passage in which his views are given is one of the earliest expressions of complete unbelief in immaterial categories in the history of the world's

thought:

There is no [merit in] almsgiving, sacrifice, or offering, no result or ripening of good or evil deeds. There is no passing from this world to the next. . . .

There is no after-life. . . . Man is formed of the four elements; when he dies earth returns to the aggregate of earth, water to water, fire to fire, and air to

air, while the senses vanish into space. Four men with the bier take up the

corpse; they gossip [about the dead man] as far as the burning ground, where his bones turn the color of a dove's wing, and his sacrifices end in ashes. They are fools who preach almsgiving, and those who maintain the existence of im- material categories speak vain and lying nonsense. When the body dies both fool and wise alike are cut off and perish. They do not survive after death.

Pakudha Kacchayana, the fourth of the six, was an atomist, a predeces- sor of the Hindu Vaisheshika school, putting forward his theories prob-

ably a century or more before Democritus in Greece developed a similar

doctrine of eternal atoms:

The seven elementary categories are neither made nor ordered, neither caused nor constructed; they are barren, as firm as mountains, as stable as pillars. They neither move nor develop; they do not injure one another, and one has no effect on the joy or the sorrow ... of another. What are the seven? The bodies of earth, water, fire, air, joy and sorrow, with life as the seventh. . . .

No man slays or causes to slay, hears or causes to hear, knows or causes to know. Even if a man cleave another's head with a sharp sword, he does not take life, for the sword-cut passes between the seven elements.

4

The fifth teacher, Nigantha Nataputta, 5 was no other than Vardhamlna

Mahavlra, the leader of the sect of Jains, which survives to this day, and

the teachings of which will be considered presently. The sixth and last,, Sanjaya Belatthiputta, was, as far as can be gathered from the passage at-, tributed to him, a sceptic, who denied the possibility of certain knowledge altogether:

* These doctrines were apparently taken up by the Ajivikas, who in later times maintained

a theory of seven elements, which was evidently derived from that of Pakudha. 5 Pah, Nigantha Nataputta; Skt. Ntrgrantha Jndtrputra.

[40]

If you asked me "Is there another world?", and if I believed that there was, I should tell you so. But that is not what I say. I do not say that it is so; I

do not say that it is otherwise; I do not say that it is not so; nor do I say that it is not not so.

It must be emphasized that the salvation promised by these teachers,

and by others like them, was not dependent on the mere acceptance of

the doctrine on the word of the teacher, or on belief in it on a cool logical basis. To achieve release from transmigration it was necessary that the fundamental doctrine should be realized in the inmost being of the indi-

vidual, and such a realization could only be achieved by the mystical and

ascetic practices generally known in the West as yoga. Each group, even

that of the materialists who followed Ajita, had its special system of medi-

tation and mental or spiritual exercises, each its organized body of fol-

lowers, usually ascetics, pledged to strive together for emancipation. Lay

devotees and patrons were generally thought to be on the lowest rungs of the spiritual ladder, and there was little or no chance of full salvation

outside the disciplined order.

[41]

CHAPTER IV

THE BASIC DOCTRINES OF JAINISM

Originating at the same time and in the same region of India as Bud-

dhism, Jainism has experienced its moments of triumph, periods when

mighty kings supported it and the finest craftsmen in India worked on

the embellishment of its temples. But it has never spread, like Buddhism,

beyond the land of its origin to become one of the world's great religions;

on the other hand it has not disappeared from India as Buddhism has, but

has survived to the present day, a small but significant element in the re-

ligious life of the subcontinent.

THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF JAINISM

The figure to whom Jains look back as their great teacher, Vardhamana Mahavira ("The Great Hero"), was a contemporary of the Buddha, often

mentioned in the Buddhist scriptures under the name Nigantha Nata-

putta, "the naked ascetic of the clan of the Jnatrikas." Mahavira is be-

lieved by the Jams to have been the twenty-fourth and last Tirthankara

("Fordmaker") of the present period of cosmic decline. Parshva, the

twenty-third Tirthankara, is said to have lived only two hundred and

fifty years before Mahavira, and it would seem that in fact the latter

teacher based his new community on existing groups of ascetics, some of

whom looked back to the earlier preacher Parshva. The legends told by the Jains about Mahavira are in many ways less attractive than those told

by Buddhists about Buddha, and most of them are equally doubtful from

the point of view of the historian, but the main outline of his life-story is probably true. Mahavira is said to have been the son of Siddhartha, a

chief of the warrior clan of the Jnatrikas, and his wife Trishala, sister of

Chetaka, chief of the larger kindred tribe of the Licchavis; both tribes

dwelled around the important city of Vaishali, in what is now North Bihar. Thus, like the Buddha, Mahavira was a scion of the tribal "re-

publican" peoples of India. He is said to have left his home at the age of

thirty in order to seek salvation and to have wandered for twelve years far and wide in the Ganges valley, until, at the age of forty-two, he

found full enlightenment, and became a "completed soul" (kevalin) and

a "conqueror" (jina). From a derivative form of the second tide the

Jains take their name. Mahavira taught his doctrines for some thirty

years, founding a disciplined order of naked monks and gaining the

support of many layfolk. He died at the age of seventy-two at Pava, a village not far from Patna, which is still visited by thousands of Jains

annually and is one of their most sacred places of pilgrimage. Most au-

thorities believe that the date of his death was 468 B.C., although the Jains themselves place it some sixty years earlier.

Probably for a century or so after Maliavlra's death the Jains were com-

paratively unimportant, because both the Jain and the Buddhist scriptures,

though not wholly ignoring the existence of the other sect, look on the

sect of the Ajlvikas as the chief rival of their respective faiths. Jainism,

like Buddhism, began to flourish in the days of the Mauryas. A very strong Jain tradition maintains that the first Maurya emperor, Chandra-

gupta (c. 317-293 B.C.), was a patron of Jainism and ultimately became a

Jain monk. It is to this period that the great schism in Jainism is at- tributed by tradition. Between the death of Mahavira and this time, the

order had been led by a series of pontiffs called Ganadharas ("Supporters of the Communities"). Bhadrabahu, the eleventh Ganadhara, foresaw that

a great famine would soon occur in northern India, and so, with a great

following of naked monks, among whom was the ex-emperor Chandra-

gupta, he departed for the Deccan, leaving behind many monks who re- fused to follow him, under the leadership of another teacher, Sthulabha-

dra. When the famine was over Bhadrabahu and many of the exiles re- turned to find that those who had remained in the north had adopted many dubious practices as a result of the distress and confusion of the

famine, the most censurable of which was the wearing of white robes.

This, however, was not the only misfortune resulting from the famine.

Bhadrabahu was the only person who knew perfectly the unwritten sacred texts of Jainism. In order to conserve them Sthulabhadra called

a council of monks at Pataliputra, but Bhadrabahu was not present

[43]

horrified at the corruption of the Order he had departed for Nepal, to

end his days in solitary fasting and penance. So the original canon of

Jainism was reconstructed as well as possible from the defective memory of Sthulabhadra and other leading monks in the form of the eleven

Limbs (Angd). Thus, according to tradition, Jainism was divided into

two great sections, though in fact the division may have existed in germ in

the days of Mahavira himself and did not become final until about two

centuries later. On the one hand were the Dtgambaras, the "Space- clad," who insisted on the total nudity of their monks and who did not

admit the full authenticity of the eleven Limbs, and on the other the

Shvetambaras, or "White-clad," whose monks wore white robes and who

accepted the Limbs. Today the Digambaras are to be found chiefly in

the Deccan, especially in Mysore, while the Shvetambaras, who are much

in the majority, dwell chiefly in Gujarat and Rajasthan. Though the

teachers of the one group would in the past often write and speak very

acrimoniously about the practices of the other, there has never been any

fundamental difference in doctrine. There was no development in Jainism

at all comparable to that which produced Mahayana Buddhism from

Theravada. All Jains, whatever their sect, maintain the same fundamen-

tal teachings, which have probably been little altered since the time of

Bhadrabahu. Though there have been superficial compromises with Hin-

duism, Jainism remains what it was over two thousand years ago. There is no doubt that Jain monks did much to spread northern cul-

ture in the Deccan and the Tamil land, and in the early medieval period, until the eleventh century, many important south Indian kings gave

Jainism their support. But the great wave of devotional theism which

arose in South India almost overwhelmed it, and it never again became

a major force in the religious life of the peninsula. In the west, too, after

a period of triumph in the twelfth century, when King Kumarapala of

Gujarat became an earnest Jain, the religion declined. But its layfolk, unlike those of Buddhism, were bound to their faith by carefully regu- lated observances and the pastoral care of the monks. Solidly knit com-

munities of well-to-do merchants forming their own castes, the Jains resisted both the violent attacks of the Muslims and the constant peace- ful pressure of the brahmans; where Buddhism perished Jainism sur-

vived.

Indeed in recent centuries Jainism has shown signs of vitality and

[44]

growth. At Surat, in the early eighteenth century, a further significant schism occurred in the Shvetambara sect, under the leadership of a Jain monk named Viraji who, basing his views on those of earlier less success- ful reformers, taught that true Jainism should not admit iconolatry or

temple worship. This schism, which undoubtedly owes some of its in-

spiration to Islam, is comparable on a much smaller scale to the Protestant Reformation in Christianity; it has resulted in the emergence of a new sect of Jainism which has given up the complex ritual dear to the Indian

heart, and holds its religious meetings in the austere and unconsecrated

sthanafys ("buildings") from which the sect has acquired its usual name

Sthdnatyvdsi.

In some respects the debt of Indian culture to Jainism is as great as it is to Buddhism. Of all the religious groups of India Jainism has al-

ways been the most fervent supporter of the doctrine of nonviolence

(ahimsa), and undoubtedly the influence of Jainism in the spread of

that doctrine throughout India has been considerable. But even if Jainism had never existed, it is probable that the idea of ahimsa would still have

been almost as widespread in India as it actually is. It is in other and

unexpected ways that Jainism has so greatly affected Indian life. Despite their very stern asceticism Jain monks have always found time for study, and, more than the Buddhists, they have devoted much attention to secu- lar learning. The Jain monk is allowed and indeed encouraged to com-

pose and tell stories if these have a moral purpose, and thus much medieval literature in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the early vernaculars is the

work of Jain monks, who also helped to establish and develop the liter- ature of certain vernacular languages, notably Canarese and Gujaratl.

Mallinatha, the author of the standard commentary on the works of In-

dia's greatest poet, Kalidasa, was a Jain. Jain monks also contributed

much to the indigenous sciences of mathematics, astronomy, and

linguistics, and their libraries preserved from destruction many impor- tant ancient texts, often of non-Jain origin. In modern times also Jainism has had some significant influence, for Mahatma Gandhi was born in a

part of India where Jainism is widespread, and he has himself admitted

the great impression made on him by the saintly Jain ascetics whom he met in his youth. Many factors contributed to mold the mind of the young

lawyer who was to become one of the greatest men of the twentieth cen-

tury, and of these Jainism was not the least important.

[45]

JAIN DOCTRINES AND PRACTICES

The basic teaching of Jainism may be expressed in a single sentence:

The phenomenal individual consists of a soul closely enmeshed in mat-

ter, and his salvation is to be found by freeing the soul from matter, so

that it may regain its pristine purity and enjoy omniscient self-sufficient

bliss for all eternity. In essence the Jain teaching closely resembles that

of the early Sankhya school of Hindu philosophy, and it is possible that

both Jainism and Sankhya share a common source in primitive hylozoistic ideas which were widespread in the Ganges valley before the time of

Mahavira.

The Jain view of life is essentially materialistic, using that word in its

strict sense. Jainism, in fact, looks back to a stage in the evolution

of Indian thought when it was almost impossible to conceive of any

entity except on the analogy of solid matter. For the Jain the soul, called

jiva ("life") in contrast to the Vedantic dtman ("self"), is finite, and of

definite though variable dimensions. The primitive roots of Jainism are

also shown in its attribution of souls to objects not generally thought of

as living. Buddhism does not allow that plants have life in the sense of

gods, human beings, or animals. Jainism, on the other hand, finds souls

not only in plants, but in the very elements themselves. Among the many classifications of Jainism is one which divides all living things into five

categories, according to the number of senses they possess. The highest

group, possessing five senses, includes men, gods, the higher animals, and

beings in hell. Of these men, gods, and infernal beings together with cer-

tain animals (notably monkeys, cattle, horses, elephants, parrots, pigeons, and snakes) possess intelligence. The second class contains creatures

thought to have four senses only touch, taste, smell, and sight; this class

includes most larger insects such as flies, wasps, and butterflies. The

class of three-sensed beings, which are thought to be devoid of sight and

hearing, contains small insects such as ants, fleas, and bugs, as well as

moths, which are believed to be blind because of their unfortunate habit

of flying into lighted lamps. Two-sensed creatures, with only the sense

of taste and touch, include worms, leeches, shellfish, and various animal-

culae. It is in the final class of one-sensed beings, which have only the

sense of touch, that the Jain classification shows its most original feature.

[46]

This great class is in turn divided into five sub-classes: vegetable bodies,

which may be simple, as a tree, containing only one soul, or complex, as a turnip, which contains countless souls; earth-bodies, which include

earth itself and all things derived from the earth, such as stones, clay, minerals, and jewels; water-bodies, found in all forms of water in rivers,

ponds, seas, and rain; fire-bodies, in all lights and flames, including light-

ning; and wind-bodies, in all sorts of gases and winds.

Thus the whole world is alive. In every stone on the highway a soul is locked, so tightly enchained by matter that it cannot escape the care-

less foot that kicks it or cry out in pain, but capable of suffering never-

theless. When a match is struck a fire-being, with a soul which may one day be reborn in a human body, is born, only to die a few moments afterwards. In every drop of rain, in every breath of wind, in every lump of clay, is a living soul.

Like the monad of Leibnitz the jiva of Jainism in its pure state is

omniscient, and mirrors the whole universe; but the soul's natural bright- ness and wisdom is clouded over by layers of matter, and every thought, word, or action is believed to affect the material integument of the soul.

Karma, the cause of the soul's bondage, is thought of in Jainism as a sort

of subtle matter, flowing in chiefly through the organs of sense. Acts of

selfishness and cruelty result in the influx of much very heavy and in-

auspicious karma, which results in unhappy rebirths; good deeds, on the

other hand, have no such serious effects; while suffering willingly under-

taken dissipates karma already accumulated. The soul can never gain liberation until it has rid itself of its whole accumulation of karma, and

therefore Jain ascetics subject themselves to rigorous courses of penance

and fasting in order to set their souls free of the karma already acquired, while all their actions are most carefully regulated to prevent the fur-

ther influx of karma in serious quantities. Actions carried out with full

consciousness which do no harm to other living things and are not under-

taken for unworthy motives or for physical satisfaction attract only very

slight karma, which is dispelled almost immediately; on the other hand

the unintentional killing of an ant through carelessness may have very serious consequences for the soul. Though a deliberate act of cruelty is

more culpable than an accidental one, even the latter must be paid for

dearly. If the soul at last escapes from all the layers of its material en-

velope, being lighter than ordinary matter, it rises to the top of the uni-

verse, where it remains forever in omniscient inactive bliss.

[47]

Injury to one of the higher forms in the scale of being involves more

serious consequences to the soul than injury to a lower form; but even

the maltreatment of earth and water may be dangerous for the soul's welfare. For the layman it is impossible not to harm or destroy lives of the one-sensed type, but even wanton and unnecessary injury to these is

reprehensible. The Jain monk vows that as far as possible he will not

destroy even the bodies of earth, water, fire, or wind. In order to remain

alive he must of course eat and drink, but he will not damage living plants in order to do so, preferring to leave this to the lay supporters who sup- ply him with food. The monk will not eat potatoes or other root vege- tables, since these contain large colonies of plant-lives; he strains his

drinking water, in order to do as little harm as possible to the souls

within it; he wears a face-cloth, rather like a surgeon's mask, to ensure

that he does no serious injury to the wind-lives in the air he breathes; he will not run or stamp his feet, lest he harm the souls in earth and

stones, or destroy small insects; he refrains from all quick and jerky movements for fear of injuring the souls in the air. His whole life must

be circumspect and thoroughly regulated. Buddhism demands similar

circumspection on the part of its monks, though not taken to such ex-

treme lengths, but with the Buddhist the purpose of this is to develop the monk's spiritual powers. With the Jain its purpose is simply to avoid

injury to the lower forms of life and thereby to prevent the influx of

karma in dangerous quantities. The number of lives or souls in the universe is infinite. The conse-

quences of this proposition were worked out by the Jains with ruthless

logic. Most souls have no hope of full salvation they will go on trans-

migrating indefinitely. This is inevitable, for the number of souls is in-

finite, and however many pass to the state of ultimate bliss an infinite number will still remain bound in the toils of matter, for infinity remains

infinity, however much is subtracted from it. Thus the process of transmigration continues eternally, and the uni-

verse passes through an infinite number of phases of progress and de-

cline. Unlike the similar cyclic doctrines of Hinduism and Buddhism, in

the Jain system there is no sharp break at the end of the cycle, but rather

an imperceptible process of systole and diastole. Each cosmic cycle is

divided into two halves, the ascending (utsarpinl) > and the descending

(avasarptni). We are now in the phase of descent, which is divided into six periods. In the first, the "very happv" (susama-susamd), men were of

[48]

enormous stature and longevity, and had no cares; they were spontane-

ously virtuous, so had no need of morals or religion. In the second

period, the "happy" (susama), there was some diminution of their stature,

longevity, and bliss. The third period, called "happy-wretched" (susama- duhsama)) witnessed the appearance of sorrow and evil in mild forms. At first mankind, conscious of the decline in their fortunes, looked to

patriarchs (tylatyra) for guidance and advice, until the last patriarch, Rishabhadeva, knowing the fate which was in store for the world, estab- lished the institutions of government and civilization. He then took to a life of ascetism, making his son Bharata the first Universal Emperor (Ca^ravartin). Rishabhadeva was the first of the twenty-four Tirthan-

karas ("Fordmakers" through life) of Jainism, and, according to Jain

tradition, was the true founder of Jainism in this age, for religion was now

necessary in order to restrain the growing evil propensities of men. More-

over with the cosmic decline men's memories had become so bad that they needed to commit their thoughts to writing; so Brahmi, the daughter of Rishabhadeva, invented the numerous alphabets of India. The fourth

period, "wretched-happy" (duhsama-susama) , was one of further decline, and saw the birth of the other twenty-three Tirthankaras, the last of

whom was Mahavlra. The fifth period, the "wretched" (duhsama), be- gan some three years after Mahavlra's death, and is at present current.

Its duration is 21,000 years, during which Jainism will gradually disajv

pear, and the stature, virtue, and longevity of men will gradually diminish. The sixth and last period, the "very wretched" (duhsama-duhsama), will also last for 21,000 years, and at its end the nadir of decline will be reached.

People will live for only twenty years, and will be only a cubit tall.

Civilization will be forgotten, and men will live in caves, ignorant of even the use of fire. Morality will be nonexistent, and theft, incest,

adultery, and murder will be looked upon as normal. At the end of this

age there will be fierce storms which will destroy many of the remaining

pygmy inhabitants of the earth; but some will survive, and from now on the state of the world will imperceptibly grow better, for the age of

ascent will have commenced. The six periods will be repeated in reverse

order until the peak of human happiness and virtue is reached once more, and the cycle begins again. In a universe which continually repeats itself in this way there seems

little scope for human effort, but though on a large scale the processes of

nature are strictly determined by natural law and neither men nor gods can influence them, the individual is free to work out his own salvation. The Jains vigorously rejected the fatalism o the Ajlvikas. It was to a life of earnest striving for perfection that Mahavira called his followers, whether laymen or monks.

Jainism differs from Buddhism in that its layfolk are expected to sub-

mit themselves to a more rigid discipline and are given more definite and

regular pastoral care by the Jain clergy. The layman should in theory

spend full- and new-moon days in fasting and penance at a Jain monas-

tery. Few modern Jams keep this sabbath, called fosadha, in so rigorous a form, except at the end of the Jain ecclesiastical year, usually in July, when there takes place a sort of Jain Lent, called paryujana, which lasts

for eight days with the Shvetambaras and for fifteen with the Digambaras. The year ends with a general penance in which all good Jains, monk and

layman alike, are expected to confess their sins, pay their debts, and ask

forgiveness of their neighbors for any offenses, whether intentional or

unintentional. This ceremony of general confession and pardon, extend-

ing beyond the Jain church to embrace members of other religions and

even animals, is perhaps the finest ethical feature of Jainism.

Despite their insistence on kindliness and nonviolence, Jain ethical

writings often have a rather chilly character, their altruism motivated by

a higher selfishness. The Jain scriptures contain nothing comparable for instance to the Mettd Sutta of the Buddhists (see Chapter VI), and

the intense sympathy and compassion of the Bodhisattva of Mahayana Buddhism is quite foreign to the ideals of Jainism; for an advanced

ascetic such sentiments are further bonds to be broken, mere evidence of

human weakness, destroying the impassivity acquired after many years of hardship and penance. The chief reason for doing good is the fur-

therance of one's own spiritual ends. Violence is chiefly to be avoided not so much because it harms other beings as because it harms the indi-

vidual who commits it. Charity is good because it helps the soul to break

free from the bonds of matter. To implicate one's own feelings with those of others is dangerous to the welfare of the soul. The virtuous lay- man is encouraged to do good works and to help his fellows not for love of others but for love of his own soul; the monk turns the other cheek when attacked for the same reason.

We must not overemphasize this feature of Jainism. Moralists of all

[50]

religions and none have often appealed to enlightened self-interest as the

chief spur to virtuous conduct; moreover many passages in the Jain

scriptures do encourage a more positive and truly altruistic morality. But

their attitude is often one of cold detachment which, to the unbeliever, is

rather unattractive.

In everyday life the Jains have been much influenced by the Hindus.

They often perform all the domestic rites of Hinduism, employing brah*

mans for the purpose. They worship many of the Hindu gods, who are

believed to bestow temporal blessings, and they have their own versions of the most famous Hindu legends. Nevertheless Hinduism has made

little impression on the heart of Jainism, which remains much as it was

over two thousand years ago a primitive science, purporting to give an

explanation of the whole universe and to show man his way through it to its topmost point, where the conquerors and completed souls dwell

forever in omniscient bliss. There have been no great changes in Jainism

over the centuries, and it remains what it always has been an atheistic

ascetic system of moral and spiritual discipline encouraging honesty and

kindliness in personal relations, and a rigid and perhaps sometimes ex-

aggerated nonviolence.

JAIN LITERATURE

The Jain canon, as preserved by the Shvetambara sect, consists of forty- five texts of moderate size, chiefly composed in the Ardha-magadhI dia-

lect of Prakrit, in both prose and verse. These consist of eleven Limbs

(Anga), twelve Secondary Limbs (Updnga), ten Miscellaneous Texts

(PraJ$rna1(a) y six Separate Texts (Chedasutra), four Basic Texts (Mula-

sutra), and two separate texts which do not fall into any of the foregoing

categories, the Blessing (Nandisutra), and the Door of Enquiry (Anuyo-

gadvara). The Jains themselves, as we have seen, do not claim that these

texts are the authentic productions of the founder of Jainism, but maintain

that the eleven Limbs were codified some two hundred years after Maha-

vira's death, while the whole canon did not receive its definitive form until

the fifth century A.D., when it was finally established at a council held at

Valabhi in Saurashtra. In fact the canon contains matter of very varying

[51]

date; it has received far less study than the canon o Pali Buddhism, and

much further work must be done on it before it can be arranged in

chronological order. It appears, however, that the Secondary, Miscellane-

ous, and Baste Texts contain some material which is quite as old as much of the contents of the eleven Limbs, while much of the latter is probably no earlier than the beginning of the Christian era. However, the canon

also contains matter with a very archaic flavor, which may be more or less correctly transmitted from the days of the founder himself. The

language, allusions, and general atmosphere of the Jain canon show,

however, that it is broadly speaking later than that of Theravada Bud-

dhism.

The canon contains passages of grace and beauty, especially in its verse portions, but its style is generally dry; lengthy stereotyped passages of description are repeated over and over again throughout the series of

texts, and the passion for tabulation and classification, which can be

detected in much Indian religious literature, is perhaps given freer rein here than in the scriptures of any other sect. From the literary point of view the Jain canon is inferior to that of the Buddhists.

There is, however, much noncanonical Jain literature in various Prakrits,

Apabhramsha, Sanskrit, several vernaculars of India, and in English, and some of the medieval narrative literature is of considerable lit-

erary merit. Legends (furanas) were composed on the Hindu model,

together with lengthy tales of the lives of the Tirthankaras and other

worthies of Jainism. Gnomic poetry is very plentiful. Commentarial litera- ture was produced in very large quantities in Sanskrit, as well as manuals

of doctrine, and refutations of the views of other systems. Moreover Jain scholars wrote treatises on politics, mathematics, and even poetics, giving their works a Jain slant. The total of medieval Jain literature is enor-

mous, and is often more interesting and attractive than the canonical works.

The brief anthology which follows includes passages from both the canon and later Jain literature. Some liberty has been taken in places with the originals, and here and there passages have been drastically

abridged in order to make them more easily understandable to the Western reader. According to the conventional usage works in Prakrit are

generally referred to by their Sanskrit titles.

[52]

Of Human Bondage

The opening verses of The Boo\ of Sermons (Sutrdfyrtahga) * epitomize the

teaching of Jainism. The text from which they are taken, a series of separate passages of various origin in prose and verse, is one of the oldest sections of

the canon. The insistence on nonviolence and the disparagement of human emotions are among the leading themes of Jainism from its origin to the pres- ent day.

[From Sutrafytanga, 1.1.1.1-5]

One should know what binds the soul, and, knowing, break free from

bondage. What bondage did the Hero

2 declare, and what knowledge did he teach

to remove it?

He who grasps at even a little, whether living or lifeless, or consents to another doing so, will never be freed from sorrow.

If a man kills living things, or slays by the hand of another, or consents to another slaying, his sin goes on increasing.

The man who cares for his kin and companions is a fool who suffers much, for their numbers are ever increasing.

All his wealth and relations cannot save him from sorrow.

Only if he knows the nature of life, will he get rid of karma.

The Man in the Well

This famous parable is to be found in more than one source, and is known to the Hindus. The version given below in an abridged form is taken from The

Story of Samaraditya, a lengthy tale in mixed prose and verse 3 written in

Prakrit by Haribhadra, who lived in the seventh century. The story tells of the adventures of its hero in nine rebirths, and is intended to show the effects

of karma, but its author was a master of words, and his moral purpose is

often lost in descriptive writing of a charming floridity. In the grim little story which follows, told by a Jain monk to a prince in order to persuade him of the evils of the world, he remembers his main purpose. The parable needs little

comment, for Haribhadra has interpreted it himself.

[From Samaraditya\athat 2.55-80] i

A certain man, much oppressed by the woes of poverty, Left his own home, and set out for another country.

1 Prakrit, Suyagadanga. The correct interpretation of the PrSkrit term is very doubtful.

Our tide is based on the conventional Sanskrit equivalent. 1 That is, "The Great Hero," Mahavlra.

* A genre known as campu.

[53]

He passed through the land, with its villages, cities, and harbors, And after a few days he lost his way.

And he came to a forest, thick with trees . , . and full of wild beasts.

There, while he was stumbling over the rugged paths, ... a prey to

thirst and hunger, he saw a mad elephant, fiercely trumpeting, charging him with upraised trunk. At the same "time there appeared before him a

most evil demoness, holding a sharp sword, dreadful in face and form,

and laughing with loud and shrill laughter. Seeing them he trembled in

all his limbs with deathly fear, and looked in all directions. There, to the

east of him, he saw a great banyan tree. . .

And he ran quickly, and reached the mighty tree.

But his spirits fell, for it was so high that even the birds could not fly over

it,

And he could not climb its high unscalable trunk. . . .

All his limbs trembled with terrible fear,

Until, looking round, he saw nearby an old well covered with grass.

Afraid of death, craving to live if only a moment longer, He flung himself into the well at the foot of the banyan tree. A clump of reeds grew from its deep wall, and to this he clung, While below him he saw terrible snakes, enraged at the sound of his

falling;

And at the very bottom, known from the hiss of its breath, was a black and mighty python

With mouth agape, its body thick as the trunk of a heavenly elephant, with terrible red eyes.

He thought, "My life will only last as long as these reeds hold fast," And he raised his head; and there, on the clump of reeds, he saw two

large mice,

One white, one black, their sharp teeth ever gnawing at the roots of the

reed-clump.

Then up came the wild elephant, and, enraged the more at not catching

him,

Charged time and again at the trunk of the banyan tree.

At the shock of his charge a honeycomb on a large branch

Which hung over the old well, shook loose and fell.

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The man's whole body was stung by a swarm of angry bees, But, just by chance, a drop of honey fell on his head, Rolled down his brow, and somehow reached his lips, And gave him a moment's sweetness. He longed for other drops, And he thought nothing of the python, the snakes, the elephant, the mice,

the well, or the bees,

In his excited craving for yet more drops of honey. This parable is powerful to clear the minds of those on the way to free- dom.

Now hear its sure interpretation. The man is the soul, his wandering in the forest the four types of exist-

ence. 4

The wild elephant is death, the demoness old age. The banyan tree is salvation, where there is no fear of death, the elephant, But which no sensual man can climb. The well is human life, the snakes are passions, Which so overcome a man that he does not know what he should do. The tuft of reed is man's allotted span, during which the soul exists em-

bodied;

The mice which steadily gnaw it are the dark and bright fortnights. 5

The stinging bees are manifold diseases, Which torment a man until he has not a moment's joy. The awful python is hell, seizing the man bemused by sensual pleasure, Fallen in which the soul suffers pains by the thousand.

The drops of honey are trivial pleasures, terrible at the last.

How can a wise man want them, in the midst of such peril and hardship?

Kinsfolk Are No Comfort in Old Age

If in this brief anthology we quote several passages which lay stress on the miseries of ordinary life, we do but preserve the proportion of such passages in the Jain scriptures themselves. The following extract is taken from The

Boo% of Good Conduct, the first Limb of the canon, which contains some of the most ancient passages of Jain literature.

[From Acdrdnga Sutraf 1.2.1] * Divine, human, animal, and infernal.

5 Until the introduction of Western methods of recording time the week was not used in

India except in astronomy. In its place was the P&k3a> the "wing" of the lunar month, the

bright pakja covering the period from new moon to full and the dark from full moon to

new.

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He who desires the qualities of things is deluded and falls into the grip of great pain. For he thinks, "I have mother, father, sister, wife, sons

and daughters, daughters-in-law, friends, kin near and remote, and ac-

quaintances. I own various properties, I make profits. I need food and clothes." On account of these things people are deluded, they worry day and night, they work in season and out of season, they crave for fortune

and wealth, they injure and do violence, and they turn their minds again and again to evil deeds. Thus the life of many men is shortened. For when ear and eye and smell and taste and touch grow weak, a man

knows that his life is failing, and after a while his senses sink into dotage. The kinsfolk with whom he lives first grumble at him, and then he

grumbles at them. . . , An old man is fit for neither laughter, nor play- ing, nor pleasure, nor show. So a man should take to the life of piety, seize the present, be firm, and not let himself be deluded an hour longer, for

youth and age and life itself all pass away. . . .

Understanding the nature of all kinds of pain and pleasure, before he

sees his life decline, a wise man should know the right moment [for taking up a life of religion]. . . . Before his senses weaken he should

pursue his own true welfare.

All Creation Groans Together in Torment

The following passage is taken from the Eoo\ of Later Instructions, one of the Basic Texts, and of later date than the Limbs of the canon, from which we have quoted. The eloquent verses translated below are part of a long speech delivered by a prince named Mrigaputra, in order to persuade his parents to allow him to take up a life of religion. Much of this passage consists of a very gory description of the pains of purgatory, which we omit. The reader should remember what we have said about the hylozoism of the Jains the iron on the blacksmith's anvil is also in pain.

[From Uttaradhyayana Sutra, 19.61-67, 71, 74]

From clubs and knives, stakes and maces, breaking my limbs, An infinite number of times I have suffered without hope. By keen-edged razors, by knives and shears,

Many times I have been drawn and quartered, torn apart and skinned.

Helpless in snares and traps, a deer, I have been caught and bound and fastened, and often I have been killed* A helpless fish, I have been caught with hooks and nets;

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An infinite number of times I have been killed and scraped, split and gutted.

A bird, I have been caught by hawks or trapped in nets, Or held fast by birdlime, and I have been killed an infinite number of

times.

A tree, with axes and adzes by the carpenters An infinite number of times I have been felled, stripped of my bark, cut

up, and sawn into planks. As iron, with hammer and tongs by blacksmiths An infinite number of times I have been struck and beaten, split and

filed. . . .

Ever afraid, trembling, in pain and suffering, I have felt the utmost sorrow and agony. . . .

In every kind of existence I have suffered

Pains which have scarcely known reprieve for a moment.

Creatures Great and Small

The following verses from the Boo% of Sermons exemplify the cardinal Jain doctrine that life pervades the whole world and that the lives of even the humblest living things should be respected. The first verse lists the various

categories of life; the first two lines giving the five sub-classes of one-sensed

beings, and the second two a fourfold subdivision of beings with two or more senses.

[From Sutralqtanga, 1.1-9]

Earth and water, fire and wind,

Grass, trees, and plants, and all creatures that move, Born of the egg, born of the womb, Born of dung, born of liquids

e

These are the classes of living beings. Know that they all seek happiness.

In hurting them men hurt themselves, And will be born again among them. . . .

Some men leave mother and father for the life of a monk, But still make use of fire;

* Creatures born of dung are lice, bugs, and similar insects; those born of liquids are

minute water insects, etc.

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But He 7 has said, "their principles are base Who hurt for their own pleasure.**

The man who lights a fire kills living things, While he who puts it out kills the fire;

Thus a wise man who understands the Law Should never light a fire.

There are lives in earth and lives in water,

Hopping insects leap into the fire, And worms dwell in rotten wood. All are burned when a fire is lighted.

Even plants are beings, capable of growth, Their bodies need food, they are individuals.

The reckless cut them for their own pleasure And slay many living things in doing so.

He who carelessly destroys plants, whether sprouted or full grown, Provides a rod for his own back.

He has said, "Their principles are ignoble Who harm plants for their own pleasure.**

The Eternal Law

For the Jains the term dharma has two meanings. In one sense the term is used to imply a sort of secondary space, without which movement would be im-

possible. In most contexts, however, dharma for the Jain is the universal rule

of nonviolence, the eternal Law. The following passage on this theme is from the Boo\ of Good Conduct.

[From Acaranga Sutra, 1.4.1]

Thus say all the perfect souls and blessed ones, whether past, present, or to come thus they speak, thus they declare, thus they proclaim: All

things breathing, all things existing, all things living, all beings whatever, should not be slain or treated with violence, or insulted, or tortured, or

driven away.

This is the pure unchanging eternal law, which the wise ones who T Mahavira.

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know the world have proclaimed, among the earnest and the not-earnest, among the loyal and the not-loyal, among those who have given up pun- ishing others and those who have not done so, among those who are weak and those who are not, among those who delight in worldly ties and those who do not. This is the truth. So it is. Thus it is declared in this religion.

When he adopts this Law a man should never conceal or reject it. When he understands the Law he should grow indifferent to what he sees, and not act for worldly motives. . . .

What is here declared has been seen, heard, approved, and understood. Those who give way and indulge in pleasure will be born again and

again. The heetlless are outside [the hope of salvation]. But if you are

mindful, day and night steadfastly striving, always with ready vision, in

the end you will conquer.

Respect for Life

Though "enlightened self-interest" is very frequently stated in the Jain scrip- tures to be the most important reason for leading the good life, numerous

passages show that even the unimpassioned Jain monks who composed the canon were not entirely devoid of human feeling. The following extract, a much abridged version of the first chapter of the first Limb of the Jain canon, the Boo^ of Good Conduct, exemplifies this point

[From Acdrdnga Sutra, i.i]

Earth is afflicted and wretched, it is hard to teach, it has no discrimina-

tion. Unenlightened men, who suffer from the effects of past deeds, cause

great pain in a world full of pain already, for in earth souls are individu-

ally embodiedrlf, thinking to gain praise, honor, or respect, ... or to

achieve a good rebirth, ... or to win salvation, or to escape pain, a man sins against earth or causes or permits others to do so, ... he will not

gain joy or wisdom. . . . Injury to the earth is like striking, cutting,

maiming, or killing a blind man. . - . Knowing this a man should not sin against earth or cause or permit others to do so. He who understands the nature of sin against earth is called a" true sage who understands

karrna. . . .

And there are many souls embodied in water. Truly water ... is alive. . . . He who injures the lives in water does not understand the nature of sin or renounce it. . . . Knowing this, a man should not sin

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against water, or cause or permit others to do so. He who understands the nature of sin against water is called a true sage who understands karma. . . .

By wicked or careless acts one may destroy fire-beings and, moreover, harm other beings by means of fire. . * . For there are creatures living in earth, grass, leaves, wood, cowdung, or dustheaps, and jumping crea-

tures which . . . fall into a fire if they come near it. If touched by fire,

they shrivel up, . . . lose their senses, and die. . . . He who understands the nature of sin in respect of fire is called a true sage who understands karma.

And just as it is the nature of a man to be born and grow old, so is it the nature of a plant to be born and grow old. . . . One is endowed with reason, and so is the other;

8 one is sick, if injured, and so is the

other; one grows larger, and so does the other; one changes with time, and so does the other. . . . He who understands the nature of sin against plants is called a true sage who understands karma. . . .

All beings with two, three, four, or five senses, ... in fact all creation, know individually pleasure and displeasure, pain, terror, and sorrow. All are full of fears which come from all directions. And yet there exist people who would cause greater pain to them. . . . Some kill animals for sacri- fice, some for their skin, flesh, blood, . . . feathers, teeth, or tusks; . . . some kill them intentionally and some unintentionally; some kill because

they have been previously injured by them, . . . and some because they expect to be injured. He who harms animals has not understood or re- nounced deeds of sin. . . . He who understands the nature of sin against animals is called a true sage who understands karma. . . . A man who is averse from harming even the wind knows the sorrow of

all things living. ... He who knows what is bad for himself knows what is bad for others, and he who knows what is bad for others knows what is bad for himself. This reciprocity should always be borne in mind. Those whose minds are at peace and who are free from passions do not desire to live [at the expense of others]. ... He who understands the nature of sin against wind is called a true sage who understands karma. In short he who understands the nature of sin in respect of all the six

types of living beings is called a true sage who understands karma. 8 The commentary justifies this statement. Plants manifest a degree of reason in knowing

the right season in which to bear flowers and fruit, and in growing upwards and not downwards.

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The Hero of Penance and Self-Control

To gain salvation a man must be absolutely sinless, and to achieve such com-

plete purity he must become a Jain monk. His goodness must be such that he

will not even accidentally tread on the insect which crosses his path. In order

to avoid such acts of violence Jain monks often carry feather dusters, with which

they sweep the ground on which they sit or walk. The following passage,

exemplifying these teachings, is taken from the canonical Boo\ of Sermons.

[From Sutrdkrtdnga, 1.2.1.10-14]

Oh man, refrain from evil, for life must come to an end.

Only men foolish and uncontrolled are plunged in the habit of pleasure.

Live in striving and self-control, for hard to cross are paths full of insects.

Follow the rule that the Heroes 9 have surely proclaimed.

Heroes detached and strenuous, subduing anger and fear,

Will never kill living beings, but cease from sin and are happy.

"Not I alone am the sufferer all things in the universe suffer!" Thus should man think and be patient, not giving way to his passions.

As old plaster flakes from a wall, a monk should make thin his body by

fasting,

And he should injure nothing. This is the Law taught by the Sage. 10

Cheerfully Endure All Things

The ideal which the Jain monk, and indeed as far as may be the Jain layman, strives for is complete imperturbability. But behind this he should feel a calm,

patient cheerfulness in the knowledge that, whatever his hardships, he is wear-

ing away his karma and preparing for the bliss of full salvation.

[From Utuarddhyayana Sutra, 2.24-37]

If another insult him, a monk should not lose his temper, For that is mere childishness a monk should never be angry. If he hears words harsh and cruel, vulgar and painful, He should silently disregard them, and not take them to heart. Even if beaten he should not be angry, or even think sinfully, But should know that patience is best, and follow the Law. If someone should strike a monk, restrained and subdued, He should think, "[It might be worse ] I haven't lost my life!" . . .

9 The twenty-four Tirthankaras. " Mahavlra.

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If on his daily begging round he receives no alms he should not be grieved, But think, "I have nothing today, but I may get something tomor-

row!" . . .

When a restrained ascetic, though inured to hardship, Lies naked on the rough grass, his body will be irritated,

And in full sunlight the pain will be immeasurable, But still, though hurt by the grass, he should not wear clothes.

When his limbs are running with sweat, and grimed with dust and dirt In the heat of summer, the wise monk will not lament his lost comfort. He must bear it all to wear out his karma, and follow the noble, the su-

preme Law.

Until his body breaks up, he should bear the filth upon it, 11

Wise Men and Fools

The following passage from the Eoo\ of Good Conduct repeats a theme very common in Jain literature, the contrast between the life of the world and the life of religion.

[Frorfi Acarahga Sutra, 1.2, 3]

Who will boast of family or glory, who will desire anything, when he thinks that he has often been born noble, often lowly, and that his soul,

[his true self] is neither humble nor high-born, and wants nothing ?

Thus a wise man is neither pleased nor annoyed. ... A man should be circumspect and remember that through "carelessness he experiences

many unpleasantnesses and is born in many wombs, becoming blind,

deaf, dumb, one-eyed, hunchbacked, or of dark or patchy 12

complexion.

Unenlightened, he is afflicted, and is forever rolled on the wheel of birth

and death.

To those who make fields and houses their own, life is dear; they want clothes dyed and colored, jewels, earrings, gold, and women, and they delight in them. The fool, whose only desire is for the fullness of life, thinks that penance, self-control, and restraint are pointless, and thus he

comes to grief. . , .

There is nothing that time will not overtake. All beings love themselves, 11 Normally a Jain monk should not wash, for by doing so he is liable to injure both

water-lives and the vermin on his body. 13

abala, probably a reference to the skin disease leucodcrma, very widespread in India, which produces white blotches on the skin.

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seek pleasure, and turn from pain; they shun destruction, love life, and

desire to live. To all things life is dear. They crave for riches and gather them together, . . . using the labor of servants both two-footed and four-

footed; and whatever a man's share may be, whether small or great, he wants to enjoy it. At one time he has a great treasure, . . . while at an-

other his heirs divide it, or workless men steal it, or kings loot it, or it is

spoiled or vanishes, or is burned up with his house. The fool in order to

get riches does cruel deeds which in the end are only of benefit to others, and stupidly comes to grief on account of the pain which he causes.

This the Sage (Mahavira) has declared such men cannot and do not cross the flood; they cannot, they do not reach the other shore; they can-

not, they do not get to the other side.

Though he hears the doctrine such a man never stands in the right place, But he who adopts it stands in the right place indeed. There is no need to tell a man who sees for himself, But the wretched fool, delighting in pleasure, has no end to his miseries, but spins in a whirlpool of pain.

Two Ways of Life

For all the severity of the discipline of the Jain ascetic, the Jain scriptures con-

tain numerous passages which mention the quiet inner happiness of the home- less life. The great sense of relief, of freedom, which comes with the abandon- ment of family ties, is often described in Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain texts. Moreover the life of asceticism is not looked on as weakly giving way before the sorrows of the world, but as a great spiritual struggle to be entered upon with courage and resolution like that of the soldier. These ideas are well ex-

pressed in the following passage, taken from the Boo\ of Later Instructions, wherein we read of a semi-legendary king of Mithila (North Bihar), who became an ascetic, and evidently did not regret it.

[From Uttarddhyayana Sutra, 9]

With the fair ladies of his harem King Nami enjoyed pleasures like those of heaven,

And then he saw the light and gave up pleasure. . . . In Mithila, when the royal sage Nami left the world And took to the life of a monk, there was a great uproar. To the royal sage came the god Indra, disguised as a brahman, And spoke these words:

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"There is fire and storm, your palace is burning! Good sir9 why don't you take care of your harem?" Narni replied:

"Happy we dwell, happy we live, who call nothing whatever our own.

Though Mithila burn, nothing of mine is burned! When a monk has left his children and wives, and has given up worldly

actions,

Nothing is pleasant to him, nothing unpleasant. There is much that is good for the sage, the houseless monk Set free from all ties, who knows himself to be alone." Indra said:

"Build a wall, with gates and turrets, And a moat and siege-engines; then you will be a true warrior." Nami replied : "With faith as his city, hardship and self-control the bolt of the gate, Patience its strong wall, impregnable in three ways.

13

With effort as his bow, circumspection in walking its string, And endurance as its tip, with truth he should bend his bow, And pierce with the arrow of penance the mail of his enemy, karma. Thus the sage will conquer in battle, and be free [from samsara]!" Indra said:

"By punishing thieves and burglars, pickpockets and robbers,

Keep the city in safety; then you will be a true warrior."

Nami replied : "Often men punish unjustly, And the guiltless are put in prison, the guilty set free." Indra said:

"Bring under your yoke, O lord of men, those kings Who do not bow before you; then you will be a true warrior." Nami replied: "Though a man conquer a thousand thousand brave foes in battle, If he conquers only himself, this is his greatest conquest. Battle with yourself! Of what use is fighting others ? He who conquers himself by himself will win happiness." . . .

Throwing off his disguise, and taking his real shape, Indra bowed before him and praised him with sweet words : M By means of the three "defenses" self-control in thought, word, and deed.

"Well done! You have conquered anger! Well done! You have vanquished pride! Well done! You have banished delusion! Well done! You have put down craving! Hurrah for your firmness!

Hurrah for your gentleness! Hurrah for your perfect forbearance!

Hurrah for your perfect freedom! . . ."

Thus act the enlightened, the learned, the discerning.

They turn their backs on pleasure, like Nami the royal sage.

The Refuge of All Creatures

Here and there in the Jain scriptures the virtue of compassion (dayd) is

praised, though for the monk it should never be allowed to lead to emotional involvement with other beings. In the following passage, however, the monk is declared to have other duties than merely working out his own salvation; in

practice Jain monks have always been ready to help others with preaching, consolation, and spiritual advice.

[From Acardnga Sutra, 1.6, 5]

In whatever house, village, city, or region he may be, if a monk is attacked

by men of violence, or suffers any other hardship, he should bear it all like a hero. The saint, with true vision, conceives compassion for all the

world, in east and west and south and north, and so, knowing the Sacred

Lore, he will preach and spread and proclaim it, among those who strive and those who do not, in fact among all those who are willing to hear him. Without neglecting the virtues of tranquillity, indifference, patience, zeal for salvation, purity, uprightness, gentleness, and freedom from care, with due consideration he should declare the Law of the Monks to all that draw breath, all that exist, all that have life, all beings whatever. . . . He should do no injury to himself or anyone else. . . . The great sage be-

comes a refuge for injured creatures, like an island which the waters can-

not overwhelm.

The Final Penance

Though strongly opposed by the Buddhists, religious suicide is known to both Hindu and Jain ascetics, and Mahavlra himself is said to have voluntarily

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starved himself to death by the protracted fast known as itvara or salletyand. A Jain monk who wishes to end his life hi this way, and thereby rid his soul of a great deal of karma and perhaps even obtain full salvation, must prepare for the final penance by a course of graduated fasting lasting for as long as

twelve years. If, however, he is sick and unable to maintain the course of rigid

self-discipline to which he is vowed, he may starve himself to death without the preliminary preparation. The following passage from the Boo^ of Good

Conduct, though it refers to the rite as a "terrible penance/' looks on it as the

triumphant end to a life of spiritual struggle, and finds it' no cause for tears.

[From Acdranga Sutra, 1.7, 6]

If a monk feels sick, and is unable duly to mortify the flesh, he should

regularly diminish his food. Mindful of his body, immovable as a beam, the monk should strive to waste his body away. He should enter a village or town . . . and beg for straw. Then he should take it and go to an

out-of-the-way place. He should carefully inspect and sweep the ground, so that there are no eggs, living beings, sprouts, dew, water, ants, mildew,

drops of water, mud, or cobwebs left on it. Thereupon he carries out the

final fast. . . . Speaking the truth, the saint who has crossed the stream of

transmigration, doing away with all hesitation, knowing all things but

himself unknown, leaves his frail body. Overcoming manifold hardships and troubles, with trust in his religion he performs this terrible penance. Thus in due time he puts an end to his existence. This is done by those

who have no delusions. This is good; this is joyful and proper; this leads

to salvation; this should be followed,

Moral Verses

Among the great classics of Tamil is The Four Hundred Quatrains (Naladi- nannurru), better known simply as The Quatrains, a collection of fine verses on morality, perhaps of the fifth or sixth century A.D. They are known and loved

by all Tamils, whether Hindu, Jain, Muslim, or Christian, since they contain

much which all religions would approve, and little to which any would object; but they are by tradition the work of a large company of Jain monks who in a time of famine were sheltered and fed by a Tamil king, and, when they de-

parted from his court, left each a quatrain as a blessing for his benevolence. The traditional ascription is borne out by the contents of the collection. Unlike

the kindred collection of Tamil gnomic verse, the Couplets (Kural), which is

theistic in outlook, the Quatrains contain no references to the gods, and their

earnest and rather pessimistic attitude to life is very similar to that of literature

of known Jain origin. They differ, however, from much other Jain literature

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in their warmth and real humanity for the authors of the Quatrains right conduct was not merely the avoidance of doing evil and the performance of cold acts of charity, but was rooted in fellowship, sympathy, and love. The verses below are a small representative sample of the whole.

[From Naladiyar]

There is no passing the fixed day [of death]. No one On earth has escaped death, and fled, and gone free.

You who hoard up wealth, give it away! Tomorrow The funeral drum will beat. [6]

My mother gave me birth, left me, and went To seek her mother, who had gone on the same quest.

And so goes on the search of each man for his mother. This is the way of the world. [15]

Men come uninvited, join the family as kinsmen, And silently depart. As silently the bird

Flies far from the tree where its old nest remains, Men leave their empty bodies to their kin. [30]

The skulls of dead men, with deep caves for eyes, Horrid to see, grinning, address the living

"Take heed, and keep to the path of virtue.

That is the blessing that makes the body worth having." [49]

When men rise up in enmity and wish to fight, It is not cowardice, say the wise, to refuse the challenge.

Even when your enemies do the utmost evil, It is right to do no evil in return. [67]

If you send a little calf into a herd of cows

It will find its mother with unfailing skill.

So past deeds search out the man who did them, And who must surely reap their fruit, [107]

Cows are of many different forms and colors; Their milk is always white.

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The path of virtue, like milk, is one; The sects that teach it are manifold. [1x8]

Those who snare and keep encaged the partridge or the quail, Which dwell in the wilds where beetles hum around the flowers,

Shall [in a later life] till black and hungry soil,

Their legs in fetters, as slaves to alien lords. [122]

Learning is a treasure that needs no safeguard; Nowhere can fire destroy it or proud kings take it.

Learning's the best legacy a man can leave his children. Other things are not true wealth. [134]

In the city of the gods, in the after-life,

We shall learn if there is any greater joy Than that when wise men, with minds as keen as steel, Meet together in smiling fellowship. [137]

You may bite the sugar-cane, break its joints, Crush out its juice, and still it is sweet.

Well-born men, though others abuse or hurt them

Never lose their self-respect in words of anger. [156]

The greatness of the great is humility* The gain of the gainer is self-control.

Only those rich men are truly wealthy Who relieve the need o their neighbors. [170]

People speak of high birth and low

Mere words, with no real meaning! Not property or ancient glory makes a man noble, But self-denial, wisdom and energy, [ 195]

This is the duty of a true man To shelter all, as a tree from the fierce sun>

And to labor that many may enjoy what he earns* As the fruit of a fertile tree, [202]

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Better hatred than the friendship of fools.

Better death than chronic illness.

Better to be killed than soul-destroying contempt. Better abuse than praise undeserved. [219]

If I do not stretch out my hand and risk my life For a friend in need,

May I reap the reward of one who seduces the wife of a friend, While the wide world mocks me in scorn. [238]

Best is a life passed in penance,

Middling, that spent with those one loves, Worst, the life of one never satisfied,

Cringing to rich men who care nothing for him. [365]

As a scroll read by one who well understands it, As wealth to the man of generous spirit,

As a sharp sword in the warrior's hand, Is the beauty of a faithful wife. [386]

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CHAPTER V

JAIN PHILOSOPHY AND POLITICAL THOUGHT

Two of the most interesting and individual features of Jainism are the kindred doctrines of "Viewpoints" (nayavdda) and "Maybe" (syddvdda) y which are often called together "the Doctrine of Manysidedness" (ane-

\antavada)* These ideas certainly existed in embryo at the time of Maha-

vlra and the Buddha, as is evident from the passages in the Buddhist

scriptures attributed to the teacher Sanjaya which appear to be based on

a garbled version of some such "manysided" doctrine; but there is no

good evidence that they were propounded by Mahavlra, and they may have been introduced into Jainism some time after his death.

Western thought, from the days of the Greeks onward, has been largely

governed by the logical rule known as the law of the excluded middle "either a or not-0/' Socrates must be a mortal or not-mortal there is no

other possibility. In India, on the other hand, this law of thought has

never been so strongly emphasized as in Europe^ and the Jains allow not

two possibilities of predication, but seven. These are known as "the Seven- fold Division" (saptabhangf) or

u thc Doctrine of Maybe" (syadvada) :

i. We may truthfully affirm a given proposition (syadasti).3Chu$ when in winter I come home after a walk in the open air, I may say that my room is warm. 2 But from another point of view it is possible to negate the same prop-

osition (syanndsti). Thus someone who has been sitting in the same room for some time may say with equal truth that it is not warm.

3. Hence it is possible to predicate the truth of a proposition and its

negation at one and the same time (sy&dastindsti) . The room is both warm and not-warm*

4. But the true character of the room, which we have seen is from different points of view warm, not-warm, and warm-and-not~warm> may

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be said to be indescribable (syadavafyavya). Its true character, sub specie

aetermtatts, eludes us.

The first four o the seven divisions are fairly clear and intelligible. The

last three divisions, on the other hand, are a pendantic refinement of the

theory, and some early Jain schools did not accept them:

5. A characteristic may be predicated about an entity which is otherwise recognized to be indescribable (syddastyava^tavya) .

6. It may not possess that characteristic and be otherwise indescribable

(syanndstyavatyavya) .

7. It may both have and not have the same characteristic, and be other-

wise indescribable (syadastinastyavatyavya) .

Closely related to the doctrine of "Maybe" is that of "Viewpoints," which

shows the seven ways of approaching an object of knowledge or study: 1. We may consider an object of thought, say a certain man, concretely

(naigama-naya), as at the same time an individual and a member of the

human species. 2. Or we may consider him purely as a representative of mankind, not

taking note of his individual character, but thinking only of the character-

istics which he has in common with other men (samgraha-naya).

3. On the other hand we may think of him primarily as, for instance, our old friend John Smith, with all his personal traits and idiosyncrasies,

hardly considering him in relation to the human species at all (yyava-

hdra-naya) .

4. We may think of him as at the present moment, taking no note of his past or future, as a mere phenomenon in a limited area of space and

time (rjusutra-naya) *

As with the Sevenfold Division, the last three viewpoints seem some-

what pedantic, and are connected rather with the words used to define

objects and concepts than with the objects and concepts themselves:

5. We may think of him from the point of view of his specific name "man," considering its synonyms and its implications (sabda-naya) . This

is supposed to prevent misuse of words and terms.

6. We may think of him from the point of view of the conventional meaning of the word only, without considering its etymological implica- tions (samabhirudh(t~nay&)*

* One of the chief Jain criticisms of the Buddhists was that they tended to view the world

exclusively from the viewpoint of rjutfjra, virtually ignoring the others.

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7- Or finally we may consider an object with respect to the etymology of its name (evambhuta-naya) . This viewpoint cannot be well illustrated with the word "man." A favorite Jain illustration is the consideration of the god Shakra (better known as Indra) as a manifestation of pure power, because his name is derived from the root &a\, "to be able."

Though the Jain doctrine of manysidedness, in its finished form, shows

pedantic refinements which are perhaps the work of an unfruitful scholas-

ticism, it is, in its fundamentals, a remarkable achievement of Indian

thought. Implicit in the epistemological relativity of anef^antavada is a

recognition that the world is more complex than it seems, that reality is

more subtle than we are inclined to believe. Our knowledge is less certain thaa we think. A given proposition, though generally accepted as true, may only be relatively so, and the absolute and whole truth can only be seen by the perfected soul, the siddha, who surveys the whole universe in a single act of timeless knowledge. There is a famous Indian parable,

occurring in many sources, which tells of a king who, in a fit of practical

joking, assembled a number of blind men and told them each to touch an

elephant and tell him what they felt. The man who touched the trunk de- clared that it was a snake, he who touched the tail, a rope, he who touched the leg, a tree-trunk, and so on. The story concludes with violent alterca-

tions, each blind man maintaining that he knew the whole truth. So man, incapable of seeing things whole and from all aspects at once, must be

satisfied with partial truths. All too often he maintains that he knows the

whole truth, and his one-sided approach results in anger, bigotry, and

strife. The Jain, trained in the doctrine of manysidedness, realizes that all ordinary propositions are relative to the aspect from which they arc

made, and tries to know the objects of his attention as thoroughly as

possible by considering them from all points of view* Jain philosophers have often been just as forthright in their criticism of other systems as the

teachers of rival Indian schools of thought, but Jainism has a record of

tolerance and friendliness toward other sects which is at least in part due

to the doctrine of the manysidedness of truth*

Of Space and Time

Jain theories of space, time, and matter are of considerable subtlety, and

suggest the non-Euclidean conceptions of modern relativity physics. There are in Jainism three types of space: a%8fa, sometimes translated "ether," but which

[72]

we translate as "space," the function of which is to contain other substances, and a secondary and a tertiary space, which permit movement and rest re-

spectively. These latter are strangely called dharma and adharma ("non-

dharma"). This dharma must not be confused with the term as used in its

religious and ethical sense, which we translate as "the Law" or "Righteousness." In our translation below dharma and adharma in the special sense of Jain

physics are left untranslated. As will be seen, space is made up of an infinite

number of points and of time, which, as in relativity physics, almost takes on

the character of a fourth dimension, and consists of an infinite number of

atomic instants. Substances are composed of atoms. There seems to have been

some uncertainty as to whether or not a single atom had dimension. Kunda-

kunda, the author whom we quote, apparently believed that the material atom was infinitesimal. The Essence of the Doctrine is the work of a teacher of the Digambara sect,

Kundakunda, who is believed to have lived in the third or fourth century A.D. It is a concise versified outline of the main doctrines of Jainism, written in

Shauraseni Prakrit. It was commented on at considerable length in Sanskrit by Amritachandra, of the tenth century, and our notes are largely based on his

work. The passage we quote outlines the nature of the six substances of Jain physics souls, matter, space, dharma, adharma, and time which constitute

the whole universe. One of our chief reasons for including this passage is to show the great subtlety of which early Indian thought was capable. Our notes do not half exhaust the matter discussed by the commentator, and they might be prolonged indefinitely. It is largely on account of their extremely recondite

nature that we have included so little from the purely philosophical texts of Jainism and Buddhism.

[From Pravacanasara, 2.41-49, 53]

The quality of space is to give room, of dharma to cause motion, of adharma to cause rest.1

The quality of time is to roll on, o the self, 2 awareness.

You should know, in short, that all these qualities are formless.

1 The existence of dharma as a secondary space is proved to the Jain's satisfaction from the fact of motion; this must be caused by something; it cannot be due to time or the

atoms, since they have no spatial extension, and that which is spaceless cannot give rise

to movement in space; it cannot be due to the soul, since souls do not fill the whole

universe, but motion is possible everywhere; it cannot be due to space, for space extends

even beyond the universe, and if space was the basis of motion the bounds of the universe

would fluctuate, which they do not; therefore motion must be caused by some other sub-

stance which does not extend beyond the universe, but pervades the whole of it; this is

what is called dharma. The existence of adkarma is proved by similar arguments. a Here Kundakunda employs the Prakrit term appa (Skt. Utrnan) in the sense of jlvat the

usual Jain term for soul.

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Souls, aggregates of matter, dharma, adharma, and space

Contain innumerable dimensional points, 3 but time has no dimensional

points [i.e., no dimensions].

Space is both in the universe and in that which is beyond it. Dharma and

adharma extend throughout the universe only;

Likewise time, because it depends on the other two substances, these other

substances being souls and matter. 4

As the dimensional points of space, so are the dimensional points of other

substances [except time].

The atom has no dimensional point, but hence is explained the develop- ment of dimensional points.

5

But a moment has no dimensional point. It occurs when -a substance with

a single dimensional point

Crosses a dimensional point of space.

*fradc$a, elsewhere translated "infinitesimal spatial units," or "spatial minima." The

pradesa, though it roughly corresponds to the point in Euclidean geometry, is not quite the

same concept. The Euclidean point has no dimensions; the prade/a has dimensions but they arc infimtesimally small. It is a sort of atom of space, perhaps comparable to the point in

the Gaussian system of geometry used by Einstein. The paradoxical "dimensional point** is

perhaps as good a translation of this difficult term as any other. * Time does not exist beyond the confines of the universe, because it can only function in

relation with souls and matter, which do not exist except in the universe. Note that the

universe (lofa) is unique, and poised in absolutely empty space (alofyt, "non-universe"). Unlike the Buddhists, the Jains do not admit the existence of a plurality of universe.

B The obvious interpretation of this is that the ultimate atom has no dimension, but that

upon the juxtaposition of nondimensional atoms in different relationships dimensionally measurable substances are produced. The commentator, however, notices that three verses later Kundakunda defines the dimensional point as the space occupied by an atom* As the di-

mensional point possesses dimension, albeit in an infimtesimally minute measure, we are faced with a crux. The best Amritachandra can do to solve it is a$ follows: 'Though, as has been said, matter, considered as a substance, is without dimensional points, on account of its having one dimensional point only, yet it has the characteristic of being the originator of

dimensional points, through its innate nature, which has the power of developing qualities of viscousncss and roughness (implying attraction and repulsion) of such character as to be the cause of the production of two or more dimensional points/* It seems that "dimen- sional point** is here used in two senses, the distinction between which is not thoroughly recognised by the writer. Matter in the form of the atom is quite without dimension; the dimensional point, however, in which the atom is contained, b infmitesimally small, but not wholly without dimension, not an absolute Euclidean point; the nondimensional atoms of matter, in their infimtesimally small areas of space, create a specious sense of extension

or dimension in material substances by their mutual attractions and repulsions.

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A moment is equal to the time taken for an atom to move [from one dimensional point to another].

What lies before and after that moment is time. The moment originates and perishes.

6

The space occupied by an atom is called a dimensional point. It can find room for all atoms.7

One, two, many, innumerable or infinite

Are the dimensional points contained by substances, as are the moments o

their duration. 8

. . .

The world is full of objects with spatial extension, complete and eternal.

That which knows it is the soul, 9 bound to the four vital forces.10

There Is No Creator

Jainism, though not denying the existence of superhuman beings, is funda-

mentally atheistic. Moreover, it never compromised with theism, or devised

a pantheon of substitute gods, as did Mahayana Buddhism. From the earliest

times to the present day Jains have strenuously rejected the doctrine that

the universe is created or guided by a divine will or a divine mind for

them natural law is a sufficient explanation. Their literature contains many criticisms of the theist's position.

The following example of Jain dialectic is taken from the Great Legend

*Thc commentator points out that tune as substance has no beginning or end, but as

modified by its relations with other substances it originates and is subject to annihilation.

'Thus all the atoms in the universe can be contained in a single dimensional point. This

is only logically possible i the atonu are infinitely small or completely without dimension. 6 On this verse Amntachandra makes a remarkable comment: "The complex of dimensional

points is horizontal, while that of which the function is characterized by moments is

vertical." This clearly implies the concept of time as a sort of fourth dimension.

"The belief in soul-substance is said to be one of the most primitive features of Jainism, but the verses quoted will show how far Jain thought on the subject transcended primitive concepts. The soul is certainly a substance, but it is not material substance, any more than

are space and time. Its chief function is knowledge, of which the other five substances arc

the objects. w Prana: this term literally means "breath." In the later Vedic literature it often has the

sense of "the breath of life/' hence "spirit" or "soul." In Hindu literature the word is

used for one of the five "winds" of the body, residing in the heart and responsible for

respiration. The Jains, however, used the word in a completely different sense; with them there were four prinas, which were particularly potent forms of karma, binding the soul

within the body, and conditioning its powers of sensation, strength, longevity, and respiratory

capacity respectively.

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(Mahapurdna), a lengthy poem in excellent Sanskrit, composed by the Digam- bara teacher Jinasena in the ninth century. This work is modeled on the Hindu

Puranas and consists mainly of cosmology and legends of the patriarchs, Tlr-

thankaras, and other great men of former days. Like the Hindu Puranas again, it contains numerous philosophical and polemic excursi of which the following

passage is one.

[From Mahapurana, 4.16-31, 38-40]

Some foolish men declare that Creator made the world. The doctrine that the world was created is ill-advised, and should be

rejected.

If God created the world, where was he before creation?

If you say he was transcendent then, and needed no support, where is he

now?

No single being had the skill to make this world For how can an immaterial god create that which is material?

*

How could God have made the world without any raw material? If you say he made this first, and then the world, you are faced with an

endless regression. 2

If you declare that this raw material arose naturally you fall into another

fallacy,

For the whole universe might thus have been its own creator, and have arisen equally naturally.

If God created the world by an act of his own will, without any raw

material,

Then it is just his will and nothing else and who will believe this silly stuff?

s

If he is ever perfect and complete, how could the will to create have arisen in him?

1 A very common line of argument among the Jains. One type of substance cannot produce another with completely different characteristics.

8 He had previously to make the raw-material of the raw-material, and so on* The end** less regression is a type of fallacy as well known in Hindu logic as in Western. "The appeal to practical experience, with which Jains, like Samuel Johnson at a later

date, made short work of idealist philosophers 1

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If, on the other hand, he is not perfect, he could no more create the uni-

verse than a potter could.

If he is formless, actionless, and all-embracing, how could he have created

the world?

Such a soul, devoid of all modality, would have no desire to create any-

thing.

If he is perfect, he does not strive for the three aims of man, 4

So what advantage would he gain by creating the universe?

If you say that he created to no purpose, because it was his nature to do so,

then God is pointless. If he created in some kind of sport,

6 it was the sport of a foolish child,

leading to trouble.

If he created because of the karma of embodied beings [acquired in a pre- vious creation]

He is not the Almighty Lord, but subordinate to something else, . . ,

If out of love for living things and need of them he made the world,

Why did he not make creation wholly blissful, free from misfortune?

If he were transcendent he would not create, for he would be free; Nor if involved in transmigration, for then he would not be almighty.

Thus the doctrine that the world was created by God Makes no sense at all.

And God commits great sin in slaying the children whom he himself created.

If you say that he slays only to destroy evil beings, why did he create such

beings in the first place? ....

Good men should combat the believer in divine creation, maddened by an evil doctrine*

* Righteousness (dliarma), profit (artha), and pleasure (k5ma), a traditional Indian

classification. * An attack on the VedSntic doctrine of creation,

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Know that the world is uncreated, as time itself is, without beginning and end,

And is based on the principles, 6 life and the rest.

Uncreated and indestructible, it endures under the compulsion of its own

nature,

Divided into three sections hell, earth, and heaven.

The Plurality of Souls

Jain theorists never tired of attacking the idealist monism of Vedantic Hindu- ism and Mahayana Buddhism, usually basing their arguments on appeals to

experience and sturdy common sense. For the Jain the material universe is an ineluctible datum, not to be explained away by specious arguments how-

ever subtle. The existence of innumerable living beings in the universe is an obvious fact of experience. The fact of their being alive can be explained by the

hypothesis that they possess a certain substance, life (jiva). But as their bodies

are separate, so their lives are separate. And the hfe, for the Jain, is the soul. This criticism of Vedanta is taken from the Debates with the Disciples of

Jinabhadra, a Jain writer who probably lived in the early seventh century. The text purports to contain a series of discussions between Mahavira and the eleven ascetics who were later to become his chief disciples; in it each of these

puts forward a proposition, and, after some discussion, is convinced of its fal-

laciousness and becomes a follower of Mahavira. The work is part of a longer one, a lengthy appendix (niryutyi) to the canonical Bool^ of Obligatory Prac-

tices (Avasya\a Sutra), and is composed in Prakrit verse.

[From Ganadharavada, 1.32-39]

You should know that the chief characteristic of the soul is awareness, And that its existence can be proved by all valid means of proof.

Souls may be classified as transmigrant and liberated, Or as embodied in immobile and mobile beings.

If the soul were only one, Like space pervading all bodies,

6 Tattva, more accurately "facts." These, according to Jain classification, are seven souls

(jiva, lit. "life'*); the other five substances (see p. 76) which are classified as non-soul

(ajiva) ; the influx of karmic matter into the soul (dsrava) ; the bondage of the soul, arising from this (bandha}\ the stopping of the influx of karma (sarpvara)-, the destruction and expulsion of karmic matter previously absorbed (ntrjara); and final emancipation from

bondage to karma (mo^sa).

[78]

Then it would be of one and the same character in all bodies.

But the soul is not like this.

There are many souls, just as there are many pots and other things In the world this is evident from the difference of their characteristics.

If the soul were only one

There would be no joy or sorrow, no bondage or freedom. 1

The awareness, which is the hallmark of the soul, Differs in degree from body to body.

Awareness may be intense or dull

Hence the number of souls is infinite?

If we assume the monist hypothesis, since the soul is all-pervading, There can be no liberation or bondage, [for the soul is uniform] like

space.

Moreover thus the soul is neither 'agent nor enjoyer, nor does it think,

Nor is it subject to transmigration again just like space.

Again assuming monism, there can be no soul enjoying final bliss, For there are many maladies in the world, and thus the world-soul can

only be partly happy;

Moreover, as many phenomenal souls are in bondage The world-soul cannot be released from transmigration, but only partly

so. 8

The soul exists only within the body, 4 just as space in a jar,

Since its attributes are only to be detected therein,

1 These words are, of course, intended in their special sense of bondage to and freedom from karma and matter.

fl The logic of the argument is not clean The twelfth-century commentator Maladharl Hcmachandra (not to be confused with the great Hcmachandra) gives an interpretation which may be paraphrased as follows: The awareness of the different souls may vary in degree from the all-embracing knowledge of the perfected being (siddha) to the almost

complete senselessness of the stone. Between the one and the other there are an infinite

number of gradations. Therefore the number of souls is infinite. The logic is still evidently unsatisfactory.

"MaladhSri Hemachandra expands this by comparing the fortunate Brahman of Vedanta to a man whose whole body is diseased with the exception of one finger, or to one whose whole body is fettered, with the same exception. The Jains, perhaps justly accused of pessim- ism, would have no truck with the unrealistic optimists who declared that all evil and sin were in some sense illusory.

* This does not involve materialism of the Western positivist type. The Jains, in common

with most other Indian sects, believe that the soul is wrapped in a scries of inner sheaths of subtle matter, which form an invisible body surrounding it The statement of the text is

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And since they are not to be found elsewhere, As a pot is different from a piece of cloth.

Therefore action and enjoyment,

Bondage and release, joy and sorrow, And likewise transmigration itself, Are only possible on the hypothesis that souls are many and finite.

A Modern Jain Apologist In the last hundred years the Jains of India, one of the wealthiest and best-

educated communities of the subcontinent, have maintained their solidarity and

have tried to adapt their doctrines to modern needs and conditions. A good deal of money and labor has been spent on propaganda, not only to prevent younger members of the community from succumbing to the temptations of twentieth-

century materialism, but also to obtain sympathizers, and even converts, from

other communities. Among the most active Jain propagandists was the late Mr. Champat Rai Jain, an able barrister with a good command of English, Hindi, and Urdu, and a wide knowledge of his own and other religions, who devoted many years with self-sacrificing wholeheartedness to writing and

speaking in favor of Jainism. In keeping with the earlier teachers of his faith, who interpreted the Hindu scriptures figuratively in a Jain sense, Mr. Jain, who had read widely in Christian and Muslim theology, succeeded in proving to the satisfaction of himself and many of his co-religionists that both the Bible and the Qur'an taught the eternal truths of Jainism, that the only God of any significance was the eternal soul of man, who should liberate himself from matter and karma as quickly as possible by ahimsa and ascesis. We cannot, however, give an extract from Mr. Jain's brilliant if unscientific interpretations of the stones of the Old Testament and the teachings of the New. Perhaps his most interesting achievement was in his use of modern concepts taken from psy- chology and science in the service of his religion. The passage below, based largely on the arguments of earlier Jain philosophers, but well expressed in

twentieth-century terms, aims at showing that the soul, which for the Jain includes consciousness and indeed has conscious awareness as its chief char-

acteristic, is a simple substance, and therefore in its uncompounded state is eternal.

[From C. R. Jain, Essays and Addresses, pp. 89-92]

Knowledge is an affection or feeling the sense of awareness of an object or thing. Outside me are things, not knowledge; inside me is knowledge, not things.

not quite correct, for the siddhas, the perfected beings completely emancipated from karma who dwell in eternal omniscient bliss at the summit of the universe, arc souls in a state of complete nakedness, according to orthodox Jain teaching.

[80]

The current of vibrations (sensory stimulus) that comes from the ex-

ternal object is not loaded with knowledge. It is only matter in motion

or motion of matter (that is, matter or energy in one form or another) .

Only in contact with a conscious substance does it occasion knowledge

(perception) ; otherwise only a material or mechanical phenomenon will

ensue.

The mere formation of the outline of an object on the retinae or else-

where will not account for perception. No image is formed through the senses other than sight. Visual perception itself only gives us an inverted

image, which is the reverse of how things are perceived. There is, again, a great difference between the microscopic retinal image and the mental

percept, which may represent half the world. The main difficulty remains

yet to be stated. How is the retinal image itself perceived? Is it its outline that is felt? And by whom? Does perception merely consist in a feeling of contact with the image formed in the eye, or further back, say in the

perceptive centers of the brain? If so it will only give us a number of

simultaneous touch-feelings a coextensive series of sensations of touch

along the outlines or over the area filled by the image. But how shall we account for the brightness and color that play such an important part in

visual perception? The external stimulus, it would thus seem, merely calls out what is already there inside; it is not itself transformed into per-

ception color, smell, sounds, etc.

Again, perception will be impossible for a composite substance. A com- posite substance lacks in individualization. Different parts of a composite

substance, e.g., a mirror, will reflect different limbs or parts only of an ob-

ject; the object in its entirety will not be, cannot be, reflected in any of

the parts of the reflecting surface. It will, therefore, be impossible for any

part of a composite pcrceiver to perceive the whole of an object. A com- pound, of course, does not cease to be a compound merely because it is

given a simple name,

Consciousness perceives the whole as well as the parts of an object

simultaneously. It must therefore be a simple (uncompounded) thing, unlike the mirror, which is devoid of individuality. . . .

Knowledge radically differs from the object in the world outside. The rose on the bush in the garden took a long time in putting in its appear-

ance; a small cutting was first stuck in the soil; it germinated after a

time; then appeared leaves and shoots; then a tiny little bud slowly formed on one of the branches; and after a time it bloomed into a rose.

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Nothing like this tedious process occurs in consciousness at the moment

of perception. The knowing faculty there and then produces from its mys- terious nursery an exact facsimile of the external rose, and that without

trouble. It would as easily produce two, three, four, or a basketful of

roses, or any and all other flowers, whole gardens. ... Its producing ca-

pacity is really wonderful it is infinite!

Are these epistemological facsimiles of outside objects manufactured in

any way in the background of consciousness? But knowledge is not

atomistic, nor made of parts. Suppose you try to break up an idea, e.g., the percept of a house, into bits and parts. The physical structure can be

demolished. . . . But with what instruments shall we demolish the men-

tal counterpart of the material edifice? . . .

What does it all signify then? Is it meant that loose ready-made ideas are stocked in an immense "stores" somewhere in the mind?

No; for our consciousness is unitary and not composite. Loose ideas will

be like external objects and will have to be perceived as external objects are perceived. With loose ideas the mind will itself become idealess, and

devoid of knowledge. But knowledge consists, really, only in the states of

the perceiving consciousness, which are inseparable from it.

The unity of knowledge may be further illustrated by another example. A man enters the field of my vision, and is perceived as one. A little later another man joins him. In my consciousness also the first man is joined by the second. Now in the world outside the two men are separate; the first remained where he was; the second merely came and sat down be- side him. But in the mind the two constitute but one percept. While the second man was approaching the first one, the mind was continually fur-

nishing new and ready-made mental pictures corresponding to the scene and the movements going on in the world outside. When the two men came together finally there was no blending or pasting together of two

different percepts in the mind. . . . The secret is only this, that with each act of perception a new mental image is evoked and appears in the lime-

light. 1

. . , Thus a new percept is presented every moment by our con-

sciousness, and it is a noncomposite, partless, and unbreakable presen- tation.

Furthermore I can have an idea of an object that may be rough, smooth, 1 Outside the limelight of consciousness knowledge is not destroyed, but exim in the

"sub-conscious" condition, owing to the inimical influence of the matter which it in association with the soul. [Author's footnote.]

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hot, cold, light, heavy, hard, or soft; but the idea itself, that is my knowl-

edge of the object, is neither cold, nor hot, nor smooth, nor rough, nor

hard, nor soft. In the like manner color is to be found in the objects outside in the world; but none in the mind. This will also hold good of

taste, smell, and sound.

Knowledge then: i) consists in the states of a noncomposite and part- less . . . substance; 2) is natural to, that is inherent (unmanufactured)

in, the perceiving faculty; 3) is infinite; and 4) is devoid of material qual-

ities, color, taste and the like.

Now a thing that is not made up of parts is eternal, being unbreakable, indestructible and indissoluble. The faculty of knowledge, the partless substance whose function is conscious perception, is, then, immortal. As

such it is, and may properly be, termed soul.

The Ideal King I

The Jain attitude to rulership and government varied considerably. The state is a necessary feature of society in the period of decline in which we now find ourselves. It maintains the social order and is conducive to the good life,

leading to liberation. In this respect Jain thought differs very little from that

of Hinduism. In fact Jain writers set much the same ideals before rulers as do those of Hinduism, and their thought on the subject has few original features. A sample of typical Jain advice to kings is given later. Exceptional ideas, however, are to be found in the writings of Hemachandra, who appears to have had real influence on politics, which may still be indirectly felt in India to the present day. This teacher, the greatest doctor of Jainism, was born in

or about 1089 in Gujarat. Entering the Jain order as a boy, he rapidly acquired a great reputation for learning, and was much patronized by the powerful king of the Chaulukya dynasty, Jayasimha (1094-1 143), despite the fact that

the latter was an orthodox Hindu, Jayasimha died childless, and was succeeded

by Kumarapala (1143-72) a distant relation who seized the throne by force. Under Hemachandra's influence KumSrapala became a Jain, and, if we are to believe later Jain sources, enforced ahimsa so rigorously that two merchants

were mulcted of all their wealth for the crime of killing fleas. There is no

doubt that Kumarapala did attempt to enforce ahimsa quite stringently, under the guidance of his Jain mentor, who composed several works in his honor. Hemachandra died a little before his pupil at the age of eighty-four, by fasting to death; Kumarapala is said to have died in the same manner* His successor,

Ajayapala, introduced something of an orthodox reaction, and is referred to by the Jains as a^violent persecutor of their faith*

Hemachandra was evidently a man of great versatility; among his works

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are philosophical treatises, grammars of Sanskrit and Prakrit, lexica of both

languages, a treatise on poetics, and much narrative poetry which, if judged according to the canons of the time, is often very beautiful and brilliantly clever. The longest of his poems is The Deeds of the Sixty-three Eminent Men (Tnsasti$ala)(apurusacarita), an enormous work telling the stories of the twenty-four Tirthankaras and of other eminent figures in Jain mythology,

including the patriarchs and various legendary world emperors. The last section of this forms an independent whole, The Deeds of Mahavlra, and records the

life story of the historical founder of Jainism. In its course Mahavira is said

to have prophesied in his omniscience the rise to power of Hemachandra's

patron Kumarapala, and to have forecast the reforms he would inaugurate. It will be seen that Hemachandra's ideal king is a rigorous puritan, and that

he has a rather pathetic faith that man could be made good by legislation. [From Mahaviracarita, 12.59-77]

The vows, especially those concerning . . . food, He will keep regularly, and he will be generally celibate. The king will not only avoid prostitutes But will encourage his queens to remain chaste. . . .

He will not take the wealth of men who die sonless 1

This is the fruit of insight, for men without insight are never satisfied.

Hunting, which even the Pandus 2 and other pious kings did not give up,

He will abjure, and all men will do likewise at his command.

When he forbids all injury there will be no more hunting or other cruel

sports.

Even an untouchable will not kill a bug or a louse.

When he puts down all sin the wild deer of the forest Will ever chew the cud unharmed, like cows in a stall. * . .

Even creatures who eat meat by nature, at his command, Will forget the very name of meat, as an evil dream.

8

1

According to earlier Hindu law books, if a man died sonless and without male relatives the king was entitled to appropriate his property, though he was responsible for the maintenance of the widow and the dowering of the dead man's daughters. In accordance with the precept of the Ydjnaval%ya Smfti Kumarapala .allowed the widow to inherit in such cases.

* The heroes of the Mahabharata. 'It was a commonplace of Indian thought

1

that the king had jurisdiction not only over the human beings of his kingdom, but also over the animals. Hi* virtue or lack of it, moreover, was supposed directly to affect the course of nature.

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Drink, which even pious [Jain] laymen had not given up,

He, perfect of soul, will forbid everywhere, . . .

Drunkards, whose fortunes were ruined by calamitous drink

Will once more prosper, when they have given it up at his command.

Gambling, which even princes such as Nala 4 could not abandon,

He will utterly put an end to, like the name of his worst enemy. 5

Under his glorious rule, throughout the earth

There will be no more pigeon races or cock fights.

Continually bestowing his wealth on all men, he will redeem the debts o

the whole world,

And will establish his own era upon earth. 6

The Ideal King II

Other Jain writers set somewhat less puritanical ideals before their kings, and

their concept of good conduct in matters of government differed little from that of the Hindus. This is exemplified in the Nectar of Aphorisms on Polity of

Sornadeva, a Digambara teacher of the tenth century. This is a collection of

gnomic sentences on politics and good conduct, written in Sanskrit prose. We quote some of those concerning the ideal king.

[From Nitivaltyamrta, 17.180-84]

A true lord is he who is righteous, pure in lineage, conduct and associates, brave, and considerate in his behavior.

He is a true king who is self-controlled whether in anger or pleasure, and who increases his own excellence.

All subjects are dependent on the king. Those without a lord cannot ful-

fill their desires.

Though they be rich, subjects without a king cannot thrive. How can human effort be of any avail in cultivating a tree without roots?

If the king does not speak the truth all his merits are worthless. If he

deceives, his courtiers leave him, and he does not live long. * A famous king of the Mahabharata legend, who was ruined by gambling. "This line shows, as is quite clear from other sources, that Hemachandra's idea of

ahimsa did not include the renunciation of war. * Several great kings of Hindu India established new eras, but that of Kumarapala did

not survive his death.

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He is dear to the people who gives of his treasure. He is a great giver whose mind is not set on frustrating the hopes of sup-

pliants.

Of what use is the barren cow, which gives no milk ? Of what use is the

king's grace, if he does not fulfill the hopes of suppliants? For an ungrateful king there is no help in trouble. His frugal court is like

a hole full of snakes, which no one will enter.

If the king does not recognize merit the cultured will not come to his

court.

The king who thinks only of filling his belly is abandoned even by his

queen.

Laziness is the door through which all misfortunes enter. . -

A king's order is a wall which none can climb. He should not tolerate even a son who disobeys his commands. . . .

He should never speak hurtfully, untrustworthily, untruthfully, or un-

necessarily.

He should never be improper in dress or manners. When the king is deceitful, who will not be deceitful? When the king is

unrighteous who will not be unrighteous ? . . . He should personally look into the affairs of his people. . . . He should not make offering to the spirits of the night. . . .

Bribery is the door through which come all manner of sins. Those who live by bribery cut off their mother's breasts. . . .

The king is the maker of the times. When the king rightly protects his

subjects all the quarters are wishing-cows, 1 Indra rains in due season,

and all living things are at peace.

Practical Advice on War and Peace

Though charity and forgiveness are, of course, looked on as cardinal virtues, the highest virtue, for the Jain, is nonviolence, the importance of which is

repeated over and over again in Jain literature, with many variations. It is

noteworthy that, despite its nonviolence, Jainism never strongly opposed mili-

tarism; several great Jain kings were conquerors, and the ideal Jain king, Kumarapala, who is said to have enforced vegetarianism throughout his realm, is nowhere said to have given up warfare. No Jain monarch had the enlightened sentiments of Ashoka in this respect, and nowhere in the whole body of

Jain literature is a pica for peace between states to be found such as that in the 1 Legendary divine cows, which granted all the wishes of those who milked them.

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Buddhist Excellent Golden Light Sutra. Yet, in normal personal relations, ahimsa is repeatedly stated to be the greatest virtue.

With very few exceptions, Indian thinkers looked on warfare as legitimate. There were, however, two schools of thought on the subject* One, typified by the Mahabharata and the LawbooJ^ of Manu (Manusmiti), looked on war as good in its own right, a very exciting, if very grim sport, and sometimes even as a religious duty. There was no question of justified and unjustified warfare

here; wars of aggression, if waged fairly and with humanity toward the

wounded, prisoners, and noncombatants, were just as legitimate as wars of self-defense. The other school of thought, most clearly expressed in the famous treatise on polity (Arthasastra) ascribed to Kautilya, looked on war as a "con- tinuation of policy by other means," a legitimate last resort in achieving the

aims of statecraft, but not to be embarked on lightly, since it was expensive, troublesome, and uncertain in its outcome.

Jainism supported the second point of view; the Jain writer on polity, Somadeva, who on practical grounds advises war only as a last resort, like the Hindu political theorists, looks on it as a normal activity of the king.

[From Nitivdtydmrta, 344-56 cento}

The force of arms cannot do what peace does. If you can gain your de- sired end with sugar, why use poison ? . . .

What sensible man would abandon his bale [of merchandise] for fear of

having to pay toll on it? 2

For when the water is drained from the lake the crocodile grows as thin as a snake.3

A lion when he leaves the forest is no more than a jackal. And a snake whose fangs are drawn is a mere rope. In union is strength. Even a mad elephant will trip on a twisted clump of grass. And the elephants of the quarters

4 are held by ropes of twisted

fibers.

But what is the use of other means when the enemy can only be put down

by force ? Such expedients are like a libation of ghee poured on the fire

[which makes it burn more fiercely],

The Miseries and Dangers of Politics

The passages which we have quoted from the work of Hemachandra and Somadeva typify two Jain attitudes to political life. The first saw it as a

a Implying that it is better for a king to pay tribute to a more powerful enemy, rather

than to fight to the last and lose his kingdom altogether, and probably his life also. 9 Thus even if the enemy conquers, and seems imrncnsely powerful, he may yet lose much

of his power by one means or another, and it will then be possible to resist him. * Mythical divine elephants presiding over the cardinal points.

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means of enforcing morality as Jainism understood it upon those who would not accept the restraints of religion willingly; the second, as a necessary feature

of everyday life, which was perfectly legitimate provided it was conducted

justly. A third attitude is that shown by Somaprabha, an author of the late twelfth century, in the passage which we quote. The work from which it is taken is a didactic poem, the Arousing of Kumdrapala, which purports to tell of the conversion of Kong Kumarapala by Hemachandra, and of his reforms. The work is written in mixed Sanskrit, Prakrit, and Apabhramsha; our quota- tion is taken from a section composed in Apabhramsha.

Though both his main characters were keen politicians, Somaprabha, in the course of one of the stories told by the monk to the king, declares that political activity is inevitably sinful, and advises Jains to have nothing to do with it.

[From Kumarapalaprattbodha, Apabhramsha sections, 2.51-60 (Alsdorf, 105)]

The achievement of the three aims *

Is the essence of man's life,

But advancement in office

Is a hindrance thereto.

For when it pleases the king's mind A minister must harm others, and that is the source of sin.

How then can perfect righteousness arise in him, Through which he may gain eternal bliss ?

And the fortune which an officer extorts by force from others, Like a leech sucking blood,

His master may take from him, For he [the king] extorts from everyone.

Subservient to another, full of fears and cares,

Responsible for manifold affairs of state,

How can officials know the joys of love, In which great happiness reveals itself? . . .

After tossing on the ocean of being, of which birth and death are waves, You have come to man's estate.

Avoid the things of sense and pluck the fruit of human birth. 2

Why give up ten million for the sake of a mere penny ? . . . 1 Righteousness, profit, and pleasure.

a Only human beings are capable of achieving complete salvation. The gods cannot gain

it unless they are reborn as men, for in heaven there is not enough sorrow and pain to work of! the residual evil karma

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If you spend only five days in the service o a king You bring sin upon yourself,

And you must go, O soul, to the dark gulf of hell, \Vith its inevitable, intolerable, innumerable woes.

So give up the king's service; though it seems sweet as honey, It brings scorn and disillusion, it is basically 'wretched.

Work, O soul, for righteousness, and put aside your lethargy, Lest in hell you find not a few unpleasantnesses.

The soul that in youth does not strive after righteousness And does not avoid all reprehensible actions,

Will wring its hands in the hour of death, And be left like an archer with a broken bowstring.

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CHAPTER VI

THERAVADA BUDDHISM

As we have already seen, the centuries which saw the rise of Buddhism and Jainism in India were marked by continuing social change and pro- found intellectual ferment. What has been said above about the conditions in which the heterodox systems developed in the sixth and fifth centuries

must be borne in mind in the study of Buddhism.

The founder of Buddhism was the son of a chief of the hill-tribe of the

Shakyas, who gave up family life to become an ascetic when he was some

twenty-nine years old, and, after some years, emerged as the leader of a

band of followers who pursued the "Middle Way" between extreme asceticism and worldly life. The legends which were told about him in

later times are mostly unreliable, though they may contain a grain of historical truth here and there. Moreover many of the sermons and other

pronouncements attributed to the Buddha 1 are not his, but the work of

teachers in later times, and there is considerable doubt as to the exact na-

ture of his original message. However, the historicity of the Buddha is

certain, and we may believe as a minimum that he was originally a mem- ber of the Shakya tribe, that he gained enlightenment under a sacred

pipal tree at Gaya, in the modern Bihar, that he spent many years in teach-

ing and organizing his band of followers, and that he died at about the

age of eighty in Kusinara, a small town in the hills. The Sinhalese Bud-

dhists have preserved a tradition that he died in 544 B.C., but most modern

authorities believe that this date is some sixty years too early. The band of yellow-robed bht^hus

2 which the Buddha left behind

him to continue his work probably remained for some two hundred years one small group among the many heterodox sects of India, perhaps fewer in numbers and less influential than the rival sects of Jains and Ajivikas.

*"Thc Enlightened" or "Awakened," a religious title with which we may compare the Christian "Christ'* (i.e., "Anointed") and "Savior." The Buddha's real name was Siddhartha Gautama (Pali, Siddhattha Gotama).

3 Literally, "beggars," This is the Pali form, used by the Theravada Buddhists. The

Sanskrit form is bht^su. Here the word is generally translated "monk."

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Though by Western standards its rule was rigid, involving continuous

movement from place to place for eight months of the year and the con-

sumption of only one meal a day, which was to be obtained by begging, it was light in comparison with the discipline of most other orders, the

members of which were often compelled to take vows of total nudity, were

not permitted to wash, and had to undergo painful penances. It is evident

that between the death of the Buddha and the advent of Ashoka, the

first great Buddhist emperor, over two hundred years later, there was

considerable development of doctrine. Some sort of canon of sacred texts

appeared, though it was probably not at this time written down, and the

Buddhists acquired numerous lay followers. For the latter, and for the

less spiritually advanced monks, the sect adapted popular cults to Bud-

dhist purposes notably the cult of stupas, or funeral mounds, and that

of the sacred pipal tree. We have seen that these had probably been wor- shiped in the Ganges valley from time immemorial, and with such cults

both Hinduism and Buddhism had to come to terms. Buddhist monks

began to overlook 'the rule that they should travel from place to place

except in the rainy season and took to settling permanently in monasteries,

which were erected on land given by kings and other wealthy patrons, and were equipped with pipal trees and stupas, theoretically commemo-

rating the Buddha's enlightenment and death respectively.

Quite early in the history of Buddhism sectarian differences appeared. The tradition tells of two great councils of the Buddhist order, the first

soon after the Buddha's death, the second a hundred years later. At the

latter a schism occurred, and the sect of Maha$ahghi\as ("members of

the Great Order") is said to have broken away, ostensibly on account of

differences on points of monastic discipline, but probably on doctrinal

grounds also. The main body, which claimed to maintain the true tradi-

tion transmitted from the days of the founder, took to calling their system Theravada 3 ("The Teaching of the Elders"). By little over a century after

this schism the whole of India except the southern tip had been unified

politically by Magadha, after a long and steady process of expansion,

which culminated in the rise of the first great Indian imperial dynasty,

that of the Mauryas. The third and greatest of the Mauryas, Ashoka, be-

came a Buddhist. According to his own testimony he was so moved by

*In Sanskrit Sthavtravada, but the Pali form is generally used, as Pali was the official

language of the sect.

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remorse at the carnage caused by an aggressive war which he had waged that he experienced a complete change of heart and embraced Buddhism.

His inscriptions, the earliest intelligible written records to have survived

in India, testify to his earnestness and benevolence.

Buddhism seems to have received a great impetus from Ashoka's

patronage. He erected many stupas, endowed new monasteries, and en-

larged existing Buddhist establishments. In his reign the message of Bud-

hism was first carried over the whole of India by a number of mission-

aries, sent out, according to tradition, after a third council which met at

Pataliputra (the modern Patna) in order to purify the doctrine of heresy. It was in Ashoka's reign that Ceylon first became a Buddhist country, after the preaching of the apostle Mahmda, said to have been Ashoka's

son, who had become a monk. From that day onwards Ceylon has re- mained a stronghold of the Buddhism of the Theravada school; Maha-

yana and other Buddhist sects, though they have at times been influential, have never seriously shaken the hold of the form of Buddhism which

Ceylon looks on as particularly its own.

It is probable that, by the end of the third century B.C., the doctrines

of Theravada Buddhism were in essentials much as they are now. The monks taught a dynamic phenomenalism, maintaining that everything in the universe, including the gods and the souls of living beings, was in a

constant state of flux. Resistance to the cosmic flux of phenomena, and

craving for permanence where permanence could not be found, led to

inevitable sorrow. Salvation was to be obtained by the progressive aban-

donment of the sense of individuality, until it was lost completely in the

indescribable state known as Nirvana (Pali, Nibbdna, "blowing out"). The Buddha himself had reached this state, and no longer existed as an

individual; nevertheless he was still rather inconsistently revered by his

followers, and the less-learned Buddhist layfolk tended to look on him as a sort of high god.

The fundamental truths on which Buddhism is founded are not meta-

physical or theological, but rather psychological. Basic is the doctrine of

the "Four Noble Truths**: i) that all life is inevitably sorrowful; 2) that

sorrow is due to craving; 3) that it can only be stopped by the stopping of craving; and 4) that this can only be done by a course of carefully

disciplined and moral conduct, culminating in the life of concentration

and meditation led by the Buddhist monk. These four truths, which are

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the common property of all schools o Buddhist thought, are part of the true Doctrine (Pali, dhamma; Skt. dharma), which reflects the funda- mental moral law of the universe.

4

All things are composite. Buddhism would dispute the Hegelian theory that units may organize themselves into greater units which are more than the sum of their parts. As a corollary of the fact that all things are composite they are transient, for the composition of all aggregates is

liable to change with time. Moreover, being essentially transient, they have no eternal Self or soul, no abiding individuality. And, as we have

seen, they are inevitably liable to sorrow. This threefold characterization

of the nature of the world and all that it contains sorrowful, transient, and soulless is frequently repeated in Buddhist literature, and without

fully grasping its truth no being has any chance of salvation. For until

he thoroughly understands the three characteristics of the world a man will inevitably crave for permanence in one form or another, and as this

cannot, by the nature of things, be obtained, he will suffer, and probably make others suffer also.

All things in the universe may also be classified into five components, or are composed of a mixture of them: form and matter (rupa), sensa-

tions (yedema), perceptions (sanna), psychic dispositions or constructions

(sarnbjidra), and consciousness or conscious thought (yinnana). The first

consists of the objects of sense and various other elements of less impor- tance. Sensations are the actual feelings arising as a result of the exercise

of the six senses (mind being the sixth) upon sense-objects, and percep- tions are the cognitions of such sensations. The psychic constructions in-

clude all the various psychological emotions, propensities, faculties, and

conditions of the individual, while the fifth component, conscious thought,

arises from the interplay of the other psychic constituents. The individ-

ual is made up of a combination of the five components, which are never

the same from one moment to the next, and therefore his whole being is in a state of constant flux.

The process by which life continues and one thing leads to another is * The word dharma is employed in Buddhism a little differently from its use in Hinduism,

and is strictly untranslatable in English. One leading authority has translated it as "the

Norm"; in our extracts it is translated "the Doctrine," "Righteousness," or "The Law of

Righteousness" according to context. The term dharma in Buddhism has also other conno-

tations. Phenomena in general are dharmas, as are the qualities and characteristics of

phenomena. Thus the Buddha's last words might be translated: "Growing old is the dharma

of all composite things/'

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explained by the Chain o Causation (Paticca-samupfdda, lit. Dependent

Origination). The root cause of the process of birth and death and re-

birth is ignorance, the fundamental illusion that individuality and per-

manence exist, when in fact they do not. Hence there arise in the organism various psychic phenomena, including desire, followed by an attempt to

appropriate things to itself this is typified especially by sexual craving

and sexual intercourse, which are the actual causes of the next links in

the chain, which concludes with age and death, only to be repeated again

and again indefinitely. Rebirth takes place, therefore, according to laws

of karma which do not essentially differ from those of Hinduism, though

they are explained rather differently.

As we have seen, no permanent entity transmigrates from body to

body, and all things, including the individual, are in a state of constant

flux. But each act, word, or thought leaves its traces on the collection of

the five constituents which make up the phenomenal individual, and

their character alters correspondingly. This process goes on throughout

life, and, when the material and immaterial parts of the being are sep- arated in death, the immaterial constituents, which make up what in

other systems would be called the soul, carry over the consequential ef-

fects of the deeds of the past life, and obtain another body accordingly. Thus there is no permanent soul, but nevertheless room is found for the

doctrine of transmigration. Though Buddhism rejects the existence of the

soul, this makes little difference in practice, and the more popular liter-

ature of Buddhism, such as the Birth Stones (Jata\d)> takes for granted the existence of a quasi-soul at least, which endures indefinitely. One sect

of Buddhism, the Sammitiya, which admittedly made no great impression on the religious life of India, actually went so far as to admit the existence

of an indescribable substratum of personality (pudgala), which was

carried over from life to life until ultimately it was dissipated in Nirvana,

thus fundamentally agreeing with the pneumatology of most other Indian

religions.

The process of rebirth can only be stopped by achieving Nirvana, first

by adopting right views about the nature of existence, then by a carefully controlled system of moral conduct, and finally by concentration and

meditation. The state of Nirvana cannot be described, but it can be

hinted at or suggested metaphorically. The word literally means "blow-

ing out," as of a lamp. In Nirvana all idea of an individual personality

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or ego ceases to exist and there is nothing to be reborn as far as the in-

dividual is concerned Nirvana is annihilation. But it was certainly not

generally thought of by the early Buddhists m such negative terms. It was rather conceived of as a transcendent state, beyond the possibility of

full comprehension by the ordinary being enmeshed in the illusion of

selfhood, but not fundamentally different from the state of supreme bliss

as described in other non-theistic Indian systems.

These are the doctrines of the Theravada school, and, with few varia-

tions, they would be assented to by all other schools of Buddhism. But

the Mahayana 5 and quasi-Mahayana sects developed other doctrines, m

favor of which they often gave comparatively little attention to these

fundamental teachings. Of the Lesser Vehicle only one sect survives, the Theravada, now prev-

alent in Ceylon, Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, and Laos. There were

several others in earlier times, some of which had distinctive metaphysi- cal and psychological systems which approached more closely to those of

the Greater Vehicle than did that of the Theravada. The most important of these sects was perhaps that of the Sarvastivadins, which stressed the

absence of any real entity passing through time in transmigration, but on

the other hand maintained the ultimate reality of the chain of events

which made up the phenomenal being or object. A sub-sect of the Sarvastivadins, the Sautrantikas, emphasized the atomic nature of the

component elements of the chain every instant a composite object dis-

appeared, to be replaced by a new one which came into being as a result

of the last. This view of the universe, which appears in the systems of

other Buddhist sects in a less emphatic form, is akin to the quantum

theory of modern physics. Another very interesting sect of the Lesser Vehicle was the Mahasan-

ghika, said to have been the first to break away from the main body of

Buddhism. Subdivided into numerous schools, its chief characteristic was

the doctrine that the things of the phenomenal world were not wholly

real; thus it paved the way for the idealist world-view of Mahayana

philosophy. Buddhas, on the other hand, according to the fully developed

5 With the rise of the Mahayana form of Buddhism, Buddhist sects became divided into

two major groups. The newer sects referred to their doctrine as the "Mahayana," the

Greater Vehicle (to salvation), and to their rivals' as the "Hinayana," the Lesser Vehicle.

We have generally preferred to call the latter group Theravada from the name of its major sect.

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doctrine of the Mahasanghikas, had full reality, as heavenly beings in a

state of perpetual mystic trance, and earthly Buddhas such as the histori-

cal Gautama were mere docetic manifestations of the Buddhas in their

true state. It is possible that gnostic doctrines from the Middle East in-

fluenced this form of Buddhism, which came very close to Mahayanism,

differing only in the doctrine of bodhisattvas.

Buddhism also taught an advanced and altruistic system of morality, which was a corollary to its metaphysics, since one of the first steps on

the road to Nirvana was to do good to others, and thereby weaken the il-

lusion of egoity which was the main cause of human sorrow. Buddhism

set itself strongly against animal sacrifice and encouraged vegetarianism,

though it did not definitely impose it. It tended towards peace, even if

Ashoka's successors did not heed his injunctions to avoid aggression. Its

attitude to the system of class and caste is not always definite; while pas-

sages in the Buddhist scriptures can be found which attack all claims to

superiority by right of birth, the four great classes seem to have been

recognized as an almost inevitable aspect of Indian society; but the Bud-

dhist classification of these classes varies significantly from that of the

Hindus, for in Buddhist sources the warrior is usually mentioned before

the brahman.

The total literature of Buddhism is so large that it is quite impossible for a single individual to master it in his lifetime. Each of the numerous

sects of Buddhism had its version of the sacred scriptures written either

m a semi-vernacular Prakritic language or in a form of Sanskrit with peculiar syntax and vocabulary, generally known as "Buddhist Sanskrit."

Besides these there was a great body of commentarial literature, and

much philosophical and devotional writing of all kinds. Much of the literature of the sects other than the Theravada has been lost, or only sur-

vives in Chinese or Tibetan translations, but the complete canon of

Theravada Buddhism has been fully preserved in Ceylon. It is therefore

of fundamental importance in any study of Buddhism. It is written in

Pali, a language related to Sanskrit, and based on an ancient vernacular,

probably spoken in the western part of India.

The canon is generally known as Tripitafya (the Three Baskets) after the three sections into which it is divided, namely Conduct (Vmaya), Discourses (Sutta), and Supplementary Doctrines (Abhtdhamma). The first Pita\a contains the rules of conduct of the Buddhist order of

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monks and nuns, usually in connection with narratives which purport to tell the circumstances in which the Buddha laid down each rule. The second Pita\a is the most important; it contains discourses, mostly at-

tributed to the Buddha, divided into five sections: the Long Group (Dlgha Ni^dya) containing long discourses; the Medium Group (Maijhima Ni%aya) with discourses of shorter length; the Connected

Group (Samyutta Nifaya'), a collection of shorter pronouncements on

connected topics; the Progressive Group (Anguttara Nt^aya), short pas-

sages arranged in eleven sections according to the number of topics dealt

with in each thus the three types of sin, in act, word and thought, occur

in section three, and so on; and finally the Minor Group (Khuddafy NtJ(aya), a number of works of varying type, including the beautiful and very ancient Buddhist poems of the Way of Righteousness (Dham- mapada) and a collection of verses which are filled out by a lengthy

prose commentary to form the Birth Stories (]dta\a) relating the previous births of the Buddha.

The third Pita\a, the Supplementary Doctrines, is a collection of seven works on Buddhist psychology and metaphysics, which are little more

than a systematization of ideas contained in the Discourses, and are defi-

nitely later than the main body of the canon.

There is considerable disagreement about the date of the canon. Some earlier students of Buddhism believed that the Conduct and Discourse

Baskets existed in much the same form as they do now within a hundred

years of the Buddha's death. Later authorities are inclined to believe that

the growth of the canon was considerably slower. On the other hand

many of the discourses may look back to the Buddha himself, though all have been more or less worked over, and none can be specified with

certainty as being his own words. The orthodox tradition itself admits that the Basket of Supplementary Doctrines (Abhidhamma Pita^a) is

later than the other two, and was not completed until the time of Ashoka.

Sinhalese tradition records that the canon was not committed to writing until the reign of King Vattagamani (89-77 B.C.), and it may not have

finished growing until about this time. Thus it is possible that it is the

product of as many as four centuries. There are numerous other works in Pali which are not generally con-

sidered canonical* Perhaps the most important of these works are the

standard commentaries on the books of the canon, most of which, it is

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said, were compiled m Ceylon by the great doctor Buddhaghosa, of the fifth century A.D., from earlier commentaries. As well as passages of ex-

planatory character, the commentaries contain much ancient Buddhist

tradition not to be found elsewhere, and the elucidation of the ]ata\a

verses, in plain and vigorous prose, contains some of the finest narrative

literature of the ancient world. Buddhaghosa is also the reputed author of

a valuable compendium of Buddhist doctrine, The Way of Purification (Visuddhimagga). Another very important Pali work of early date is

The Questions of King Menander (Mihndapanha), from which several

passages are translated here. The inscriptions of Emperor Ashoka (c. 273-232 B.C.) must also be included in any survey, since they are inspired

by Buddhism and are at least in part intended to inculcate the morality of Buddhism.

BASIC DOCTRINES OF THERAVADA BUDDHISM

The Four Noble Truths

According to Buddhist tradition this was the first sermon preached by the

Buddha. After gaining enlightenment under the Tree of Wisdom at Gaya he

proceeded to Varanasi I 9 where, in a park outside the city, he found five ascetics

who had formerly been his associates, and who had left him in disgust when he

gave up self-mortification and self-starvation as useless in his quest for supreme wisdom. In the presence of these five the Buddha "set in motion the Wheel

2

of the Law" by preaching this sermon, which outlines the Four Noble Truths, the Noble Eightfold Path, and the Middle Way, three of the most important concepts of Buddhism.

[From Samyutta Ntfyiya, 5.421 ff. 3 ]

Thus I have heard. Once the Lord was at Varanasi, at the deer park called Isipatana. There he addressed the five monks:

There are two ends not to be served by a wanderer. What are these two? The pursuit of desires and of the pleasure which springs from de-

1 The ancient name of Banaras, now officially revived by the Indian government. 2 The chariot wheel in ancient India symbolized empire and hence this phrase may be

paraphrased as: "embarked on his expedition of conquest on behalf of the Kingdom of Righteousness."

8 In all quotations from the Pali scriptures, except where specified, reference is made to the

Pali Text Society's edition of the text.

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sire, which is base, common, leading to rebirth, ignoble, and unprofitable; and the pursuit of pain and hardship, which is grievous, ignoble, and un-

profitable. The Middle Way of the Tathagata

4 avoids both these ends.

It is enlightened, it brings clear vision, it makes for wisdom, and leads to

peace, insight, enlightenment, and Nirvana. What is the Middle Way? ... It is the Noble Eightfold Path Right Views, Right Resolve, Right

Speech, Right Conduct, Right Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindful-

ness, 5 and Right Concentration. This is the Middle Way. . . .

And this is the Noble Truth of Sorrow. Birth is sorrow, age is sorrow, disease is sorrow, death is sorrow; contact with the unpleasant is sorrow,

separation from the pleasant is sorrow, every wish unfulfilled is sor-

rowin short all the five components of individuality 6 are sorrow.

And this is the Noble Truth of the Arising of Sorrow. It arises from

craving, which leads to rebirth, which brings delight and passion, and

seeks pleasure now here, now there the craving for sensual pleasure, the craving for continued life, the craving for power.

And this is the Noble Truth of the Stopping of Sorrow. It is the com-

plete stopping of that craving, so that no passion remains, leaving it, be-

ing emancipated from it, being released from it, giving no place to it.

And this is the Noble Truth of the Way which Leads to the Stopping of Sorrow. It is the Noble Eightfold Path Right Views, Right Resolve,

Right Speech, Right Conduct, Right Livelihood, Right Effort, Right

Mindfulness, and Right Concentration.

The Nature of Consciousness and the Chain of Causation

The following Discourse, though it purports to be a single utterance of the

Buddha, is evidently a conflation of separate passages, bearing on the character

of consciousness. It contains a short statement of the contingent nature of con-

sciousness or conscious thought, an appeal for an objective and clear realization

that everything whatever is dependent on causes outside itself, an enumeration

of the elements of the Chain of Causation, given first in reverse order, an ex-

hortation to the monks not to bother unduly about the question of the survival

of the personality and to realize the facts of the Doctrine for themselves, not

taking them from the lips of the Teacher, and finally an impressive passage * "He who has thus attained," one of the titles of the Buddha. 5 Sati, lit. "memory

" At all times the monk should as far as possible be fully conscious of his actions, words, and thoughts, and be aware that the agent is not an enduring indi-

vidual, but a composite and transitory collection of material and psychic factors. 8 Forms, sensations, perceptions, psychic dispositions, and consciousness.

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comparing the life of the ordinary man with that of the Buddha, which we have not space to give here.

[From Majjhima NiJ(aya, 1.2565.]

Once a certain monk named Sari, the son of a fisherman,1 conceived the

pernicious heresy that, as he understood the Lord's teaching, conscious-

ness continued throughout transmigration. When they heard this several monks went and reasoned with him . . . but he would not give in, but

held firm to his heresy. ... So they went to the Lord and put the mat-

ter to him, and he sent a monk to fetch Sati. When Sati had come the Lord asked him if it was true that he held this heresy . . . and Sad re-

plied that he did hold it.

"What, then," asked the Lord, "is the nature of consciousness?"

"Sir, it is that which speaks and feels, and experiences the consequences of good and evil deeds."

"Whom do you tell, you foolish fellow, that I have taught such a doc- trine? Haven't I said, with many similes, that consciousness is not in-

dependent, but comes about through the Chain of Causation, and can

never arise without a cause? You misunderstand and misrepresent me, and so you undermine your own position and produce much demerit. You bring upon yourself lasting harm and sorrow!" . . .

Then the Lord addressed the assembled monks :

"Whatever form of consciousness arises from a condition is known by the name of that condition; thus if it arises from the eye and from forms it is known as visual consciousness . . . and so with the senses of hear-

ing, smell, taste, touch, and mind, and their objects. It's just like a fire, which you call by the name of the fuel a wood fire, a fire of sticks, a

grass fire, a cowdung fire, a fire of husks, a rubbish fire, and so on." 2

"Do you agree, monks, that any given organism is a living being?" "Yes, sir."

"Do you agree that it is produced by food?" 'Tes, sir." "And that when the food is cut off the living being is cut off and dies?"

"Yes, sir."

x ln theory the origins of a monk, once he had become a full member of the Order, were

irrelevant, but the authors of the Pah scriptures often mention the fact that a given monk was of humble birth. It would seem that they were not altogether free from class-conscious- ness.

3 The implication is that just as fire is caused by fuel and varies according to the fuel used, so consciousness is caused by the senses and their objects, and varies accordingly.

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"And that doubt on any of these points will lead to perplexity?" "Yes, sir."

"And that Right Recognition is knowledge of the true facts as they

really are?" "Yes, sir."

"Now if you cling to this pure and unvitiated view, if you cherish it, treasure it, and make it your own, will you be able to develop a state of

consciousness with which you can cross the stream of transmigration as

on a raft, which you use but do not keep?" "No, sir."

"But only if you maintain this pure view, but don't cling to it or

cherish it ... only if you use it but are ready to give it up?" 3 "Yes, sir."

"There are four bases which support all organisms and beings, whether

now existing or yet to be. They are: first, food coarse or fine, which

builds up the body; second, contact; third, cogitation; and fourth, con-

sciousness. All four derive and originate from craving. Craving arises

from sensation, sensation from contact, 4 contact from the six senses, the

six senses from physical form, physical form from consciousness, con-

sciousness from the psychic constructions, and the psychic constructions

from ignorance. ... To repeat: Ignorance is the cause of the psychic constructions, hence is caused consciousness, hence physical form, hence

the six senses, hence contact, hence sensations, hence craving, hence at-

tachment, hence becoming, hence birth, hence old age and death with all

the distraction of grief and lamentation, sorrow and despair. This is the

arising of the whole body of ill. ... So we are agreed that by the com-

plete cessation of ignorance the whole body of ill ceases.

"Now would you, knowing and seeing this, go back to your past, wondering whether you existed or didn't exist long ago, or how you ex-

isted, or what you were, or from what life you passed to another?" "No,

sir."

"Or would you look forward to the future with the same thoughts?"

"No, sir."

"Or would you, knowing and seeing this, trouble yourselves at the

8 Buddhism is a practical system, with one aim only, to free living beings from suffering.

This passage apparently implies that even the most fundamental doctrines of Buddhism are

only means to that end, and must not be maintained dogmatically for their own sake. It

suggests also that there may be higher truths, which can only be realized as Nirvana is

approached. * Here we are told that craving arises from contact, through sensation, while in the pre-

vious sentence contact arises from craving. There is no real paradox, because the chain is

circular, and any one link is the cause of any other.

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present time about whether or not you really exist, what and how you are, whence your being came, and whither it will go?" "No, sir."

"Or would you, possessing this knowledge, say, *We declare it because

tion ceases he will think "My soul has departed." One who thinks thus

looks on his soul as something impermanent in this life, a blend of hap-

piness and sorrow with a beginning and end, and so this proposition is

not acceptable.

If someone affirms that the soul is not sentient, you should ask, "If

you have no sensation, can you say that you exist?" He cannot, and so

this proposition is not acceptable.

And if someone affirms that the soul has sentience as a property you should ask, "If all sensations of every kind were to cease absolutely there

would be no feelings whatever. Could you then say I exist' ? " He could

not, and so this proposition is not acceptable. When a monk does not look on the soul as coming under any of these

three categories ... he refrains from such views and clings to nothing in

the world; and not clinging he does not tremble, and not trembling he

attains Nirvana. He knows that rebirth is at an end, that his goal is

reached, that he has accomplished what he set out to do, and that after

this present world there is no other for him. It would be absurd to say

of such a monk, with his heart set free, that he believes that the perfected

being survives after death or indeed that he does not survive, or that he

does and yet does not, or that he neither does nor does not. Because the

monk is free his state transcends all expression, predication, communica-

tion, and knowledge.

The Simile of the Chariot

This passage from the Questions of King Menander is among the best known

arguments in favor of the composite nature of the individual. The Greek

king Milinda, or Menander, ruled in northwestern India about the middle of

the second century B.C. According to the text he was converted to Buddhism

by Nagasena, and the wheel which appears on some of his numerous coins

would suggest that he was in fact influenced by the Indian religion. The style of the Questions is in some measure reminiscent of the Upanishads, but some

authorities have thought to find traces of the influence of Plato and have sug-

gested that the author or authors knew Greek. Though in its present form the

work may be some centuries later, its kernel may go back to before the Chris-

tian era.

[From Milindapanha (Trenckner ed.) pp. 25 f.]

Then King Menander went up to the Venerable Nagasena, greeted him

respectfully, and sat down. Nagasena replied to the greeting, and the

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King was pleased at heart. Then King Menander asked: "How is your reverence known, and what is your name?"

"I'm known as Nagasena, your Majesty, that's what my fellow monks call me. But though my parents may have given me such a name . . . it's

only a generally understood term, a practical designation. There is no

question of a permanent individual implied in the use of the word."

"Listen, you five hundred Greeks and eighty thousand monks!" said

King Menander. "This Nagasena has just declared that there's no perma- nent individuality implied in his name!" Then, turning to Nagasena, "If, Reverend Nagasena, there is no permanent individuality, who gives you monks your robes and food, lodging and medicines? And who makes use of them? Who lives a life of righteousness, meditates, and reaches Nirvana ? Who destroys living beings, steals, fornicates, tells lies, or drinks spirits? ... If what you say is true there's neither merit nor demerit, and no fruit or result of good or evil deeds. If someone were to kill you there would be no question of murder. And there would be no masters or teachers in the [Buddhist] Order and no ordinations. If your fellow

monks call you Nagasena, what then is Nagasena? Would you say that

your hair is Nagasena?" "No, your Majesty." "Or your nails, teeth, skin, or other parts of your body, or the outward

form, or sensation, or perception, or the psychic constructions, or con-

sciousness? * Are any of these Nagasena?" "No, your Majesty." "Then are all these taken together Nagasena?" "No, your Majesty." "Or anything other than they?" "No, your Majesty." "Then for all my asking I find no Nagasena. Nagasena is a mere sound!

Surely what your Reverence has said is false!"

Then the Venerable Nagasena addressed the King. "Your Majesty, how did you come here on foot, or in a vehicle?" "In a chariot."

"Then tell me what is the chariot? Is the pole the chariot?" "No, your Reverence."

"Or the axle, wheels, frame, reins, yoke, spokes, or goad?" "None of these things is the chariot."

"Then all these separate parts taken together are the chariot?" "No, your Reverence."

"Then is the chariot something other than the separate parts?" "No, your Reverence."

'The five components of individuality .

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"Then for all my asking, your Majesty, I can find no chariot. The chariot is a mere sound. What then is the chariot? Surely what your Majesty has said is false! There is no chariot! . . ."

When he had spoken the five hundred Greeks cried "Well done!" and said to the King, "Now, your Majesty, get out o that dilemma if you can!"

"What I said was not false/ 5

replied the King. "It's on account of all

these various components, the pole, axle, wheels, and so on, that the ve-

hicle is called a chariot. It's just a generally understood term, a prac-

tical designation."

"Well said, your Majesty! You know what the word 'chariot' means! And it's just the same with me. It's on account of the various components of my being that I'm known by the generally understood term, the practical designation Nagasena."

Change and Identity

After convincing Menander of the composite nature of the personality by the simile of the chariot, Nagasena shows him by another simile how it is con-

tinually changing with the passage of time, but possesses a specious unity

through the continuity of the body.

[From Mtlindapanha (Trenckner ed.), p. 40]

"Reverend Nagasena," said the King, "when a man is born does he re- main the same [being] or become another?"

"He neither remains the same nor becomes another.** "Give me an example!" "What do you think, your Majesty? You were once a baby lying on

your back, tender and small and weak. Was that baby you, who are now

grownup?" "No, your Reverence, the baby was one being and I am another." "If that's the case, your Majesty, you had no mother or father, and no

teachers in learning, manners, or wisdom. ... Is the boy who goes to school one [being] and the young man who has finished his education another? Does one person commit a crime and another suffer mutilation

fork?"

"Of course not, your Reverence! But what do you say on the question?" "I am the being I was when I was a baby," said the Elder . . . "for

through the continuity o the body all stages of life are included in a

pragmatic unity ."

"Give me an illustration."

"Suppose a man were to light a lamp, would it burn all through the

night? ""Yes, it might."

"Now is the flame which burns in the middle watch the same as that which burned in the first?" "No, your Reverence."

"Or is that which burns in the last watch the same as that which burned

in the middle?" "No, your Reverence."

"So is there one lamp in the first watch, another in the middle, and yet another in the last?"

"No. The same lamp gives light all through the night."

"Similarly, your Majesty, the continuity of phenomena is kept up. One

person comes into existence, another passes away, and the sequence runs

continuously without self-conscious existence, neither the same nor yet another."

"Well said, Reverend Nagasena!"

The Process of Rebirth

In this little passage Nagasena presses the analogy of the lamp further, and

shows Menander how rebirth is possible without any soul, substratum of per- sonality, or other hypothetical entity which passes from the one body to the

other.

[From Mihndapanha (Trenckner ed.), p. 71]

"Reverend Nagasena," said the King, "is it true that nothing trans-

migrates, and yet there is rebirth?"

"Yes, your Majesty." "Howean this be? . . . Give me an illustration."

"Suppose, your Majesty, a man lights one lamp from another does the one lamp transmigrate to the other?"

"No, your Reverence."

"So there is rebirth without anything transmigrating!"

Karma

Buddhism accepted the prevailing doctrine of karma, though it had an original explanation of the process whereby karma operated. In this passage from the

[106]

Questions of King Menander karma is adduced as the reason for the manifest

inequalities of human fate and fortune. Had Nagasena been disputing with an Indian king instead of with a Greek one the question would not have been

asked, for the answer would have been taken for granted. [From Mihndapanha (Trenckner ed.), p. 65]

"Venerable Nagasena," asked the King, "why are men not all alike, but some short-lived and some long, some sickly and some healthy, some ugly and some handsome, some weak and some strong, some poor and some

rich, some base and some noble, some stupid and some clever ?"

"Why, your Majesty," replied the Elder, "are not all plants alike, but

some astringent, some salty, some pungent, some sour, and some sweet?"

"I suppose, your Reverence, because they come from different seeds."

"And so it is with men! They are not alike because of different karmas. As the Lord said . . . 'Beings each have their own karma. They are . . .

born through karma, they become members of tribes and families through karma, each is ruled by karma, it is karma that divides them into high and low.'

"

"Very good, your Reverence!"

Right Mindfulness

The following passage is of interest as showing the means which the monk should take in order thoroughly to realize the transience and otherness of all

things, and thus draw near to Nirvana. The bhavanas, or states of mind, are

practiced by Buddhist monks to this day, and are part of "Right Mindfulness," the seventh stage of the Noble Eightfold Path. The translation is considerably abridged.

[From Majjhima Nifyaya, i.42off.]

The Lord was staying at Savatthi at the monastery of Anathapindaka in

the Grove of Jeta. One morning he dressed, took his robe and bowl, and

went into Savatthi for alms, with the Reverend Rahula * following close

behind him. As they walked the Lord, . . . without looking round, spoke to him thus:

"All material forms, past, present, or future, within or without, gross

or subtle, base or fine, far or near, all should be viewed with full under-

standing with the thought 'This is not mine, this is not I, this is not my soul.'"

2

1 The Buddha's son, who, after his father's enlightenment, became a monk.

"Or "self" (atta).

[107]

"Only material forms, Lord?"

"No, not only material forms, Rahula, but also sensation, perception, the psychic constructions, and consciousness."

3

"Who would go to the village to collect alms today, when he has been exhorted by the Lord himself?" said Rahula. And he turned back and sat

cross-legged, with body erect, collected in thought. Then the Venerable Sariputta,

4 seeing him thus, said to him : "Develop

concentration on inhalation and exhalation, for when this is developed and increased it is very productive and helpful." Towards evening Rahula rose and went to the Lord, and asked him

how he could develop concentration on inhalation and exhalation. And the Lord said:

"Rahula, whatever is hard and solid in an individual, such as hair,

nails, teeth, skin, flesh, and so on, is called the personal element of

earth. The personal element of water is composed of bile, phlegm, pus, blood, sweat, and so on. The personal element of fire is that which warms

and consumes or burns up, and produces metabolism of food and drink

in digestion. The personal element of air is the wind in the body which

moves upwards or downwards, the winds in the abdomen and stomach, winds which move from member to member, and the inhalation and

exhalation of the breath. And finally the personal element of space comprises the orifices of ears and nose, the door of the mouth, and the

channels whereby food and drink enter, remain in, and pass out of the

body. 5 These five personal elements, together with the five external ele-

ments, make up the total of the five universal elements. They should all

be regarded objectively, with right understanding, thinking 'This is not

mine, this is not me, this is not my soul.' With this understanding atti- tude a man turns from the five elements and his mind takes no delight in them.

"Develop a state of mind like the earth, Rahula. For on the earth men throw clean and unclean things, dung and urine, spittle, pus and blood, and the earth is not troubled or repelled or disgusted. And as you grow like the earth no contacts with pleasant or unpleasant will lay hold of your mind or stick to it.

"Similarly you should develop a state of mind like water, for men

* The five components of individuality. 4 One of the Buddha's chief disciples.

5 This interesting passage will give the reader some notion of ancient Indian ideas of

anatomy and physics, as it would have been assented to by most schools of thought In

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throw all manner of clean and unclean things into water and it is not

troubled or repelled or disgusted. And similarly with fire, which burns all things, clean and unclean, and with air, which blows upon them all, and with space, which is nowhere established.

"Develop the state of mind of friendliness, Rahula, for, as you do so, ill-will will grow less; and of compassion, for thus vexation will grow less; and of joy, for thus aversion will grow less; and of equanimity,

6 for

thus repugnance will grow less.

"Develop the state of mind of consciousness of the corruption of the

body, for thus passion will grow less; and of the consciousness of the

fleeting nature of all things, for thus the pride of selfhood will grow less.

"Develop the state of mind of ordering the breath, ... in which the monk goes to the forest, or to the root of a tree or to an empty house, and sits cross-legged with body erect, collected in thought. Fully mindful he

inhales and exhales. When he inhales or exhales a long breath he knows

precisely that he is doing so, and similarly when inhaling or exhaling a

short breath. While inhaling or exhaling he trains himself to be con-

scious of the whole of his body, ... to be fully conscious of the com-

ponents of his mind, ... to realize the impermanence of all things, . . .

or to dwell on passionlessness ... or renunciation. Thus the state of or-

dered breathing, when developed and increased, is very productive and

helpful. And when the mind is thus developed a man breathes his last breath in full consciousness, and not unconsciously."

r

The Last Instructions of the Buddha

The following passage occurs in the Discourse of the Great Passing-away (Mahaparmtbbana Sutta) which describes the last days and death of the

Buddha. The Master, an old and ailing man, is on the way to the hills where he was born, and where soon he is to die. These are among his last recorded instructions to his disciples. Unfortunately we cannot be sure of their authenticity; the fine phrases concerning "the closed fist of the teacher"

are particularly suspect, for they are just the sort of interpolation which an

earnest Theravada monk would be likely to make, in order to discredit

many passages Buddhist texts admit only four elements, rejecting space, which is looked on as an element in orthodox Hindu theory.

c Friendliness, compassion, joy, and equanimity are the four cardinal virtues of Buddhism.

7 The state of mind in the last moments before death was considered extremely impor- tant in its effect on the next birth. Some of the Chinese and Japanese Buddhist sects per- form rites at the deathbed similar to the Roman Catholic extreme unction.

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the doctrines of schismatics of a Mahayanist type, who claimed to possess the esoteric teachings of the Master. But, whether authentically the Buddha's

words or not, the following passage perhaps gives the quintessence of Thera- vada Buddhism, with its call for self-reliant striving against all that seems base and evil.

[From Digha Ni1(aya, 2.99 f., 155-56]

Soon after this the Lord began to recover, and when he was quite free from sickness he came out of his lodging and sat in its shadow on a seat

spread out for him. The Venerable Ananda went up to him, paid his re-

spects, sat down to one side, and spoke to the Lord thus: "I have seen the Lord in health, and I have seen the Lord in sickness;

and when I saw that the Lord was sick my body became as weak as a

creeper, my sight dimmed, and all my faculties weakened. But yet I was a little comforted by the thought that the Lord would not pass away until he had left his instructions concerning the Order."

"What, Ananda! Does the Order expect that of me? I have taught the truth without making any distinction between exoteric and esoteric doc-

trines; for ... with the Tathagata there is no such thing as the closed fist

of the teacher who keeps some things back. If anyone thinks 'It is I who will lead the Order,' or 'The Order depends on me,' he is the one who should lay down instructions concerning the Order. But the Tathagata has no such thought, so why should he leave instructions ? I am old now, Ananda, and full of years; my journey nears its end, and I have reached rny sum of days, for I am nearly eighty years old. Just as a worn out cart can only be kept going if it is tied up with thongs, so the body of the

Tathagata can only be kept going by bandaging it. Only when the

Tathagata no longer attends to any outward object, when all separate sensation stops and he is deep in inner concentration, is his body at ease.

"So, Ananda, you must be your own lamps, be your own refuges. Take refuge in nothing outside yourselves. Hold firm to the truth as a lamp and a refuge, and do not look for refuge to anything besides yourselves. A monk becomes his own lamp and refuge by continually looking on his body, feelings, perceptions, moods, and ideas in such a manner that he

conquers the cravings and depressions of ordinary men and is always strenuous, self-possessed, and collected hi mind. Whoever among my monks does this, either now or when I am dead, if he is anxious to learn, will reach the summit." [p. 99 ]

[no]

THE LAST WORDS OF THE BUDDHA

"All composite things must pass away. Strive onward vigilantly." [pp.

I55-56]

The Buddha in Nirvana

This brief passage from the Questions of King Menander illustrates the Thera-

vada conception of Nirvana. It is not total annihilation, but at the same time

it involves the complete disintegration of the phenomenal personality a para-

dox which cannot be explained in words.

[From Mtlindapanha (Trenckner, ed.), p. 73]

"Reverend Nagasena," said the King, "does the Buddha still exist?"

"Yes, your Majesty, he does."

"Then is it possible to point out the Buddha as being here or there?"

"The Lord has passed completely away in Nirvana, so that nothing is

left which could lead to the formation of another being. And so he can-

not be pointed out as being here or there."

"Give me an illustration." "What would your Majesty say if a great fire were blazing, would it be

possible to point to a flame which had gone out and say that it was here

or there?"

"No, your Reverence, the flame is extinguished, it can't be detected."

"In just the same way, your Majesty, the Lord has passed away in

Nirvana. . . . He can only be pointed out in the body of his doctrine, for it was he who taught it."

"Very good, Reverend Nagasena 1"

The City of Righteousness

This fine passage, from the latter part of the Questions of King Menander,

is probably the work of a hand different from that which composed the

dialogues which we have already quoted. In it the Buddha almost takes on

the character of a savior god, who, like Amitabha in the developed Mahayana

mythology, built a heaven for his followers. Nirvana is not described in nega- tive terms, but in very positive ones, and the metaphor of the busy, populous, and prosperous city hardly suggests the rarified Nirvana of the previous passage, but a heaven in which personality is by no means lost. It suggests in fact to

the Western reader the New Jerusalem of the Book of Revelation. Clearly this

passage is the work of a writer whose attitude approached closely to that of

Mahayana, but it must be remembered that Theravada Buddhists look on the

text from which it is taken as semi-canonical.

[From Milindapanha (Trenckner ed.), pp. 330 E.]

The builder of a city . . . first chooses a pleasant and suitable site; he

makes it smooth, and then sets to work to build his city fair and well

proportioned, divided into quarters, with ramparts round about it. ...

And when the city is built, and stands complete and perfect, he goes away to another land. And in time the city becomes rich and prosperous,

peaceful and happy> free from plague and calamity, and filled with peo-

ple of all classes and professions and of all lands . . . even with Scythians,

Greeks, and Chinese. . . . All these folk coming to live in the new city and finding it so well planned, faultless, perfect, and beautiful exclaim:

"Skilled indeed must be the builder who built this city!" So the Lord ... in his infinite goodness . . . when he had achieved

the highest powers of Buddhahood and had conquered Mara * and his

hosts, tearing the net of false doctrine, casting aside ignorance, and pro-

ducing wisdom, . . . built the City of Righteousness. The Lord's City of Righteousness has virtue for its ramparts, fear of

sin for its moat, knowledge for its gates, zeal for its turrets, faith for its

pillars, concentration for its watchman, wisdom for its palaces. The Bas-

\et of Discourses is its marketplace, the Supplementary Doctrines its

roads, the Conduct its court of justice, and earnest self-control is its main

street. . . .

The Lord laid down the following subjects for meditation: the ideas

of impermanence, of the nonexistence of an enduring self, of the impurity and of the wretchedness of life, of ridding oneself of evil tendencies, of

passionlessness, of stopping the influx of evil tendencies, of dissatisfaction

with all things in the world, of the impermanence of all conditioned

things, of mindful control of breath, of the corpse in disintegration, of the

execution of criminals with all its horrors; the ideas of friendliness, of

compassion, of joy, of equanimity, 2 the thought of death, and mindfulness

of the body. . . . Whoever wishes to be free from age and death takes

one of these as a subject for meditation, and thus he is set free from

passion, hatred, and dullness, 3 from pride and from false views; he crosses

1 The spirit of the world and the flesh, the Buddhist Satan. a The four cardinal virtues of Buddhism. 8 The three "influxes" (asava), the cardinal sins of Buddhism.

[xia]

the ocean of rebirth, dams the torrent of his cravings, is washed clean of

the threefold stain [of passion, hatred, and dullness], and destroys all evil

within him. So he enters the glorious city of Nirvana, stainless and unde-

filed, pure and white., imaging, deathless, secure and calm and happy, and his mind is emancipated as a perfected being.

THE ETHICS OF THERAVADA BUDDHISM

In the sphere of personal relations Buddhism inculcated a morality

gentler and more humanitarian than the stern early Hindu ethic, based

chiefly on duty rather than fellowship. The four cardinal virtues of

Buddhism friendliness, compassion, joy, and equanimity are extolled

in many passages of the scriptures. The Birth Stories teach friendly rela-

tions between man and man and between man and animal, and encourage the warm virtues of family love, brotherhood, and honesty (not to speak of shrewdness) in one's dealings with others. Though the surviving Buddhist religious literature is chiefly intended for the monastic com-

munity Buddhism certainly had, and still has, a message going far beyond the monastery to the millions of ordinary believers who have no hope of

Nirvana until after many lives, but who may yet rise in the scale of being

by faith in the teaching of the Buddha, by service to the Buddhist Order,

and by fair dealing with their fellows.

In this connection we would draw attention to the most important

passage on lay morality in the Pali scriptures the Discourse of Admoni-

tion to Singala (Singdlovdda Sutta). It is a solid bourgeois morality that

this text encourages. Like many older writings of Protestant Christianity it stresses the virtue of thrift expensive ceremonies and domestic rituals

are wasteful as well as useless; fairs and festivals lead men to squander

precious time and wealth; from the layman's point of view drink and

gambling are evil chiefly for the same reasons; to increase the family es-

tates is a meritorious act. But there is more in the Discourse than this. In

modern terms the ideal it sets forth is of a society in which each individual

respects the other's personality, an intricate network of warm and happy human relationships, where parents and children, teachers and pupils, husbands and wives, masters and servants, and friends and friends look

on one another as ends in themselves, and dwell together in mutual

respect and affection, each helping the other upward in the scale of being

through a cosmos which, though theoretically a vale of tears, yet contains

pleasant places and gives many opportunities for real if transient happi- ness in fellowship with friends and kin. And the inevitable sorrow of all

who are born only to grow old and pass away, the lonely anguish of the

individual being who finds himself at odds with an unfriendly universe, can only be lessened, at least for the ordinary layman, by brotherhood.

The Morals of the Mon\

The following extract is part of a long panegyric of the Buddha, leading up to a description of his perfect wisdom. The moral virtues attributed to him

in the earlier part of the passage, which is quoted here, are those after which

every monk should strive; and, allowing for their different circumstances, the monk's example should be followed as far as possible by the layman.

[From Digha Ntfaya, 1.4 f.]

The monk Gautama has given up injury to life, he has lost all inclination

to it; he has laid aside the cudgel and the sword, and he lives modestly, full of mercy, desiring in compassion the welfare of all things living.

He has given up taking what is not given, he has lost all inclination to it. He accepts what is given to him and waits for it to be given; and he lives in honesty and purity of heart. . . .

He has given up unchastity, he has lost all inclination to it. He is celi- bate and aloof, and has lost all desire for sexual intercourse, which is

vulgar. . . .

He has given up false speech, he has lost all inclination to it. He speaks the truth, he keeps faith, he is faithful and trustworthy, he does not break

his word to the world. . . .

He has given up slander, he has lost all inclination to it. When he hears

something in one place he will not repeat it in another in order to cause

strife, . . . but he unites those who are divided by strife, and encourages those who are friends. His pleasure is in peace, he loves peace and delights in it, and when he speaks he speaks words which make for peace. . . .

He has given up harsh speech, he has lost all inclination to it. He speaks only words that are blameless, pleasing to the ear, touching the heart,

cultured, pleasing the people, loved by the people. . . .

He has given up frivolous talk, he has lost all inclination to it. He

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speaks at the right time, in accordance with the facts, with words full of

meaning. His speech is memorable, timely, well illustrated, measured, and

to the point. 1

He does no harm to seeds or plants. He takes only one meal a day, not

eating at night, or at the wrong time. 2 He will not watch shows, or attend

fairs with song, dance, and music. He will not wear ornaments, or adorn himself with garlands, scents, or cosmetics. He will not use a high or large bed. He will not accept gold or silver, raw grain or raw meat. He will not

accept women or girls, bondmen or bondwomen, sheep or goats, fowls or

pigs, elephants or cattle, horses or mares, fields or houses. He will not act as go-between or messenger. He will not buy or sell, or falsify with scales, weights, or measures. He is never crooked, will never bribe, or cheat, or defraud. He will not injure, kill, or put in bonds, or steal, or do acts of violence.

Care of the Body

The Buddhist Order was very solicitous for the bodily health of its members, and the Buddha is reported to have said, on one occasion: "He who would care for me should care for the sick." l Buddhist monasteries often served as

dispensaries, and it has been suggested that one of the reasons for the spread of Buddhism in Southeast Asia and elsewhere was the medical lore of the

Buddhist monks, which, though of course primitive by modern standards, was superior to anything known to the local inhabitants, and thus added to

the reputation of the new religion. The Questions of King Menander explains the apparent anomaly that a sys-

tem which stressed so strongly the evils of the things of the flesh should also

value physical wellbeing so highly.

[From Mthndapanha (Trenckner ed.), pp. 73-74]

The King said: "Reverend Nagasena, is the body dear to you wanderers?"

"No, your Majesty." "Then why do you feed it and care for it so well?"

"Have you ever gone to battle, and been wounded by an arrow?"

1 The layman in Buddhism is expected to follow the example of Gautama in all the points of morality above, except, of course, that in place of complete celibacy legitimate sexual re-

lations are allowed. Many of the points that follow would be regarded as subjects of su-

pererogation for the layman, though he might adhere to some of them for specified periods

It should be remembered, incidentally, that the vows of the Buddhist monk are not taken

in perpetuity, and a Buddhist layman will often take the monk's vows for a short period. 8 That is, after midday.

* Vmaya Pttafa i. 302 (Mahdvagga 8. 26).

"Yes, your Reverence, I have.'*

"And in such a case isn't the wound smeared with ointment, anointed

with oil, and bound with a bandage?"

"Yes, that's what is done."

"And is the wound dear to you, your Majesty, that you care for it so

well?"

"Certainly not! All those things are done to make the flesh grow to-

gether again."

"So, you see, wanderers do not hold the body dear, your Majesty! With-

out clinging to it they bear the body in continence, for the Lord declared

that the body was like a wound. . . .

'Covered with clammy skin, with nine openings, a great wound,

The body oozes from every pore, unclean and stinking.' "

"Well spoken, Reverend Nagasena!"

''Lay Not Up for Yourselves Treasures ufon Earth. . . /'

In theory "right views" about the nature of the world are the first step along the Eightfold Path. But the Buddhist literature meant chiefly for laymen tends to emphasize right actions rather than right views. Whatever the beliefs

of a man may be, his good deeds and self-discipline are an unfailing source of

merit, and lead to a happier rebirth, which may give him the opportunity for further spiritual progress. We quote the following little passage partly because it recalls a famous verse of the Sermon on the Mount. Notice that

the treasure "cannot be given to others." This is the doctrine of the Theravada

sect. The Mahayana teaches that the merit accruing from good deeds can be transferred by a voluntary act of will, and men are encouraged, by the

example o the compassionate bodhisattvas (See Chapter VII), to make such transfers of merit.

[From Khudda\a Patha, 8]

A man buries a treasure in a deep pit, thinking: "It will be useful in time of need, or if the king is displeased with me, or if I am robbed or fall into

debt, or if food is scarce, or bad luck befalls me."

But all this treasure may not profit the owner at all, for h*e may forget where he has hidden it, or goblins may steal it, or his enemies or even his kinsmen may take it when he is careless. But by charity, goodness, restraint, and self-control man and woman

alike can store up a well-hidden treasure a treasure which cannot be

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given to others and which robbers cannot steal. A wise man should do

good that is the treasure which will not leave him.

The Virtue of Friendliness

The following poem is evidently a conflation from two sources, for in the

middle of the third verse its whole tone changes, and in place of a rather

pedestrian enumeration of the Buddhist virtues we have an impassioned rhapsody on the theme of friendliness (metta), the first of the four cardinal

virtues. "Mmdfulness of friendliness" is among the daily exercises of the monk, and can also be practiced by the layman; he detaches himself in imagination from his own body, and, as though looking down on himself, pervades him- self with friendliness directed towards himself, for it is impossible to feel

true friendliness or love for others unless, in the best sense of the term, one feels

it for oneself; then he proceeds in imagination to send waves of friendliness

in every direction, to reach every being in every corner of the world. After per-

vading the world with love he may repeat the process with the three other

cardinal virtues compassion, joy, and equanimity. These forms of the practice of "right mindfulness" are known as Brahma-vthdras, freely translated "sub-

lime moods." They are still practiced by Buddhists throughout the world, and

it is believed, especially among the Mahayanist sects, that the waves of friendli-

ness constantly poured out by many -thousands of meditating monks have a

very positive effect on the welfare of the world.

[From Sutta Nipata, p."143 ff.]

This a man should do who knows what is good for him, Who understands the meaning of the Place of Peace [i.e^ Nirvana] He should be able, upright, truly straight, Kindly of speech, mild, and without conceit.

He should be well content, soon satisfied, Having few wants and simple tastes, With composed senses, discreet, Not arrogant or grasping. . . .

In his deeds there should be no meanness *

For which the wise might blame him.

May all be happy and safe I

May all beings gain inner joy

All living beings whatever

Without exception, weak or strong, Whether long or high

Middling or small, subtle or gross, Seen or unseen,

Dwelling afar or near,

Born or yet unborn

May all beings gain inner joy.

May no being deceive another, Nor in any way scorn another, Nor, in anger or ill-will,

Desire another's sorrow.

As a mother -cares for her son, Her only son, all her days, So towards all things living A man's mind should be all-embracing. Friendliness for the whole world,

All-embracing, he should raise in his rnind,

Above, below, and across,

Unhindered, free from hate and ill-will.

Standing, walking or sitting, Or lying down, till he falls asleep, He should remain firm in this mindfulness, For this is the sublime mood.

Avoiding all false views,

Virtuous, filled with insight, Let him conquer the lust of the passions, And he shall never again be born of the womb*

Hatred and Love

The idea of "turning the other cheek" in one's personal relations is frequently to be found in Buddhist literature. Nevertheless there are few condemnations of warfare, as distinct from acts of violence on the part of individuals, and the Theravada scriptures contain no passages on this latter topic as forthright as

[n8]

Ashoka's Thirteenth Rock-Edict (quoted later). The following verses from the

Way of Righteousness exemplify these points. [From Dhammapada, 3-5, 201]

"He insulted me, he struck me, He defeated me, he robbed me!"

Those who harbor such thoughts Are never appeased in their hatred. . .

But those who do not harbor them

Are quickly appeased.

Never in this world is hate

Appeased by hatred;

It is only appeased by love

This is an eternal law (sanantana-dhamma). 1

Victory breeds hatred

For the defeated lie down in sorrow.

Above victory or defeat

The calm man dwells in peace.

Buddhism and Everyday Life

The Admonition to Singdla is the longest single passage in the Pali scriptures devoted to lay morality. Though put in the mouth of the Buddha, it is proba-

bly not authentically his; parts of it, however, may be based on a few trans-

mitted recollections of his teaching. Like many other Discourses it seems to

emanate from more than one source, for the earlier part, enumerating the many sins and faults to which the layman is liable, and describing the true friend, is

divided by a series of verses from the later and finer passage, defining the

duties of the layman in his sixfold relationship with his fellows.

The reader should notice the solid, frugal, mercantile virtues which are in-

culcated, especially in the first part. This sermon is evidently not directed

chiefly at the very poor or the very rich, but at the prosperous middle class.

Also noteworthy are the paragraphs on the duties of husbands and wives and

masters and servants in the second part of the sermon if read in terms of

rights rather than of duties they seem to imply the wife's right to full control

of household affairs and to an adequate dress allowance, and the employee's

right to fair wages and conditions, regular holidays, and free medical attention.

[From Dlgha Nityya, 3.1 80 f!.] 1 Skt. Sandtana dharma, a conventional term designating "Hinduism,"

redefined here

in terms of Buddhist ethics.

[ti9 ]

Once when the Lord was staying in the Bamboo Grove at Rajagaha,

Singala, a householder's son, got up early, went out from Rajagaha, and,

with his clothes and hair still wet from his morning ablutions, joined his

hands in reverence and worshiped the several quarters of earth and sky-

east, south, west, north, above, and below. Now early that same morning the Lord dressed himself, and with bowl and robe went into Rajagaha to

beg his food. He saw Singala worshiping the quarters, and asked him why he did so.

"When my father lay dying," Singala replied, "he told me to worship the quarters thus. I honor my father's words, and respect and revere them, and so I always get up early and worship the quarters in this way."

"But to worship the six quarters thus is not in accordance with noble

conduct."

"How then, Sir, should they be worshiped in accordance with noble conduct? Will the Lord be so good as to tell me?"

"Listen then," said the Lord, "and I'll tell you. Mark well what I say!" "I will, Sir," Singala replied. And the Lord spoke as follows : "If the noble lay-disciple has given up the four vices of action, if he

does no evil deed from any of the four motives, if he doesn't follow the

six ways of squandering his wealth, if he avoids all these fourteen evils-

then he embraces the six quarters, he is ready for the conquest of both

worlds, he is fortunate both in this world and the next, and when his body breaks up on his death he is reborn to bliss in heaven,

"What are the four vices of action that he gives up? They are injury to

life, taking what is not given, base conduct in sexual matters, and false

speech. . . .

"What are the four motives of evil deeds which he avoids ? Evil deeds

are committed from partiality, enmity, stupidity, and fear.

"And what are the six ways of squandering wealth? They are addiction

to drink, the cause of carelessness; roaming the streets at improper times;

frequenting fairs; gambling; keeping bad company; and idleness.

"There are six dangers in addiction to drink: actual loss of wealth; in-

creased liability to quarrels; liability to illness; loss of reputation; indecent

exposure; and weakened intelligence. "There are six dangers in roaming the streets at improper times: the man

who does so is unprotected and unguarded; so are his wife and children; and likewise his property; he incurs suspicion of having committed crime;

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he is the subject of false rumors; in fact he goes out to meet all kinds of

trouble.

"There are six dangers in frequenting fairs: the man who does so be-

comes an insatiable addict of dancing; singing; music; story-telling; jug-

glers; or acrobats.

"There are six dangers in gambling: the winner incurs hatred; the loser

regrets his lost money; there is obvious loss of wealth; a gambler's word

is not respected in the law courts; he is scorned by his friends and coun-

selors; and he is not cultivated by people who want to marry their daugh- ters, for the rogue who's always dicing isn't fit to keep a wife.

"There are six dangers in keeping bad company: a man who does so

has as his friends and companions rogues; libertines; drunkards; confi-

dence men; swindlers; and toughs. "And there are six dangers in idleness; A man says, 'it's too cold' and

doesn't work; or he says, 'it's too hot'; or 'it's too early'; or 'it's too late';

or Tm too hungry'; or 'I'm too full.' And so all the while he won't do what he ought to do, and he earns no new wealth, but fritters away what

he has already earned.

"There are four types who should be looked on as enemies in the guise of friends: a grasping man; a smooth-spoken man; a man who only says what you want to hear; and a man who helps you waste your money. "The grasping man is an enemy on four grounds: he is grasping; when

he gives a little he expects a lot in return; what duty he performs he does

out of fear; and he only serves his own interests. "The smooth-spoken man is an enemy on four grounds: he speaks you

fair about the past; he speaks you fair about the future; he tries to win

you over by empty promises; but when there's something to be done he

shows his shortcomings. 1

"The man who only says what you want to hear is an enemy on four

grounds: he consents to an evil deed; he doesn't consent to a good one; he

praises you to your face; but he runs you down behind your back.

"The wastrel is an enemy on four grounds : he is your companion when

you drink; when you roam the streets at improper times; when you go to

fairs; and when you gamble.

1 Thc commentator Buddhaghosa gives a quaint example of the conduct of such a false

friend you send a message asking bum to lend you his cart, and he replies that the axle

is broken.

"But there are four types who should be looked on as friends true of

heart: a man who seeks to help you; a man who is the same in weal and

woe; a man who gives good advice; and a man who is sympathetic. . .

The friend who is a helper, The friend in weal and woe,

The friend who gives good counsel, The friend who sympathizes

These the wise man should know

As his four true friends,

And should devote himself to them

As a mother to the child of her body.

The wise and moral man Shines like a fire on a hilltop,

Making money like the bee, Who does not hurt the flower.

Such a man makes his pile As an anthill, gradually.

The man grown wealthy thus Can help his family

And firmly bind his friends To himself. He should divide

His money in four parts; On one part he should live,

With two expand his trade, And the fourth he should save

Against a rainy day. 2

"And how does the noble lay-disciple embrace the six quarters? He should recognize these as the six quarters: mother and father as the east;

3 These verses are undoubtedly popular gnomic poetry, adapted with little or no altera-

tion to Buddhist purposes. They effectively give the he to the picture, still popular in some

circles, of ancient India as a land of "plain living and high thinking." The last three verses are evidently the product of a society quite as acquisitive as that of present-day Europe or America. The commentator Buddhaghosa found them difficult, for the ideal layman is here said to plow half his income back into his trade, but to devote nothing to religious or charitable causes. The phenomenal rate of reinvestment advocated suggests a rapidly expanding economy.

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teachers as the south; wife and children as the west; friends and coun-

selors as the north; slaves and servants as below; and ascetics and brah-

mans as above.

"A son should serve his mother and father as the eastern quarter in five

ways: having been maintained by them in his childhood he should main-

tain them in their old age; he should perform the duties which formerly devolved on them; he should maintain the honor and the traditions of his

family and lineage; he should make himself worthy of his heritage; and

he should make offerings to the spirits of the departed. And thus served

by their son as the eastern quarter his mother and father should care for

him in five ways: they should restrain him from evil; encourage him to

do good; have him taught a profession; arrange for his marriage to a

suitable wife; and transfer his inheritance to him in due time. Thus he

embraces the eastern quarter and makes it safe and propitious. "A pupil should serve his teacher as the southern quarter in five ways:

by rising [to greet him when he enters]; by waiting upon him; by willing- ness to learn; by attentive service; and by diligently learning his trade.

And thus served by his pupil as the southern quarter a teacher should care for him in five ways: he should train him in good conduct; teach him in

such a way that he remembers what he has been taught; thoroughly in-

struct him in the lore of every art [of his trade] ; speak well of him to

his friends and counselors; and protect him in every quarter. Thus he

embraces the southern quarter and makes it safe and propitious. "A husband should serve his wife as the western quarter in five ways:

by honoring her; by respecting her; by remaining faithful to her; by giv-

ing her charge of the home; and by duly giving her adornments. And

thus served by her husband as the western quarter a wife should care for

him in five ways: she should be efficient in her household tasks; she

should manage her servants well; she should be chaste; she should take

care of the goods which he brings home; and she should be skillful and

untiring in all her duties. Thus he embraces the western quarter and

makes it safe and propitious. "A gentleman should serve his friends and counselors as the northern

quarter in five ways: by generosity; by courtesy; by helping them; by

treating them as he would treat himself; and by keeping his word to

them. And thus served by a gentleman as the northern quarter his friends

and counselors should care for him in five ways: they should protect him

when he is careless; they should guard his property on such occasions;

they should be a refuge for him in trouble; in misfortune they should not

leave him; and they should respect other members of his family. Thus he

embraces the western quarter and makes it safe and propitious.

"A master should serve his slaves and servants as the lower quarter in

five ways: he should assign them work in proportion to their strength;

he should give them due food and wages; he should care for them in sick-

ness; he should share especially tasty luxuries with them; and he should

give them holidays at due intervals. Thus served by their master as the

lower quarter they should care for him in five ways: they should get up before him; they should go to bed after him; they should be content with

what he gives them; they should do their work well; and they should

spread abroad his praise and good name. Thus he embraces the lower

quarter and makes it safe and propitious. "In five ways a gentleman should serve ascetics and brahmans as the

upper quarter: by affectionate acts; by affectionate words; by affectionate

thoughts; by not closing his doors to them; and by duly supplying them

with food. Thus served by a gentleman as the upper quarter they should

care for him in six ways: they should restrain him from evil; they should

encourage him to do good; they should feel for him with a friendly mind;

they should teach him what he has not heard before; they should en-

courage him to follow what he has already learned; and they should

show hirn the way to heaven. Thus he embraces the upper quarter and

makes it safe and propitious."

SOCIETY AND THE STATE IN THERAVADA BUDDHISM

Few pages in the massive literature of Buddhism lay down definite in- structions on social or political life, and the amount of speculation by Buddhist authors on the problems of state and society is not large. Indeed

Buddhism has sometimes been stigmatized as not a true religion at all, but a mere system of self-discipline for monks, with no significant mes-

sage for the ordinary man except that he should if possible leave the world and take the yellow robe. In fact Buddhists have always realized that not

every layman was morally or intellectually capable of becoming a monk.

and the scriptures, as we have seen above, do contain here and there

instructions especially intended for layfolk, together with occasional

passages with a social or political message. Nevertheless it may be that

one o the reasons for the disappearance of Buddhism in the land of its

birth was that it left the laymen too dependent on the ministrations of

the brahmans, and, instead of giving a lead in political and social matters,

was too often willing to compromise with the existing ways of everyday

life.

Though in practice Buddhism seems to have accepted the existence of a

society with sharp class divisions and to have made no frontal attack on it,

there are many passages in Buddhist literature in which the four classes of

Hindu society are declared to be fundamentally equal, and in which men

are said to be worthy of respect not through birth, but only through spir-

itual or moral merit. Though we cannot show that Buddhism had any definite effect on the Indian system of class and caste, its teachings ob-

viously tended against the extremer manifestations of social inequality.

In those lands where Buddhism was implanted upon societies little influ-

enced by Hindu ideas the caste system in its Indian form is not to be

found.

In politics Buddhism definitely discouraged the pretensions of kings to

divine or semidivine status. While Hindu teachers often declared that

kings were partial incarnations of the gods and encouraged an attitude of

passive obedience to them, the Buddhist scriptures categorically state that

the first king was merely the chosen leader of the people, appointed by

them to restrain crime and protect property, and that his right to levy taxation depended not on birth or succession but on the efficient fulfill-

ment of his duty. The Birth Stories, among the most influential of the

Buddhist scriptures, contain several tales of wicked kings overthrown as a

result of popular rebellion. Thus Buddhism had a rational attitude to the

state. The constitution of the Buddhist order, in which each monastery was virtually a law unto itself, deciding major issues after free discussion

among the assembled monks, tended toward democracy, and it has been

suggested that it was based on the practiced of the tribal republics of the

Buddha's day. Though Buddhism never formulated a distinctive system of political ethics it generally tended to mitigate the autocracy

of the

Indian king.

On the question of war Buddhism said little, though a few passages in

the Buddhist scriptures oppose it. Like the historical Ashoka, the ideal

emperor of Buddhism gains his victories by moral suasion. This did not

prevent many Buddhist kings of India and Ceylon from becoming great

conquerors and pursuing their political aims with much the same ruth-

lessness as their Hindu neighbors. Two of pre-Muslim India's greatest

conquerors, Harsha of Kanauj (606-647) and Dharmapala of Bihar and

Bengal (^770-810), were Buddhists. In fact Buddhism had little direct

effect on the political order., except in the case of Ashoka, and its leaders

seem often to have been rather submissive to the temporal power. An

Erastian relationship between church and state is indicated in the inscrip-

tions of Ashoka, and in Buddhist Ceylon the same relationship usually

existed.

Early travelers have left a number of valuable accounts of conditions

in ancient India. Two of these, that of the Greek Megasthenes (c.300 B.C.) and that of the Chinese pilgrim Fa-hsien (A.D. c^oo), are of special

interest for our purposes, for the first was written before Buddhism had

become an important factor in Indian life, and the second when it had

already passed its most flourishing period and had entered on a state of

slow decline. Megasthenes found a very severe judicial system, with

many crimes punished by execution or mutilation. The existence of such

a harsh system of punishment is confirmed by the famous Hindu text on

polity, the Arthasastra, the kernel of which dates from about the same

time. Under Chandragupta Maurya, the grandfather of Ashoka, the state

was highly organized and all branches of human activity were hemmed

in by many troublesome regulations enforced by a large corps of govern- ment officials. Fa-hsien, on the other hand, found a land where the death

penalty was not imposed, and mutilation was inflicted only for very serious crime; and he was especially impressed by the fact that human

freedom was respected and people were able to move freely from one part of the land to the other without passports or other forms of interference

from the government. In Megasthenes* day all classes freely ate meat, while in the time of Fa-hsien only the outcastes did so.

1 It seems certain

that Buddhism had something to do with the great change in the direc-

tion of mildness and nonviolence which had taken place in the seven

hundred years between the two travelers. Certainly Buddhism was not the

only factor in the change, for sentiments in favor o tolerance, mildness,

*If we arc to bcHcvc the pilgrim, who may have exaggerated somewhat.

[06]

and nonviolence are to be found also in Hindu and Jain writings, but it

is very probable that Buddhism was the greatest single factor, for it was

the most active and vigorous religion in the period in question.

Though Ashoka was practically forgotten by India his message calling for good relations between rulers and ruled was not, and echoes of it

may be heard in many non-Buddhist sources of later date. On the other hand his fond hope that aggressive wars would cease forever as a result

of his propaganda was unfulfilled, and the successors of Ashoka seem to

have been if anything more militant than his predecessors. It would seem

that Buddhism had httle effect in encouraging peace within the borders of

India.

How the World Evolved

Buddhism, like all Indian religious systems, believed that the world goes

through periods of evolution and decline. While it did not reject the existence

of the gods, it denied that they had any significant effect upon the cosmic

process. Brahma, at the time of the Buddha a much more important figure than he became in later Hinduism, imagines that he is the creator, when in

fact the world came into being through the operation of natural laws. In

Brahma's case the primal ignorance, which affects gods and men alike, has led to the wish fathering the thought. The following passage is attributed to

the Buddha himself,

[From Digha ~Ni\ayat 3.28 ff.]

There are some monks and brahmans who declare as a doctrine received

from their teachers that the beginning of all things was the work of

the god Brahma. I have gone and asked them whether it was true that

they maintained such a doctrine, and they have replied that it was; but

when I have asked them to explain just how the beginning of things was the work of the god Brahma they have not been able to answer, and

have returned the question to me. Then I have explained it to them thus:

There comes a time, my friends, sooner or later, . . . when the world is dissolved and beings are mostly reborn in the World of Radiance.

1

There they dwell, made of the stuff of mind, feeding on joy, shining in

their own light, flying through middle space, firm in their bliss for a

long, long time.

Now there comes a time when this world begins to evolve, and then 1 Abhassara, the third Buddhist heaven, above the World of Brahma.

the World of Brahma appears, but it is empty. And some being, whether because his allotted span is past or because his merit is exhausted, quits

his body in the World of Radiance and is born in the empty World of

Brahma, where he dwells for a long, long time. Now because he has been so long alone he begins to feel dissatisfaction and longing, and wishes

that other beings might come and live with him. And indeed soon other beings quit their bodies in the World of Radiance and come to

keep him company in the World of Brahma.

Then the being who was first born there thinks: "I am Brahma, the

mighty Brahma, the Conqueror, the Unconquered, the All-seeing, the

Lord, the Maker, the Creator, the Supreme Chief, the Disposer, the Con-

troller, the Father of all that is or is to be. I have created all these beings,

for I merely wished that they might be and they have come here!" And the other beings * . . think the same, because he was born first and they later. And the being who was born first lived longer and was more hand- some and powerful than the others.

And it might well be that some being would quit his body there and be reborn in this world. He might then give up his home for the homeless life [of an ascetic]; and in his ardor, striving, intentness, earnestness, and

keenness of thought, he might attain such a stage of meditation that with

collected mind he might recall his former birth, but not what went before.

Thus he might think : "We were created by Brahma, eternal, firm, ever-

lasting, and unchanging, who will remain so for ever and ever, while we who were created by the Lord Brahma . . . are transient, unstable, short-

lived, and destined to pass away." That is how your traditional doctrine comes about that the beginning

of things was the work of the god Brahma.

The Origin of Society and the State

This most important and interesting legend should be read as a sequel to the former passage, since it describes a further stage in the process of cosmic

evolution. It tells of the gradual progress of humanity, on account of its own

greed, from the blissful golden age when there was no need of food or cloth-

ing to a fully evolved society with a king and class system. It should be noted

especially that neither the state nor the class system has any ultimate sanction other than human expediency. The first king holds office by virtue of a contract with his subjects, and this is probably one of the world's oldest versions of the contractual theory of the state. The passage concludes by emphasizing the

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fundamental equality of all the four classes. Again the words are attributed to the Buddha.

[From Dtgha Nifeya, 3.80 ff.]

Sooner or later, after a long, long time . . . there comes' a time when this world passes away. Then most living beings pass to the World of Ra- diance, and there they dwell, made of the stuff of mind, feeding on joy, shining in their own light, flying through middle space, firm in their bliss for a long, long time. Sooner or later there comes a time when this world begins to evolve once more. Then those being who pass away from the World of Radiance are usually born here on earth; but they are still made of the stuff of mind . . . and are firm in their bliss for a long, long time.

At that time the world is wholly covered in water, dark with a blinding darkness. No moon or sun, no constellations are to be seen, nor the forms of stars; there are no nights or days, no phases of the moon or months, no seasons or years. And there are no men or women then, for the beings living on earth are simply reckoned as beings. And for those beings, after a long, long time, a sweet earth is spread out on the waters, just as the

skin forms on the surface of hot milk as it cools. And it had 2 color, fra-

grance and flavor, for it was the color of fine ghee or butter, and sweet as

the choicest honey.

Then a certain being, greedy from a former birth, said, "What can this be?" and tasted the sweet earth with his finger. He was delighted with the flavor, and craving overcame him. Then others followed his example, and tasted the earth, . . . until they were all feasting on it, breaking off

pieces with their hands. And as they did so their radiance faded; and as it faded the moon and sun appeared, with the constellations and the forms of stars, nights and days, phases of the moon and months, seasons and

years. . . .

Beings continued thus, feeding on the sweet earth, for a long, long time.

And the more they ate the more solid their bodies became, some beautiful and some ugly. And the beautiful scorned the ugly, boasting of theii

greater beauty. And as they became vain and conceited because of their

beauty the sweet earth disappeared. . . .

Then growths appeared on the soil, coming up like mushrooms, with

* The change of tense occurs in the original.

color, scent and flavor like those of the sweet earth. The beings began to

eat those growths, and so they continued for a long, long time . . . until

the growths too disappeared. Then creeping plants arose, growing like rattans; and the beings lived

on them until the creepers too disappeared. . . .

Then, when the creepers had vanished, rice appeared, already ripe in

the untilled soil, without dust or husk, fragrant and clean-grained. If they

gathered it in the evening and took it away for supper it would grow and

be ripe again by the next morning. If they gathered it in t^ie morning

for breakfast it would grow and be ripe again by the evening. It grew

without a pause. And those beings continued to live on the rice ... for

a long, long time, and their bodies became more and more solid, and their

differences in beauty, even more pronounced. In women female character-

istics appeared, and in men male. The women looked at the men too

intently, and the men at the women, and so passion arose, and a raging fire entered their bodies. In consequence they took to coupling together.

When people saw them doing so some threw dust at them, others ashes, others cowdung, and shouted, "Perish, you foul one! Perish, you foul

one!! How could one person treat another like that?" And even now

people in certain districts, when a bride is led away after a wedding, throw

dust or ashes or cowdung, and repeat the custom of long ago, but do not

understand its significance.

What was considered immoral in those days is now considered moral.

For in those days the people who took to coupling together were not al-

lowed to enter a village or town for a month afterward or even for two.

So, as they incurred so much blame for their immorality, they took to

building huts in order to conceal it.

Then someone of a lazy disposition thought to himself, "Why do I go to the trouble of fetching rice night and morning? Ill fetch enough for

supper and breakfast in one journey!" Then another man saw him and

said, "Come on, my friend, let's go and fetch our rice!" "Fve got enough," the first man replied, "I've fetched enough in one journey for both supper and breakfast." So the second man followed the first man's example, and fetched enough rice for two days at once. [Thus gradually people took to

storing enough rice for as much as eight days at a time]. . . . And from the time that people took to feeding on stored rice the grain became cov-

ered with dust, and husks enveloped it; the reaped stems did not grow

again, and there were pauses in its growth, when the stubble stood in

clumps.

Then the people gathered together and lamented, saying: "Evil cus-

toms have appeared among men. Once we were made of the stuff of mind

. . . and were firm in our bliss for a long, long time- . . . But now,

through our evil and immoral ways, we have degenerated until our grain has become covered with dust . . . and the stubble stands in clumps. So

let us divide the rice fields, and set up boundary marks."

Then someone of a greedy disposition, while watching his own plot, appropriated another plot that had not been given to him, and made use

of it. The people seized him and said: "You've done an evil deed in taking and using a plot which was not given to you. Don't let it happen again!"

"Very well," he replied. But he did the same thing again and yet a third

time. Once more the people seized him and admonished him in the same

terms, but this time some of them struck him with their hands, some

with clods, and some with sticks. From such beginnings arose theft, censure, false speech, and punishment. Then the people gathered together and lamented, saying: "Evil ways

are rife among the people theft, censure, false speech, and punishment have appeared among us. Let us choose one man from among us, to

dispense wrath, censure, and banishment when they are right and proper, and give him a share of our rice in return. So they chose the most hand-

some, . . . attractive, and capable among them and invited him to dis-

pense anger, censure, and banishment. He consented and did so, and

they gave him a share of their rice.

Mahdsammata means approved (sammata) by the whole people (ma-

hdjana), and hence Mahasammata was the first name to be given to a

ruler. He was lord of the fields (J^hettdnam) and hence fyattoya [Skt. J(satriya\ was his second name. He pleases (ran^eti) others by his right- eousness hence his third name, rdjd? This was the origin of the class of

kshatriyas, according to the tale of long ago. 4 They originated from those

same folk and no others, people like themselves, in no way different; and

their origin was quite natural and not otherwise. Then it happened that some men thought, "Evil ways are rife among *It is hardly necessary to say that these etymologies of kjhattiya and raja are false, as are

those which follow. They are significant nevertheless *It is noteworthy that in the Pali scriptures the kshatriya is regularly mentioned before

the brahman.

the people. . . . Now let us put away such evil and unwholesome ways." The word brahman implies that they put away (bdhentf) such evil and unwholesome ways, and so brahman became their earliest name. They built themselves huts o leaves in the woodland, and there they sat and

meditated. They had no more use for charcoal or the smoke of cooking, or for the pestle and mortar, but they went out to villages, towns, or cities,

seeking their food, in the evening their supper, in the morning their

breakfast. When they had enough to eat they came back and meditated in their huts, and so they were given the second name of mystics (jhdya\a) because they meditated (jhdyanti).

Now some of them grew tired of meditating in their huts, and so they went away, settled on the outskirts of villages and towns, and made

books.5 When they saw this the people said, "These good folk can't medi-

tate!", and so they were called teachers (atfhdyaJyi)? and this became their

third name. In those days these teachers were looked on as the lowest of

brahmans, but now they are thought the best. This was the origin of the class of brahmans. . . . They originated quite naturally and not other-

wise.

There were other people who married and took to all kinds of crafts and trades; and because they took to all kinds (vissa) of crafts and trades

they were called vessa [Skt. vaiiya\. This was the origin of the class of

vaishyas. . . . They originated quite naturally and not otherwise.

Those who remained were hunters. Those who live by hunting (ludda) have a mean (tyudda) trade, and thus they were called sudda (Skt. 'sudra) . This was the origin of the class of shudras. . . . They originated quite naturally and not otherwise.

Then there came a time when a kshatriya, scorning his own way of life, went out from his home and took up the homeless life, thinking to become an ascetic [and then a brahman, a vaishya, and a shudra did the same]. From these four classes arose the class of ascetics. . . . And they too originated quite naturally and not otherwise.

A kshatriya who has led a bad life, whether in deed, word, or thought, and who has-had wrong views about the world, because of his outlook and his deeds will be reborn after parting with his body in the waste and woe-

5 According to the commentary, the three Vedas. *An untranslatable play on words. A-jhdyakjt means a non-meditator, and ajjhaya^a a

reciter or teacher of the Vedas.

ful pit of purgatory. And a brahman, a vaishya, and a shudra will fare likewise. If on the other hand they lead good lives in thought, word, and

deed, and have right views about the world, they will be reborn in the

happy world of heaven. If their lives and their views are mixed they will

be reborn in a state where they feel both happiness and sorrow. But if they are self-restrained in body, speech and mind . . . they may find Nirvana, even in this present life.

For whoever from among the members of these four classes becomes a monk and later a perfected being, with all his stains destroyed, has done what he had to do; he has laid down his burden, gained salvation, de-

stroyed the bonds of becoming; he is free in his perfect wisdom. And he is declared to be to the chief of them all, by the law of Righteousness and

not otherwise; for the Law is the best thing men can have, both in this life and the next.

The Ideal of Government, and the Decay and

Growth of Civilization

The following Discourse, again attributed to the Buddha, attempts, like the

preceding one, to account for the origin of crime and evil, but it gives a dif-

ferent answer. According to a former passage crime began in the state of

nature, and kingship was introduced to suppress it. Here government precedes crime. The golden age has its governments and indeed its conquests, but they are not conquests by the sword. It seems more than likely that this account of

the Universal Emperor's peaceful victories over his neighbors is in some way linked with Ashoka's "Conquest by Righteousness/* and we are inclined to believe that the present passage is post-Ashokan. Note that sin and crime, and

the consequent lowering of the standards of civilization and of human condi- tions generally, are said to be due to the shortcomings of the ruler, and espe-

cially to his failure to continue the policy of his predecessors in caring for the

poor. Hence crime appears, morality declines, and with it the standards of life

deteriorate, until, after a brief period of complete anarchy, human love and

fellowship again prevail, and gradually restore the golden age. Interesting is

the reference to Metteya (Sanskrit, Maitrcyd), the future Buddha. This indi-

cates that the Discourse is a comparatively late one. Our version is considerably

abridged.

[From Digha Nityya, 3.58 f.]

In the past . . . there was a king called Dalhanemi. He was a Universal

Emperor ... a king of Righteousness, a conqueror of the four quar-

ters, a protector of his people, a possessor of the Seven Jewels the Wheel,

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the Elephant, and Horse, the Gem, the Woman, the Householder, and the General.

7 He had over a thousand sons, all heroes brave of body, crushers o enemy armies.

8 He conquered the earth from ocean to ocean and ruled it not by the rod or by the sword, but by the Law of Righteous- ness.

Now after many thousands of years King Dalhanemi ordered one of his men thus: "When you see that the Divine Wheel has sunk or slipped from its place, come and tell me." . , . And after many thousand years more the man saw that the Divine Wheel had sunk . . . and went and told the King. So King Dalhanemi sent for his eldest son, and said: "Dear

boy, the Divine Wheel has sunk, and I've been told that when the Wheel of a Universal Emperor sinks he has not long to live. I have had my fill of human pleasure now the time has come for me to look for divine

joys. Come, dear boy, you must take charge of the earth. . . ." So King Dalhanemi duly established his eldest son on the throne, shaved his hair

and beard, put on yellow robes, and left his home for the state of home- lessness. And when the royal sage had left his home seven days the Divine Wheel completely vanished.

Then a certain man went to the King, the anointed warrior, and told him that it had vanished. He was beside himself with sorrow. So he went to the royal sage his father and told him about it. "Don't grieve that the

Divine Wheel has disappeared," he said. "The Divine Wheel isn't an

heirloom, my dear boy! You must follow the noble way of the Universal

Emperors. If you do this and keep the fast of the full moon on the upper terrace of your palace the Divine Wheel will be seen again, complete with

its thousand spokes, its tire, its nave, and all its other parts." "But what, your Majesty, is the noble way of the Universal Emperors?" "It is this, dear boy, that you should rely on the Law of Righteousness,

honor, revere, respect, and worship it. You should be yourself the banner

7 A Universal Emperor (Pali, CdkXavatti; Skt. Cakravartin) is a figure of cosmic sig- nificance, and corresponds on the material plane to a Buddha on the spiritual. Thus, ac-

cording to the legend of the Buddha, it was prophesied at the birth of Siddhartha Gautama that he would either become a Buddha or a Universal Emperor. Universal Emperors invaria- bly have the Seven Jewels, which arc" perfect specimens of their kinds, and are the magical insignia of their owners. The Woman is of course the chief queen. In most lists the Crown Prince takes the place of the Householder.

8 The Universal Emperor is not thoroughly adapted to the ethics of Buddhism, and though he conquers by force of character even the Buddhist author cannot disconnect him

wholly from the usual militancy of the Indian king.

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of Righteousness, the emblem of Righteousness, with Righteousness as

your master. According to Righteousness you should guard, protect, and

watch over your own family and people, your armed forces, your warriors,

your officers, priests and householders, townsmen and country folk,

ascetics and brahmans, beasts and birds. There should be no evil-doing

throughout your domains, and whoever is poor in your land should be

given wealth. . . . Avoid evil and follow good. That is the noble way of

die Universal Emperors."

"Very good, your Majesty," the King replied, and he followed the way of the Universal Emperors, until one day the Divine Wheel revealed it-

self - - - complete and whole. And he thought: "A king to whom the Divine Wheel reveals itself thus becomes a Universal Emperor so may I now become such a Universal Emperor." He uncovered one shoulder, took a pitcher of water in his left hand, and sprinkled the Divine Wheel

with his right, saying: "Roll on, precious Wheel! Go forth and conquer, lordly and precious Wheel!"

Then the precious Wheel rolled on toward the east, and the King fol-

lowed it with his fourfold army. Wherever the Wheel stopped the Univer-

sal Emperor encamped with his army, and all the kings of the east came

to him and said, "Come, your Majesty! Welcome, your Majesty! All this

is yours, Your Majesty! Command, us, your Majesty!" And the Universal

Emperor said, "Do not take life; do not take what is not yours; do not

act basely in sexual matters; do not tell falsehoods; do not drink spirits, 9

Now enjoy your kingdoms as you have done in the past." And all the

kings of the east submitted to him.

Then the Divine Wheel plunged into the eastern ocean, and rose again and rolled towards the south. And so the Wheel conquered the south,

west, and north, until it had covered the whole earth from sea to sea.

Then it returned to the capital, and stood at the door of the, Universal

Emperor's private apartments, facing the council hall, as though fixed to

the place, adorning the inner palace.

With the passage of many thousands of years other kings did as this

one had done, and became Universal Emperors and it all happened as

it had done before. But one day a Universal Emperor left his palace to

become an ascetic, and his son, who succeeded him, heard that the Divine

Wheel had vanished, but, though grieved at its disappearance, did not go

These are the five precepts which all Buddhist laymen must do their best to follow.

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to his father, the royal sage, to ask about the noble way of the Universal

Emperors. He ruled the land according to his own ideas, and the people were not governed as they had been in the past; so they did not prosper as they had done under former kings who had followed the noble way of the Universal Emperors.

Then the ministers and counsellors, the officers of the treasury, the

captains of the guard, the ushers, and the magicians, came to the King in

a body and said: "The people do not prosper, your Majesty, because you

govern them according to your own ideas. Now, we maintain the noble

way of the Universal Emperors. Ask us about it and we will tell you." The King asked them about it and they explained it to him. When he had heard them he provided for the care and protection of the land, but

he did not give wealth to the poor, and so poverty became widespread.

Soon a certain man took what had not been given to him, and this was

called stealing. They caught him and accused him before the King. "Is it true that you have taken what was not given to you?" asked the

King. "It is, your Majesty," replied the man.

"But why did you do it?" "Because I'd nothing to live on, your Majesty."

Then the King gave him wealth, saying, "With this keep yourself alive, care for your father and mother, children and wife, follow a trade, and

give alms to ascetics and brahmans, to help yourself along the way to

heaven."

"I will, your Majesty/' he replied.

And another man stole and was accused before the King, and the King rewarded him in just the same way. People heard of this and thought that they would do the same in order to receive wealth from the King. But when a third man was brought before the King and accused of theft the King thought: "If I give wealth to everyone who takes another man's

property theft will increase. Ill put a stop to this! I'll sentence him to

execution and have him beheaded!"

So he ordered his men to tie the culprit's arms tightly behind him with a strong rope, to shave his head with a razor, to lead him from street to

street and from square to square to the strident sound of the drum, and to

take him out of the southern gate of the city, and there to cut off his

head. And they did as the King commanded.

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But when people heard that thieves were to be put to death they

thought: "We'll have sharp swords made, and when we steal well cut

off the heads of those we rob." And they did so, and looted in village and

town and city, besides committing highway robbery.

Thus, where formerly wealth had been given to the poor, poverty be-

came widespread. Hence came theft, hence the sword, hence murder

. . . and hence the span of life was shortened and men lost their comeli-

ness, until where the fathers had lived for eighty thousand years the sons

lived for only forty thousand.

Then it happened that a certain man stole and was accused, and when the King asked him whether it was true that he had stolen he replied, "No." Thus lying became widespread, and where the fathers had lived

for forty thousand years the sons lived for only twenty thousand.

And again, when a certain man took what was not given him, another man came to the King and said: "So and so has taken what was not given him, he has committed . . . theft." Thus he spoke evil of the thief. So

speaking evil of others became widespread, until where the fathers had

lived for twenty thousand years the sons lived for only ten thousand.

Now some people were handsome and some ugly. And the ugly were

jealous of the handsome, and took to committing adultery with other

men's wives. So base conduct in sexual matters became widespread, and

men's life-span and comeliness diminished until where the fathers had

lived for ten thousand years the sons lived for only five thousand.

Next abusive speech and foolish gossip increased, and so where the fa-

thers had lived for five thousand years the sons lived some for two thousand

five hundred and some for two thousand years. Then cupidity and ill-will

increased, and the life-span became only one thousand years. With the

growth of false doctrines it fell to five hundred, and then incest, inordinate

greed, and unnatural lust spread, and hence the span of life dropped to

two hundred and fifty or two hundred years. Finally three further sins

disrespect for father and mother, disrespect for ascetics and brahmans, and

refusal to heed the head of the family reduced man's life to one hun-

dred years.

A time will come when the descendants of these people will live for only ten years, and when girls will reach puberty at the age of five. Then

there will not be even the taste of ghee, butter, sesamum oil, sugar, or

salt, and the finest food of the men of that time will be mere millet,

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where now it is rice and curry. Among those men . . . good deeds will

entirely disappear, and evil deeds will flourish exceedingly there will

not even be a word for good, much less anyone who does good deeds. Those who do not honor mother and father, ascetic and brahman, and those who do not heed the head of the family will be respected and

praised, just as today those who do these things are respected and praised.

Among those people there will be no distinction of mother or aunt or

aunt-by-marriage or teacher's wife society will be just as promiscuous as

goats and sheep, fowls and pigs, dogs and jackals. There will be bitter

enmity one with another, bitter ill-will, bitter animosity, bitter thoughts

of murder, and parents will feel toward their children, children toward

their parents, brothers toward their brothers ... as a hunter feels to-

ward a deer.

Then there will be a transitional period of the Seven Days of the Sword,

during which men will look upon one another as wild beasts, and with

sharp swords in their hands will take one another's lives. . . . But a

few will think: "We don't want anyone to kill us and we don't want to kill anyone. Let us hide in grassland, in jungle, in hollow trees, in river-

marshes, or in the rough places of the mountains^ and live on the roots

and fruits of the forest."

And thus they will survive. And after the Seven Days of the Sword are passed they will come out and embrace one another, and with one

accord comfort one another, saying, "How good it is, my friend, to see

you still alive!" Then they will say: "We have lost so many of our kins- folk because we took to evil ways now we must do good! But what good deed can we do? We must stop taking life that is a good custom to adopt and maintain!"

They will do this, and increase in both age and comeliness. And their virtues will increase until once more they live to the age of eighty thou-

sand years and girls reach pubferty at the age of five hundred. . . . India

will be rich and prosperous, with villages and towns and cities so close

together that a cock could fly from one to the next. India will be as

crowded then as purgatory is now, as full of people as a thicket is of

canes or reeds. VaranasI . . . will be a rich and prosperous capital, full

of people, crowded, and flourishing, and there will be born Sankha, a

Universal Emperor, who will . . . like Dalhanemi . . . conquer the earth from ocean to ocean and rule it ... by the Law of Righteousness.

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And among those people will be born the Lord Metteya, the perfected

being, the fully enlightened, endowed with wisdom and virtue, the

blessed, the knower of all the worlds, the supreme guide of willing men,

the teacher of gods and men, a Lord Buddha, even as I am now. Like

me, with his own insight, he will know the world and see it clearly, with

its spirits, with Mara, with Brahma, with its ascetics and brahmans,

with its gods and men. He will teach the Law of Righteousness in spirit and in letter, lovely in its beginning, lovely in its middle, lovely in its

end, and he will live the pure life of celibacy in all its completeness, just

as I do now. But he will have thousands of monks as his followers, where

I have only hundreds.

Conditions of the Welfare of Societies

The following passage occurs in the Discourse of the Great Passing-atuay, which describes the last days and death of the Buddha. Though the words are

put into his own mouth, it is quite likely that the passage is based on a series

of popular aphorisms current among the Vaj)ian tribesmen themselves. It is

followed by a longer passage in which the Buddha is purported to have adapted the list of the seven conditions of the welfare of republics to the circumstances

of the Buddhist Order. According to a tradition preserved by the commentator

Buddhaghosa, King Ajatasattu's wily minister Vassakara, hearing the Buddha's

words, set to work by "fifth column" methods to sow dissension among the

leaders of the Vajjis, with the result that Magadha was able to annex their

lands within a few years. Notice especially the third condition. No early Indian sect took kindly to

innovation, and according to orthodox Hindu thought the purpose of govern- ment was not to legislate, but only to administer the eternal law (Sanatana-

dharma). Though the Buddhists had a somewhat different conception of dharma

they shared the conservatism of the Hindus in this respect. Nevertheless new

legislation was enacted from time to time, as will be seen later in the edicts of

Ashoka.

[From Digha Nt\aya, 2.72 &.]

Once the Lord was staying at Rajagaha on the hill called Vulture's Peak

. . . and the Venerable Ananda was standing behind him and fanning

him. And the Lord said: "Have you heard, Ananda, that the Vajjis call

frequent public assemblies of the tribe?" "Yes, Lord," he replied.

"As long as they do so," said the Lord, "they may be expected not to

decline, but to flourish."

"As long as they meet in concord, conclude their meetings in concord,

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and carry out their policies in concord; ... as long as they make no laws not already promulgated, and set aside nothing enacted in the past,

acting in accordance with the ancient institutions of the Vajjis established

in olden days; ... as long as they respect, esteem, reverence, and sup-

port the elders of the Vajjis, and look on it as a duty to heed their words; ... as long as no women or girls of their tribes are held by force or

abducted; . . . as long as they respect, esteem, reverence, and support the shrines of the Vajjis, whether in town or country, and do not neglect the proper offerings and rites laid down and practiced in the past;

10 . . .

as long as they give due protection, deference, and support to the perfected

beings among them so that such perfected beings may come to the land from afar and live comfortably among them, so long may they be ex-

pected not to decline, but to flourish.

Birth Is No Criterion of Worth

Though in practice it would seem that Indian Buddhists maintained the system of class and caste, the theoretical attitude of Buddhism was equalitarian. We have seen that the division of the four classes was believed to be a functional

one, with no divine sanction. The Buddhist view is summed up in the verse of the Discourse Section (Sutta Nipdta, verse 136) :

No brahman is such by birth. No outcaste is such by birth. An outcaste is such by his deeds. A brahman is such by his deeds.

In the following passage the Buddha puts forward numerous arguments in favor of this view, though many other passages show that lay Buddhists were

encouraged to treat worthy brahmans with respect.

[From Majfama Nt^aya,

Once when the Lord was staying at Savatthi there were five hundred

brahmans from various countries in the city . . . and they thought: "This

ascetic Gautama preaches that all four classes are pure. Who can refute him?"

At that time there was a young brahman named Assalayana in the city, ... a youth of sixteen, thoroughly versed in the Vedas . . . and in all

brahmanic learning. "He can do it!**, thought the brahmans, and so they 10 Note the respect paid to popular religion, which Buddhism adapted IB the cults of the

sacred tree and the stupa, and later in that of the image.

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asked him to try; but he answered, "The ascetic Gautama teaches a doc-

trine of his own, 1 and such teachers are hard to refute. I can't do it!"

They asked him a second time . . . and again he refused; and they asked him a third time, pointing out that he ought not to admit defeat

without giving battle. This time he agreed, and so, surrounded by a

crowd of brahmans, he went to the Lord, and, after greeting him, sat

down and said:

"Brahmans maintain that only they are the highest class, and the others

are below them. They are white, the others black; only they are pure, and

not the others. Only they are the true sons of Brahma, born from his

mouth, 2 born of Brahma, creations of Brahma, heirs of Brahma. Now

what does the worthy Gautama say to that?"

"Do the brahmans really maintain this, Assalayana, when they're born

of women just like anyone else, of brahman women who have their

periods and conceive, give birth and nurse their children, just like any other women?" "For all you say, this is what they think. . . ."

"Have you ever heard that in the lands of the Greeks and Kambojas and other peoples on the borders there are only two classes, masters and

,slaves, and a master can become a slave and vice versa?"

"Yes, I've heard so."

"And what strength or support does that fact give to the brahmans*

claim?"

"Nevertheless, that is what they think."

"Again if a man is a murderer, a thief, or an adulterer, or commits other grave sins, when his body breaks up on death does he pass on to

purgatory if he's a kshatriya, vaishya, or shudra, but not if he's a

brahman?"

"No, Gautama. In such a case the same fate is in store for all men,

whatever their class."

"And if he avoids grave sin, will he go to heaven if he's a brahman, but not if he's a man of the lower classes?"

1 Dhammavadt: Our translation is on die basis of Buddhaghosa's commentary as gen- erally interpreted. Dr. A. K. Warder suggests that the term may here mean "a teacher

maintaining that the world is governed by natural law." fl

According to the Purusa Sukta (Rig Veda, 10.90) brahmans arc born from the head

of the primeval man, while the other three classes are born from his arms, trunk, and feet,

respectively.

"No, Gautama. In such a case the same reward awaits all men, what-

ever their class."

"And is a brahman capable of developing a mind of love without hate or ill-will, but not a man of the other classes?"

"No, Gautama. All four classes are capable of doing so."

"Can only a brahman go down to a river and wash away dust and dirt, and not men of the other classes?"

"No, Gautama, all four classes can."

"Now suppose a king were to gather together a hundred men of differ- ent classes and to order the brahmans and kshatriyas to take kindling wood of sal, pine, lotus or sandal, and light fires, while the low class folk did the same with common wood. What do you think would hap- pen? Would the fires of the high-born men blaze up brightly . . . and those of the humble fail?"

"No, Gautama. It would be alike with high and lowly. . . . Every fire

would blaze with the same bright flame." . . .

"Suppose there are two young brahman brothers, one a scholar and the

other uneducated. Which of them would be served first at memorial

feasts, festivals, and sacrifices, or when entertained as guests?" "The scholar, of course; for what great benefit would accrue from en-

tertaining the uneducated one?"

"But suppose the scholar is ill-behaved and wicked, while the unedu-

cated one is well-behaved and virtuous?"

"Then the uneducated one would be served first, for what great bene- fit would accrue from entertaining an ill-behaved and wicked man?"

"First, Assalayana, you based your claim on birth, then you gave up birth for learning, and finally you have come round to my way of think- ing, that all four classes are equally pure!" At this Assalayana sat silent ... his shoulders hunched, his eyes cast

down, thoughtful in mind, and with no answer at hand.

AshoJ^a: The Buddhist Emperor

The great emperor Ashoka (^268-233 B.C.), third of the line of the Mauryas, became a Buddhist and attempted to govern India according to the precepts of Buddhism as he understood them. His new policy was promulgated in a series of edicts, which are still to be found, engraved on rocks and pillars in many parts of India* Written in a form of Prakrit, or ancient vernacular, with

several local variations, they can claim little literary merit, for their style is

crabbed and often ambiguous. In one of these edicts he describes his conver-

sion, and its effects:

[From the Thirteenth Rock Edict] When the king, Beloved of the Gods and of Gracious Mien, had been consecrated eight years Kalinga

1 was conquered, 150,000 people were de-

ported, 100,000 were killed, and many times that number died. But after

the conquest of Kalinga, the Beloved of the Gods began to follow

Righteousness (Dharma), to love Righteousness, and to give instruction

in Righteousness. Now the Beloved of the Gods regrets the conquest of Kalinga, for when an independent country is conquered people are killed, they die, or are deported, and that the Beloved of the Gods finds very

painful and grievous. And this he finds even more grievous that all the inhabitants brahmans, ascetics, and other sectarians, and householders

who are obedient to superiors, parents, and elders, who treat friends, ac-

quaintances, companions, relatives, slaves, and servants with respect, and

are firm in their faith all suffer violence, murder, and separation from

their loved ones. Even those who are fortunate enough not to have lost those near and dear to them are afflicted at the misfortunes of friends,

acquaintances, companions, and relatives. The participation of all men in common suffering is grievous to the Beloved of the Gods. Moreover there is no land, except that of the Greeks, where groups of brahmans and

ascetics are not found, or where men are not members of one sect or an- other. So now, even if the number of those killed and captured in the

conquest of Kalinga had been a hundred or a thousand times less, it

would be grievous to the Beloved of the Gods. The Beloved of the Gods

will forgive as far as he can, and he even conciliates the forest tribes of his

dominions; but he warns them that there is power even in the remorse

of the Beloved of the Gods, and he tells them to reform, lest they be

killed. 2

-

For all beings the Beloved of the Gods desires security, self-control, calm of mind, and gentleness. The Beloved of the Gods considers that

x The coastal region comprising the modern Orissa and the northern part of Andhra State.

*Note that Ashoka has by no means completely abandoned the use of force. This pas-

sage probably refers to the wild uncivilized tribesmem of the hills and jungles, who still

occasionally cause trouble in Assam and some other parts of India, and in ancient days were a much greater problem.

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the greatest victory is the victory of Righteousness; and this he has won here (in India) and even five hundred leagues beyond his frontiers in

the realm of the Greek king Antiochus, and beyond Antiochus among the four kings Ptolemy, Antigonus, Magas, and Alexander.

3 Even where

the envoys of the Beloved of the Gods have not been sent men hear of the

way in which he follows and teaches Righteousness, and they too follow it and will follow it. Thus he achieves a universal conquest, and conquest

always gives a feeling of pleasure; yet it is but a slight pleasure, for the

Beloved of the Gods only looks on that which concerns the next life as of

great importance.

I have had this inscription of Righteousness engraved that all my sons and grandsons may not seek to gain new victories, that in whatever vic- tories they may gain they may prefer forgiveness and light punishment, that they may consider the only [valid] victory the victory of Righteous- ness, which is of value both m this world and the next, and that all their pleasure may be in Righteousness. . . .

Ashoka's Buddhism, as his title shows, did not lessen his belief in the gods. Here he expresses his faith in Buddhism, and declares that the gods have ap- peared on earth as a result of his reforms:

4

[From a minor Rock Edict (Maski Version)] Thus speaks Ashoka, the Beloved of the Gods. For two and a half years I have been an open follower of the Buddha, though at first I did not

make much progress. But for more than a year now I have drawn closer to the [Buddhist] Order, and have made much progress. In India the gods who formerly did not mix with men now do so. This is the result of ef-

fort, and may be obtained not only by the great, but even by the small, through effort thus they may even easily win heaven. Father and mother should be obeyed, teachers should be obeyed; pity

. . . should be felt for all creatures. These virtues of Righteousness should be practiced. . . * This is an ancient rule, conducive to long life.

8 Antiochus II Thcos of Syria, Ptolemy II Philadelphia of Egypt, Antigonus Gonatas of

Macedonia, Magas of Gyrene, and Alexander of Epirus. Classical sources tell us nothing about Ashoka's "victories of Righteousness" over these kings. Probably he sent envoys to them, urging them to accept his new policy and his moral leadership. Evidendy he never gave up his imperial ambitions, but attempted "to further them in a benevolent spirit and without recourse to arms.

*Some authorities have put different interpretations on the relevant phrases, but in our opinion there can be little doubt about their meaning.

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[From the Ninth Rock Edict] It is good to give, but there is no gift, no service, like the gift of Righteous-

ness. So friends, relatives, and companions should preach it on all occa-

sions. This is duty; this is right; by this heaven may be gained and what

is more important than to gain heaven ?

The emphasis on morality is if anything intensified in the series of the seven

Pillar Edicts, issued some thirteen years after the Rock Edicts, when the king had been consecrated twenty-six years:

[From the First Pillar Edict] This world and the other are hard to gain without great love of Right-

eousness, great self-examination, great obedience, great circumspection,

great effort. Through my instruction respect and love of Righteousness daily increase and will increase. . . . For this is my rule to govern by Righteousness, to administer by Righteousness, to please my subjects by Righteousness, and to protect them by Righteousness.

Ashoka's solicitude extended to the animal life of his empire, which in ancient

India was generally thought to be subject to the king, just as was human life. He banned animal sacrifices at least in his capital, introduced virtual vege- tarianism in the royal household, and limited the slaughter of certain animals; his policy in this respect is made clear in his very first Rock Edict:

[From the First Rock Edict] Here 5 no animal is to be killed for sacrifice, and no festivals are to be

held, for the king finds much evil in festivals, 6 except for certain festivals

which he considers good.

Formerly in the Beloved of the God's kitchen several hundred thou-

sand animals were killed daily for food; but now at the time of writ-

ing only three are killed two peacocks and a deer, though the deer

not regularly. Even these three animals will not be killed in future.

[From the Second Pillar Edict] I have in many ways given the gift of clear vision. On men and animals, birds and fish I have conferred many boons, even to saving their lives; and I have done many other good deeds.

B There is some reason to believe that the adverb implies the royal capital o Patahputra.

*Samajaf generally interpreted as a fair or festival, but perhaps a society or club. A tone of rather pompous puntanism is sometimes evident in the edicts, and suggests a less

congenial side of Ashoka's character.

[145]

In accordance with the precepts of Buddhism Ashoka, for all his apparent other-worldliness, did not neglect the material welfare of his subjects, and was

specially interested in giving them medical aid:

[From the Second Rock Edict] Everywhere in the empire of the Beloved of the Gods, and even beyond his frontiers in the lands of the Cholas, Pandyas, Satyaputras, Kerala-

putras, 7 and as far as Ceylon, and in the kingdoms of Antiochus the Greek

king and the kings who are his neighbors, the Beloved of the Gods has

provided medicines for man and beast. Wherever medicinal plants have not been found they have been sent there and planted. Roots and fruits

have also been sent where they did not grow, and have been planted. Wells have been dug along the roads for the use of man and beast.

Ashoka felt a moral responsibility not only for his own subjects, but for all men, and he realized that they could not lead moral lives, and gain merit in order to find a place in heaven, unless they were happy and materially well cared for:

[From the Sixth Rock Edict] I am not satisfied simply with hard work or carrying out the affairs of state, for I consider rny work to be the welfare of the whole world, of which hard work and the carrying out of affairs are merely the basis. There is no better deed than to work for the welfare of the whole world, and all my efforts are made that I may clear my debt to all beings. I make them happy here and now that they may attain heaven in the life to come. . . . But it is difficult without great effort.

He speaks in peremptory tones to the officers of state who are slow in putting the new policy into effect:

[From the First Separate Kalinga Edict] By order of the Beloved of the Gods. Addressed to the officers in charge of Tosali.8 . . . Let us win the affection of all men. All men are my children, and as I wish all welfare and happiness in this world and the next for my own children, so do I wish it for all men. But you do not realize what this entails here and there an officer may understand in part, but not entirely.

7 Tamil kingdoms, in the southern tip of the Peninsula. The chief town of Kalinga, the region conquered by Ashoka in his last war of aggres-

sion.

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Often a man is imprisoned and tortured unjustly, and then he is liber- ated for no [apparent] reason. Many other people suffer also [as a result of this injustice]. Therefore it is desirable that you should practice im-

partiality, but it cannot be attained if you are inclined to habits of

jealousy, irritability, harshness, hastiness, obstinacy, laziness, or lassitude.

I desire you not to have these habits. The basis of all this is the constant advoidance of irritability and hastiness in your business. . . .

This inscription has been engraved in order that the officials of the

city should always see to it that no one is ever imprisoned or tortured

without good cause. To ensure this I shall send out every five years on a tour of inspection officers who are not fierce or harsh. . . . The prince at Ujjain shall do the same not more than every three years, and likewise

at Taxila.

Later, in his Pillar Edicts, Ashoka seems more satisfied that his officers are

carrying out the new policy:

[From the Fourth Pillar Edict]

My governors are placed in charge of hundreds of thousands of people. Under my authority they have power to judge and to punish, that they calmly and fearlessly carry out their duties, and that they may bring welfare and happiness to the people of the provinces and be of

help to them. They will know what brings joy and what brings sorrow, and, conformably to Righteousness, they will instruct the people of the

provinces that they may be happy in this world and the next. . . . And as when one entrusts a child to a skilled nurse one is confident that . . . she will care for it well, so have I appointed my governors for the wel- fare and happiness of the people. That they may fearlessly carry out their duties I have given them power to judge and to inflict punishment on

their own initiative. I wish that there should be uniformity of justice and punishment.

In numerous passages Ashoka stresses the hard work which the new policy demands of him. He has given up many of the pleasures of the traditional Indian king in order to further it, including, of course, hunting:

[From the Eighth Rock Edict] In the past kings went out on pleasure trips and indulged in hunting and similar amusements. But the Beloved of the Gods . . . ten years after

his consecration set out on the journey to Enlightenment. 9 Now when he

goes on tour ... he interviews and gives gifts to brahmans and ascetics; he interviews and gives money to the aged; he interviews the people of the

provinces, and instructs and questions them on Righteousness; and the

pleasure which the Beloved of the Gods derives therefrom is as good as a

second revenue.

As we have seen, Ashoka, though a Buddhist, respects brahmans and the members of all sects, and he calls on his subjects to follow his example:

[From the Twelfth Rock Edict] The Beloved of the Gods . . . honors members of all sects, whether ascetics or householders, by gifts and various honors. But he does not

consider gifts and honors as important as the furtherance of the essen-

tial message of all sects. This essential message varies from sect to sect, but it has one common basis, that one should so control one's tongue as not to honor one's own sect or disparage another's on the wrong occasions; for on certain occasions one should do so only mildly, and indeed on

other occasions one should honor other men's sects. By doing this one

strengthens one's own sect and helps the others, while by doing other- wise one harms one's own sect and does a disservice to the others. Whoever honors his own sect and disparages another man's, whether from blind

loyalty or with the intention of showing his own sect in a favorable light, does his own sect the greatest possible harm. Concord is best, with each

hearing and respecting the other's teachings. It is the wish of the Be-

loved of the Gods that members of all sects should be learned and should teach virtue. . , . Many officials are busied in this matter . . . and the result is the progress of my own sect and the illumination of Righteous- ness.

Though he was by no means a rationalist, it appears that Ashoka thought little of the many rituals and ceremonies of Indian domestic life:

[From the Ninth Rock Edict] People perform various ceremonies, at the marriage of sons and daugh- ters, at the birth of children, when going on a journey ... or on other occasions* . . . On such occasions women especially perform many cere-

* This phrase probably merely implies that Ashoka made a pilgrimage to the Bodhi Tree

at Gaya.

monies which are various, futile, and useless. Even when they have to be done [to conform to custom and keep up appearances] such ceremonies

are of little use. But the ceremonies of Righteousness are of great profit these are the good treatment of slaves and servants, respect for elders,

self-mastery in one's relations with living beings, gifts to brahmans and

ascetics, and so on. 10 But for their success everyone fathers, mothers,

brothers, masters, friends, acquaintances, and neighbors must agree "These are good! These are the ceremonies that we should perform for success in our undertakings . . . and when we have succeeded we will

perform them again!" Other ceremonies are of doubtful utility one may achieve one's end through them or one may not. Moreover they are only of value in this world, while the value of the ceremonies of Righteousness is eternal, for even if one does not achieve one's end .in this world one

stores up boundless merit in the other, while if one achieves one's end in

this world the gain is double.

We conclude this selection of the edicts of Ashoka with his last important in- scription, in which the emperor, eighteen years after his conversion, reviews his reign:

[From the Seventh Pillar Edict] In the past kings sought to make the people progress in Righteousness, but they did not progress. . . . And I asked myself how I might uplift them through progress in Righteousness. . . . Thus I decided to have

them instructed in Righteousness, and to issue ordinances of Righteous- ness, so that by hearing them the people might conform, advance in the

progress of Righteousness, and themselves make great progress. . . . For

that purpose many officials are employed among the people to instruct them in Righteousness and to explain it to them. . . .

Moreover I have had banyan trees planted on the roads to give shade to

man and beast; I have planted mango groves, and I have had ponds dug and shelters erected along the roads at every eight kos.

11 Everywhere I have

had wells dug for the benefit of man and beast. But this benefit is but

small, for in many ways the kins of olden time have worked for the

welfare of the world; but what I have done has been done that men may conform to Righteousness.

10 With this compare the Admonition to Smgala (pp. 119 F.). ** There is some uncertainty about the interpretation of this phrase. If that given above is

correct, it implies intervals of about sixteen miles, or a day's journey.

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All the good deeds that I have done have been accepted and followed

by the people. And so obedience to mother and father, obedience to teachers, respect for the aged, kindliness to brahmans and ascetics, to the

poor and weak, and to slaves and servants, have increased and will con-

tinue to increase. . . . And this progress of Righteousness among men has taken place in two manners, by enforcing conformity to Righteous-

ness, and by exhortation. I have enforced the law against killing certain

animals and many others, but the greatest progress of Righteousness

among men comes from exhortation in favor of noninjury to life and abstention from killing living beings.

12

I have done this that it may endure ... as long as the moon and sun, and that my sons and my great-grandsons may support it; for by support- ing it they will gain both this world and the next.

33 For all his humanitarianism, Ashoka did not abolish the death penalty, as was done

by some later Indian kings.

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CHAPTER VII

MAHAYANA BUDDHISM: "THE GREATER VEHICLE''

From about the first or second century A.D. onwards, a new and very different kind of Buddhism arose in India. The new school, which claimed to offer salvation for all, styled itself Mahaydna, the Greater

Vehicle (to salvation), as opposed to the older Buddhism, which it con-

tempuously referred to as Hmaydna, or the Lesser Vehicle. The Mahayana scriptures also claimed to represent the final doctrines of the Buddha,

revealed only to his most spiritually advanced followers, while the earlier

doctrines were merely preliminary ones. Though Mahayana Buddhism, with its pantheon of heavenly buddhas and bodhisattvas and its idealis-

tic metaphysics, was strikingly different in many respects from the

Theravada, it can be viewed as the development into finished systems of

tendencies which had existed long before a development favored and

accelerated by the great historic changes taking place in northwestern

India at that time. For over two hundred years, from the beginning of

the second century B.C. onwards, this region was the prey of a succession

of invaders Bactnan Greeks, Scythians, Parthians, and a Central Asian

people generally known to historians of India as Kushanas. As a result of

these invasions Iranian and Western influences were felt much more

strongly than before, and new peoples, with backgrounds very different

from those of the folk among whom the religion arose, began to take interest in Buddhism.

A tendency to revere the Buddha as a god had probably existed in his own lifetime. In Indian religion, divinity is not something completely transcendent, or far exalted above all mortal things, as it is for the Jew,

Christian, or Muslim, neither is it something concentrated in a single

unique, omnipotent, and omniscient personality. In Indian religions god-

head manifests itself in so many forms as to be almost if not quite

ubiquitous, and every great sage or religious teacher is looked on as a

special manifestation of divinity, in some sense a god in human form. How much more divine was the Buddha, to whom even the great god Brahma himself did reverence, and who, in meditation, could far tran- scend the comparatively tawdry and transient heavens where the great

gods dwelt, enter the world of formlessness, and pass thence to the inef-

fable Nirvana itself? From the Buddhist point of view even the highest of the gods was liable to error, for Brahma imagined himself to be the creator when in fact the world came into existence as a result of natural causes. The Buddha, on the other hand, was omniscient.

Yet, according to theory, the Buddha had passed completely away from the universe, had ceased in any sense to be a person, and no longer af-

fected the world in any way. But the formula of the "Three Jewels" "I take refuge in the Buddha, I take refuge in the Doctrine, I take refuge in the Order" became the Buddhist profession of faith very early, and was used by monk and layman alike. Taken literally the first clause was

virtually meaningless, for it was impossible to take refuge in a being who had ceased to exist as such. Nevertheless the Buddha was worshiped from very early times, and he is said to have himself declared that all who had faith in him and devotion to him would obtain rebirth in heaven. In some of the earliest Buddhist sculpture, such as that of the

stupa of Bharhut (second or first century B.C.), crowds of worshipers are

depicted as ecstatically prostrating themselves before the emblems of the Buddha the wheel, the footprints, the empty throne, or the trident-

shaped symbol representing the Three Jewels. At this time it was evi-

dently not thought proper to portray the Buddha or to represent him by an icon; but in the first century A.I>., whether from the influence of Greco- Roman ideas and art forms or from that of indigenous popular cults, the Buddha was represented and worshiped as an image. A further development which encouraged the tendency to theism was

the growth of interest in the bodhtsattva. This term, literally meaning "Being of Wisdom," was first used in the sense of a previous incarnation of the Buddha. For many lives before his final birth as Siddhartha Gautama the Bodhisattva did mighty deeds of compassion and self- sacrifice, as he gradually perfected himself in wisdom and virtue. Stories of the Bodhisattva, known as Btrth Stories (Jdta\a) and often adapted from popular legends and fables, were very popular with lay Buddhists, and numerous illustrations of them occur in early Buddhist art.

It is probable that even in the lifetime of the Buddha it was thought that he was only the last of a series of earlier Buddhas. Later, perhaps through Zoroastrian influence, it came to be believed that other Buddhas

were yet to come, and interest developed in Maitreya, the future Bud-

dha, whose coming was said to have been prophesied by the historical

Buddha, and who, in years to come, would purify the world with his

teaching. But if Maitreya was yet to come the chain of being which

would ultimately lead to his birth (or, in the terminology of other sects,

his soul) must be already in existence. Somewhere in the universe the

being later to become Maitreya Buddha was already active for good. And if this one, how many more? Logically the world must be full of bodhisattvas, all striving for the welfare of other beings.

The next step in the development of the new form of Buddhism was the

changing of the goal at which the believer aimed. According to Buddhist

teaching there are three types of perfected beings Buddhas, who per- ceived the truth for themselves and taught it to others, Pratyety-buddhas, "Private Buddhas," who perceived it, but kept it to themselves and did not teach it, and Arhants^ "Worthies," who learned it from others, but

fully realized it for themselves. According to earlier schools the earnest

believer should aspire to become an Arhant, a perfected being for whom there was no rebirth, who already enjoyed Nirvana, and who would

finally enter that state after death, all vestiges of his personality dissolved.

The road to Nirvana was a hard one, and could only be covered in

many lives of virtue and self-sacrifice; but nevertheless the goal began to be

looked on as selfish. Surely a bodhisattva, after achieving such exalted

compassion and altruism, and after reaching such a degree of perfection that he could render inestimable help to other striving beings, would

not pass as quickly as possible to Nirvana, where he could be of no fur-

ther use, but would deliberately choose to remain in the world, using his

spiritual power to help others, until all had found salvation. Passages of

Mahayana scriptures describing the self-sacrifice of the bodhisattva for

the welfare of all things living are among the most passionately altruistic

in the world's religious literature.

The replacement of the ideal of the Arhant by that of the bodhisattva

is the basic distinction between the old sects and the new, which came to

1 Pali, arahant, usually translated "perfect being" in our extracts.

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be known as Mahayana. Faith in the bodhisattvas and the help they af- forded was thought to carry many beings along the road to bliss, while

the older schools, which did not accept the bodhisattva ideal, could save

only a few patient and strenuous souls.

The next stage m the evolution of the theology of the new Buddhism was the doctrine of the "Three Bodies" (TriJ(aya). If the true ideal was

that of the bodhisattva, why did not Siddhartha Gautama remain one, in-

stead of becoming a Buddha and selfishly passing to Nirvana? This

paradox was answered by a theory of docetic type, which again probably had its origin in popular ideas prevalent among lay Buddhists at a very

early period. Gautama was not in fact an ordinary man, but the manifes-

tation of a great spiritual being. The Buddha had three bodies the Body of Essence (Dharmafaya), the Body of Bliss (Sambhogaf(aya) and the

Body of Magic Transformation (Nirmanafaya). It was the latter only which lived on earth as Siddhartha Gautama, an emanation of the Body of Bliss, which dwelled forever in the heavens as a sort of supreme god.

But the Body of Bliss was in turn the emanation of the Body of Essence,

the ultimate Buddha, who pervaded and underlay the whole universe.

Subtle philosophies and metaphysical systems were developed parallel

with these theological ideas, and the Body of Essence was identified

with Nirvana. It was in fact the World Soul, the Brahman of the

Upanishads, in a new form. In the fully developed Mahayanist cosmology there were many Bodies of Bliss, all of them emanations of the single

Body of Essence, but the heavenly Buddha chiefly concerned with our

world was Amitdbha ("Immeasurable Radiance"), who dwelt in

Sufydvati, "the Happy Land/' the heaven of the West. With him was

associated the earthly Gautama Buddha, and a very potent and compas- sionate Bodhisattva, Avalokiteshvara ("the Lord Who Looks Down"). The older Buddhism and the newer flourished side by side in India

during the early centuries of the Christian era, and we read of Buddhist

monasteries in which some of the monks were Mahayanist and some

Hinayanist. But in general the Buddhists of northwestern India were

either Mahayanists or members of Hinayana sects much affected by Mahayanist ideas. The austerer forms of Hinayana seem to have been

strongest in parts of western and southern India, and in Ceylon. It was

from northwestern India, under the rule of the great Kushana empire

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(first to third centuries AJ>.) that Buddhism spread throughout central

Asia to China; since it emanated from the northwest, it was chiefly of

the Mahayana or near-Mahayana type. We have already outlined the typical Mahayana teaching about the

heavenly Buddhas and bodhisattvas, which is a matter of theology rather

than of metaphysics. But Mahayana also produced philosophical theories

which were argued with great ability, and which were influential on the

thought of Hinduism, as well as on that of the Far East. The two chief

schools of Mahayana philosophy were the Mddhyamt\a (Doctrine of the

Middle Position) and the Vijndnavdda (Doctrine of Consciousness) or

Yogacara (The Way of Yoga) . The former school, the founder of which was Nagarjuna (first to second centuries A.D.), taught that the phenomenal

world had only a qualified reality, thus opposing the doctrine of the

Sarvastivadins. A monk with defective eyesight may imagine that he sees flies in his begging bowl, and they have full reality for the percipient.

Though the flies are not real the illusion of flies is. The Madhyamika

philosophers tried to prove that all our experience of the phenomenal

world is like that of the short-sighted monk, that all beings labor under

the constant illusion of perceiving things where- in fact there is only

emptiness. This Emptiness or Void (Sunyata) is all that truly exists, and

hence the Madhyamikas were sometimes also called Sunyavddins ("ex-

ponents of the doctrine of emptiness"). But the phenomenal world is

true pragmatically, and therefore has qualified reality for practical pur-

poses. Yet the whole chain of existence is only real in this qualified sense,

for it is composed of a series of transitory events, and these, being im-

permanent, cannot have reality in themselves. Emptiness, on the other

hand, never changes. It is absolute truth and absolute being in fact it is

the same as Nirvana and the Body of Essence of the Buddha.

Nagarjuna's system, however, went farther than this. Nothing in the

phenomenal world has full being, and all is ultimately unreal. Therefore

every rational theory about the world is a theory about something unreal

evolved by an unreal thinker with unreal thoughts. Thus, by the same

process of reasoning, even the arguments of the Madhyamika school in

favor of the ultimate reality of Emptiness are unreal, and this argument

against the Madhyamika position is itself unreal, and so on in an infinite

regress. Every logical argument can be reduced to absurdity by a process

such as this. The ontological nihilism of Madhyamika dialectic led to

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the development of a special sub-school devoted to logic, the Prdsangi\a 2

which produced works o great subtlety. The effect of Madhyamika nihilism was not what might be expected.

Skeptical philosophies in the West, such as that of existentialism, are

generally strongly flavored with pessimism. The Madhyamikas, however, were not pessimists. If the phenomenal world was ultimately unreal,

Emptiness was real, for, though every logical proof of its existence was

vitiated by the flaw of unreality, it could be experienced in meditation

with a directness and certainty which the phenomenal world did not

possess. The ultimate Emptiness was here and now, everywhere and

all-embracing, and there was in fact no difference between the great Void

and the phenomenal world. Thus all beings were already participants of the Emptiness which was Nirvana, they were already Buddha if only

they would realize it. This aspect of Madhyamika philosophy was

specially congenial to Chinese Buddhists, nurtured in the doctrine of the

Tao, and it had much influence in the development of the special forms of Chinese and Japanese Buddhism, which often show a frank acceptance of the beauty of the world, and especially of the beauty* of nature, as a

vision of Nirvana here and now.

The Vijnanavada school was one of pure idealism, and may be com-

pared to the systems of Berkeley and Hume. The whole universe exists

only in the mind of the perceiver. The fact of illusion, as in the case of the flies in the short-sighted monk's bowl, or the experience of dreams, was adduced as evidence to show that all normal human experience was of the same type. It is possible for the monk in meditation to raise before his eyes visions of every kind which have quite as much vividness and semblance of truth as have ordinary perceptions; yet he knows that they have no objective reality. Perception therefore is no proof of the inde-

pendent existence of any entity, and all perceptions may be explained as

projections of the percipient mind. Vijnanavada, like some Western idealist systems, found its chief logical difficulty in explaining the con-

tinuity and apparent regularity o the majority of our sense impressions, and in accounting for the fact that the impressions of most people who are looking at the same time in the same direction seem to cohere in a

remarkably consistent manner. Bishop Berkeley, to escape this dilemma,

3 So called from its preoccupation with prasanga the term used in Sanskrit logic for the rcductto ad absurdwn.

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postulated a transcendent mind in which all phenomena were thoughts.

The Vijnanavadins explained the regularity and coherence o sense im-

pressions as due to an underlying store "of perceptions (dlayatnjnana)

evolving from the accumulation of traces of earlier sense-impressions. These are active, and produce impressions similar to themselves, accord-

ing to a regular pattern, as seeds produce plants. Each being possesses one of these stores of perception, and beings which are generically alike

will produce similar perceptions from their stores at the same time. By this strange conception, which bristles with logical difficulties and is one

of the most difficult of all Indian philosophy, the Vijnanavadins managed to avoid the logical conclusion of idealism in solipsism. Moreover they

admitted the existence of at least one entity independent of human

thought a pure and integral being without characteristics, about which

nothing could truly be predicated because it was without predicates. This

was called "Suchness" (Tathato) and corresponded to the Emptiness or

Void of the Madhyamikas, and to the Brahman of Vedanta. Though the

terminology is different the metaphysics of Mahayana Buddhism has

much in common with the doctrines of some of the Upanishads and of Shankara. The latter probably learned much from Buddhism, and indeed

was called by his opponents a crypto-Buddhist. For the Vijnanavada school salvation was to be obtained by exhausting

the store of consciousness until it became pure being itself, and identical

with the Suchness which was the only truly existent entity in the universe.

The chief means of doing this, for those who had already reached a cer-

tain stage of spiritual development, was yogic praxis. Adepts of this

school were taught to conjure up visions, so that, by realizing that visions

and pragmatically real perceptions had the. same vividness and subjec-

tive reality, they might become completely convinced of the total sub-

jectivity of all phenomena. Thus the meditating monk would imagine himself a mighty god, leading an army of lesser gods against Mara, the

spirit of the world and the flesh. The chief philosophers of the school

were Asanga (fourth century AJ>.) and Vasubandhu, 8 of about the same

period. According to tradition Dinnaga, the greatest of the Buddhist

logicians, was a disciple of Vasubandhu.

The canons of the Mahayana sects contain much material which also

"There may have been two Vasubandhus, one the approximate contemporary of Asanga and the other about a century later.

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occurs in Pali, often expanded or adapted, but the interest of the

Mahayanists was largely directed to other scriptures, of which no counter-

parts exist in the Pali canon, and which, it was claimed, were also the

pronouncements of the Buddha. These are the Vaifulya Sutras, or "Ex-

panded Discourses," of greater length than those in the Pali Basket of Discourses (Sutta Pitafa), and written in Buddhist Sanskrit; in them the

Buddha is supposed to have taught the doctrine of the heavenly Buddhas

and bodhisattvas. Of these Mahayana sutras pride of place must be taken

by The Lotus of the Good Law (Saddharmafundarl\a), which pro- pounds all the major doctrines of Mahayana Buddhism in a fairly simple and good literary style with parables and poetic illustrations. In transla-

tion it is the most popular Buddhist scripture in China and Japan, the

Japanese Buddhists of the Nichiren sect making it their sole canonical

text.. An important group of Mahayana texts is the Discourses on the

Perfection of Wisdom (Prajndpdramitd Sutras), of which several exist,

generally known by the number of verses 4 they contain, ranging from

700 to 100,000. The primary purpose of these is to explain and glorify the

ten perfections (paramita) of the Bodhisattva, and especially the perfec-

tion of wisdom (prajna), but they contain much of importance on other

aspects of Buddhism. Other Mahayana sutras are too numerous to men-

tion.

The Bodhisattva

The essential difference between Mahayana and Theravada Buddhism is in the doctrine of the bodhisattva, who, in Mahayana, becomes a divine savior, and

whose example the believer is urged to follow. It must be remembered that all

good Buddhists, from the Mahayana point of view, are bodhisattvas in the

making, and the many descriptions of bodhisattvas in Mahayana texts provide ideals for the guidance of monk and layman alike. One of the chief qualities of the bodhisattva is his immense compassion for the world of mortals.

[From AstasdhasrtJ(d Prajndpdramitd, 22.402-3]

The bodhisattva is endowed with wisdom of a kind whereby he looks on all beings as though victims going to the slaughter. And immense compas- sion grips him. His divine eye sees . . . innumerable beings, and he is

filled with great distress at what he sees, for many bear the burden of past

*Or more correctly the number of verses of 32 syllables each which they would con- tain if they had been versified. They are actually in prose.

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deeds which will be punished in purgatory, others will have unfortunate

rebirths which will divide them from the Buddha and his teachings, others must soon be slain, others are caught in the net of false doctrine,

others cannot find the path (of salvation), while others have gained a

favorable rebirth only to lose it again.

So he pours out his love and compassion upon all those beings, and

attends to them, thinking, "I shall become the savior of all beings, and

set them free from their sufferings."

The Mahayana Ideal Is Higher Than That of the Theravada

Mahayana teachers claimed that the ideal of the Theravadins complete loss

of personality as perfected beings in Nirvana was fundamentally selfish and

trivial. The truly perfected being should devote all his powers to saving suffer-

ing mortals. The following passage elucidates this point. It purports to be a

dialogue between the Buddha and one of his chief disciples, Shanputra (Pali Sanputtd).

[From Pancaviinsatisahasn\a Pra-jnapdrarnitd, pp. 40-41]

"What do you think, Shariputra ? Do any of the disciples * and Private

Buddhas 2 ever think, 'After we have gained full enlightenment we will

bring innumerable beings ... to complete Nirvana'?"

"Certainly not, Lord!"

"But," said the Lord, "the bodhisattva (has this resolve) .... A firefly . . . doesn't imagine that its glow will light up all India or shine all over

it, and so the disciples and Private Buddhas don't think that they should

lead all beings to Nirvana . . . after they have gained full enlightenment.

But the disc of the sun, when it has risen, lights up all India and shines

all over it. Similarly the bodhisattva, . . . when he has gained full enlight- enment, brings countless beings to Nirvana.

The Suffering Savior

In many passages of the Mahayana scriptures is to be found what purports to

be the solemn resolve made by a bodhisattva at the beginning of his career.

The following fine passage will appear particularly striking to Western readers, for in it the bodhisattva not only resolves to pity and help all mortal beings,

l $rdvafaf literally "hearer," a term often applied by Mahayana writers especially to ad-

herents of Theravada. 3 Pratyeka-buddha, one who has achieved full enlightenment through his own insight,

but does not communicate his saving knowledge to others.

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but also to share their intensest sufferings. Christians and Jews cannot fail to

note resemblances to the concept of the suffering Savior in Christianity and

to the "Servant Passages" of Isaiah (53:3-12). It is by no means impossible that there was some Christian influence on Mahayana Buddhism, for Christian

missionaries were active in Persia very early, and it became a center from

which Nestorian Christianity was diffused throughout Asia. From the middle of the third century A.D. Persian influence in Afghanistan and Northwestern

India, which had always been felt, was intensified with the rise of the Sasanian

Empire; and it was in these regions that Mahayana Buddhism developed and

flourished. Thus Christian influence cannot be ruled out. But it is equally

possible that the similarities between the concepts of the suffering savior in

Buddhism and Christianity are due to the fact that compassionate minds every- where tend to think alike.

The work from which the following passage is taken, Shantideva's Com-

pendium of Doctrine, dates from the seventh century. It is extremely valuable

because it consists of lengthy quotations from earlier Buddhist literature with

brief comments by the compiler, and many of the passages quoted are from

works which no longer survive in their original form. The following passages are quoted from two such works, the Instructions of A^shayamatt (A^sayamati

Nirdesa) and the Sutra of Vajradhva^a (Vajradhvaja Sutra). '

[From Siftsasamuccaya, pp. 278-83]

The bodhisattva is lonely, with no ... companion, and he puts on the

armor of supreme wisdom. He acts himself, and leaves nothing to others,

working with a will steeled with courage and strength* He is strong in his own strength . . . and he resolves thus :

"Whatever all beings should obtain, I will help them to obtain. . . .

The virtue of generosity is not my helper I am the helper of generosity. Nor do the virtues of morality, patience, courage, meditation and wisdom

help me it is I who help them. 3 The perfections of the bodhisattva do

not support me it is I who support them. ... I alone, standing in this round and adamantine world, must subdue Mara, with all his hosts and

chariots, and develop supreme enlightenment with the wisdom o in-

stantaneous insight!" . . .

'These six, generosity (dana), moral conduct (/i/0), patience (faanti), courage or energy

(vuya), meditation (dhyana) and wisdom (prajna) are the Paramitas, or virtues of the

bodhisattva, which he has developed to perfection. Many sources add four further perfec- tions "skill in knowing the right means" to take to lead individual beings to salvation

according to their several characters and circumstances (upaya%au$alya), determination

(prantdhana), strength (bala), and knowledge (jnana). Much attention was concentrated on these perfections, especially on the Perfection of Wisdom (Prajndpdramita} , which was

personified as a goddess, and after which numerous Buddhist texts were named.

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Just as the rising sun, the child o the gods, is not stopped ... by all

the dust rising from the four continents of the earth ... or by wreaths of

smoke ... or by rugged mountains, so the bodhisattva, the Great Being, . . . is not deterred from bringing to fruition the root of good, whether

by the malice of others, ... or by their sin or heresy, or by their agitation of mind. . , . He will not lay down his arms of enlightenment because of the corrupt generations of men, nor does he waver in his resolution to

save the world because of their wretched quarrels. ... He does not lose heart on account of their faults. . . .

"All creatures are in pain," he resolves, "all suffer from bad and hinder-

ing karma ... so that they cannot see the Buddhas or hear the Law of

Righteousness or know the Order. . . . All that mass of pain and evil karma I take in my own body. ... I take upon myself the burden of sorrow; I resolve to do so; I endure it all. I do not turn back or run away, I do not tremble . . , I am not afraid . . . nor do I despair. Assuredly I must bear the burdens of all beings ... for I have resolved to save them

all. I must set them all free, I must save the whole world from the forest

of birth, old age, disease, and rebirth, from misfortune and sin, from the

round of birth and death, from the toils of heresy. . . . For all beings are

caught in the net of craving, encompassed by ignorance, held by the

desire for existence; they are doomed to destruction, shut in a cage of

pain . . . ; they are ignorant, untrustworthy, full o doubts, always at log-

gerheads one with another, always prone to see evil; they cannot find a

refuge in the ocean of existence; they are all on the edge of the gulf of

destruction.

"I work to establish the kingdom of perfect wisdom for all beings. I

care not at all for my own deliverance. I must save all beings from the torrent of rebirth with the raft of my omniscient mind. I must pull them back from the great precipice. I must free them from all misfortune, ferry them over the stream of rebirth.

"For I have taken upon myself, by my own will, the whole of the pain of all things living. Thus I dare try every abode of pain, in ... every part of the universe, for I must not defraud the world of the root of good. I

resolve to dwell in each state of misfortune through countless ages . . .

for the salvation of all beings ... for it is better that I alone suffer than

that all beings sink to the worlds of misfortune. There I shall give my- self into bondage, to redeem all the world from the forest of purgatory,

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from rebirth as beasts, from the realm of death. I shall bear all grief and

pain in my own body, for the good of all things living. I venture to stand

surety for all beings, speaking the truth, trustworthy, not breaking my word. I shall not forsake them. * . . I must so bring to fruition the root

of goodness that all beings find the utmost joy, unheard of joy, the joy

of omniscience. I must be their charioteer, I must be their leader, I must

be their torchbearer, I must be their guide to safety. ... I must not wait

for the help of another, nor must I lose my resolution and leave my tasks to another. I must not turn back in my efforts to save all beings nor cease to use my merit for the destruction of all pain. And I must not be satisfied with small successes."

The Lost Son

One of the reasons for including this passage is its remarkable resemblance to the famous parable of St. Luke's Gospel (15:11-32). As the Lotus of the Good

Law, from which the Buddhist story is taken, was probably m existence well before Christian ideas could have found their way to India via Persia, it is un-

likely that this parable owes anything to the Christian one. Similarly it is un-

likely that the Christian parable is indebted to the Buddhist. Probably we have here a case of religious minds of two widely separated cultures thinking along similar lines, as a result of similar, though not identical, religious experience. For this reason the resemblances and differences of the two stories are most

instructive. 4

The Prodigal of the Christian story squanders his patrimony in riotous liv-

ing. The son in the Buddhist story is a wretched creature who can only wander about begging. His fault is not so much in squandering his property as in fail-

ing to acquire wealth (i.e., spiritual merit). The Prodigal returns to his father

by his own free choice, after repenting his evil ways. In the Buddhist story it is only by chance that the son meets his father again; moreover the son does

not recognize the father, though the father recognizes his son thus the heav-

enly Buddha knows his children and works for their salvation, though they do not recognize him in his true character, and, if they get a glimpse of him, are afraid and try to avoid him they feel much more at ease among their own earthbound kind, in "the poor quarter of the town," where their divine father sends his messengers (perhaps representing the Bodhisattvas) to find

4 The text itself purports to give an interpretation of the parable in which the son toiling as a menial in his father's house is compared to the Hlnayana monk, who is unaware of the true glory of the enlightenment to which he is heir. There is little doubt, however, that the story here turned to purposes of sectarian propaganda was originally meant to have a wider significance, and we believe our interpretation to be that demanded by the

spirit of the parable.

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them, bringing them home by force if need be. Here there is no question of a

positive act of repentance, as in the Christian parable.

Unlike the Prodigal's father in the Christian story, who kills the fatted calf for his long-lost son, the father in the Buddhist story makes his son undergo a

very long period of humble probation before raising him to the position which he merits by his birth. The heavenly Buddha cannot raise beings immediately from the filth and poverty of the earthly gutter to the full glory of his own

heavenly palace, for they are so earthbound that, if brought to it at once, they would suffer agonies of fear, embarrassment, and confusion, and might well insist on returning to the gutter again. So they must undergo many years of

preparation for their high estate, toiling daily among the material dross of this world, earnestly and loyally striving to make the world a tidier place. Like the father in the story, the heavenly Buddha will cover his glory with earthly dust and appear to his children as a historical Buddha to encourage and instruct them. Thus the Buddha shows the perfection of "skill in means," that is to say, in knowing the best means to take to lead each individual to the light accord-

ing to the circumstances in which he is placed.

Gradually the son grows more and more familiar with the father, and loses his former fear of him, but still he does not know that he is his father's child. So men, even though pious and virtuous, and earnesdy carrying out the Bud-

dha's will, do not know that they are already in Heaven; their lives are still to some extent earthbound, and though the Buddha offers them all his wealth of bliss long habit keeps them from enjoying it.

Only when the father is near death does he reveal himself to his son. This seems at first to weaken the analogy, for heavenly Buddhas do not die. But in fact the conclusion of the parable is quite appropriate, for when man has ful- filled his tasks and carried out his stewardship, that is to say when he has reached the highest stage of self-development, he finds that the heavenly Bud-

dha has ceased to exist for him, that nothing is truly real but the great Empti- ness which is peace and Nirvana.

[From Saddharmafundanl(at 4.101 ff.]

A man parted from his father and went to another city; and he dwelt there many years. . . . The father grew rich and the son poor. While the son wandered in all directions [begging] in order to get food and clothes,

the father moved to another land, where he lived in great luxury, . . .

wealthy from business, money-lending, and trade. In course of time the

son, wandering in search of his living through town and country, came

to the city in which his father dwelled. Now the poor man's father . . . forever thought of the son whom he had lost . . . years ago, but he told no one of this, though he grieved inwardly, and thought: "I am old, and well advanced in years, and though I have great possessions I have no son.

Alas that time should do its work upon me, and that all this wealth

should perish unused! ... It would be bliss indeed if my son might enjoy all my wealth!** Then the poor man, in search of food and clothing, came to the rich

man's home. And the rich man was sitting in great pomp at the gate of his house, surrounded by a large throng of attendants, ... on a splendid

throne, with a footstool inlaid with gold and silver, under a wide awning

decked with pearls and flowers and adorned with hanging garlands of

jewels; and he transacted business to the value of millions of gold pieces,

all the while fanned by a fly-whisk. . . . When he saw him the poor man was terrified . . . and the hair of his body stood on end, for he thought that he had happened on a king or on some high officer of state, and had

no business there. "I must go," he thought, "to the poor quarter of the

town, where 1*11 get food and clothing without trouble. If I stop here

they'll seize me and set me to do forced labor, or some other disaster will befall me!" So he quickly ran away. . . .

But the rich man . . . recognized his son as soon as he saw him; and he was full of joy . . , and thought: "This is wonderful! I have found

him who shall enjoy my riches. He of whom I thought constantly has come back, now that I am old and full of years!" Then, longing for his

son, he sent swift messengers, telling them to go and fetch him quickly.

They ran at full speed and overtook him; the poor man trembled with

fear, the hair of his body stood on end . . . and he uttered a cry of distress

and exclaimed, "Pve done you no wrong!" But they dragged him along

by force . . . until . . . fearful that he would be killed or beaten, he

fainted and fell on the ground. His father in dismay said to the men,

"Don't drag him along in that way!" and, without saying more, he sprin- kled his face with cold water for though he knew that the poor man was his son, he realized that his estate was very humble, while his own

was very high. So the householder told no one that the poor man was his son. He or-

dered one of his servants to tell the poor man that he was free to go where he chose. . . . And the poor man was amazed [that he was allowed to go free], and he went off to the poor quarter of the town in search of food

and clothing. Now in order to attract him back the rich man made use of the virtue of "skill in means." He called two men of low caste and of no

great dignity and told them: "Go to that poor man . . . and hire him in

your own names to do work in my house at double the normal daily wage; and if he asks what work he has to do tell him that he has to help clear

away the refuse-dump." So these two men and the poor man cleared the refuse every day ... in the house of the rich man, and lived in a straw

hut nearby. . . . And the rich man saw through a window his son clear-

ing refuse, and was again filled with compassion. So he came down, took

off his wreath and jewels and rich clothes, put on dirty garments, covered

his body with dust, and, taking a basket in his hand, went up to his son.

And he greeted him at a distance and said, "Take this basket and clear

away the dust at once!" By this means he managed to speak to his son.

[And as time went on he spoke more often to him, and thus he gradually encouraged him. First he urged him to] remain in his service and not take another job, offering him double wages, together with any small extras that he might require, such as the price o a cooking-pot ... or food and

clothes. Then he offered him his own cloak; if he should want it. ... And at last he said: "You must be cheerful, my good fellow, and think of me as a father . . . for I'm older than you and you've done me good serv- ice in clearing away my refuse. As long as you've worked for me you've shown no roguery or guile. . . . I've not noticed one of the vices in you that I've noticed in my other servants! From now on you are like my own son to me!"

Thenceforward the householder called the poor man "son," and the latter felt towards the householder as a son feels towards his father. So the

householder, full of longing and love for his son, employed him in clear-

ing away refuse for twenty years. By the end of that time the poor man felt

quite at home in the house, and came and went as he chose, though he still lived in the straw hut.

Then the householder fell ill, and felt that the hour of his death was near. So he said to the poor man: "Come, my dear man! I have great riches, . . . and am very sick. I need someone upon whom I can bestow my wealth as a deposit, and you must accept it. From now on you are

just as much its owner as I am, but you must not squander it." And the

poor man accepted the rich man's wealth, . . . but personally he cared

nothing for it, and asked for no share of it, not even the price of a measure of flour. He still lived in the straw hut, and thought of himself as just as poor as before.

Thus the householder proved that his son was frugal, mature, and men-

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tally developed, and that though he knew that he was now wealthy he still remembered his past poverty, and was still . . . humble and meek.

... So he sent for the poor man again, presented him before a gathering of his relatives, and, m the presence of the king, his officers, and the people of town and country, he said: "Listen, gentlemen! This is my son, whom I begot, ... To him I leave all my family revenues, and my private wealth he shall have as his own."

Against Self-Mortification

Buddhists of both "vehicles" strongly deprecated the exaggerated ascetic prac- tices of other sects, as they did taboos connected with food and ritual purity.

Suffering, for the Buddhist, has no intrinsic value or purificatory effect, unless

it is undertaken voluntarily for the sake of others, in the manner of the bo-

dhisattva, who elects to dwell in all the purgatories in order to relieve the

beings in torment there. The man who mortifies the flesh in order to gain re- birth in heaven is completely selfish and misguided, and his last state will be

worse than his first.

The following verses are from the Deeds of the "Buddha, a metrical life of the Buddha by Ashvaghosha (first to second centuries A.D.), which is among the masterpieces of Sanskrit poetry and one of the earliest known poems in the courtly style. Though it is written in Sanskrit it contains no specifically Mahayana features; but it is included among Mahayana literature, since it was

preserved by the Mahayanist sects. The verses are spoken by the future Buddha

during his period of spiritual apprenticeship, when he realizes that self- mortification is useless and wrong.

[From Ruddhacanta, 7.20 ff.]

Penance in its various forms is essentially sorrowful;

And, at best, the reward of penance is heaven.

Yet all the worlds are liable to change, So the efforts of the hermitages are of little use.

Those who forsake the kin they love and their pleasures To perform penance and win a place in heaven

Must leave it in the end

And go to greater bondage.

The man who pains his body and calls it penance In the hope of continuing to satisfy desire

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Does not perceive the evils of rebirth, And through much sorrow goes to further sorrow.

All living beings are afraid of death

And yet they all strive to be born again; As they act thus death is inevitable. And they are plunged in that which they most fear.

Some suffer hardship for mere worldly gain; Others will take to penance in hope of heaven.

All beings fail in their hopeful search for bliss,

And fall, poor wretches, into dire calamity.

Not that the effort is to be blamed which leaves The base and seeks the higher aim,

But wise men should labor with an equal zeal To reach the goal where further toil is needless.

If it is Right to mortify the flesh

The body's ease is contrary to Right; Thus if, by doing Right, joy is obtained hereafter

Righteousness must flower in Unrighteousness.

The body is commanded by the mind,

Through mind it acts, through mind it ceases to act.

All that is needed is to subdue the mind,

For the body is a log of wood without it.

If merit comes from purity of food 5

Then even the deer gam merit, And those who do not win the reward of righteousness But by an unlucky fate have lost their wealth. . . .

And those who try to purify their deeds

By ablutions at a place which they hold sacred

6 From the context it appears that this verse is specially directed at the Jains, whose monks

were given to very severe fasting, sometimes even to death.

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These merely give their hearts some satisfaction,

For water will not purify men's sin.

Joy in All Things

Joy is one of the cardinal virtues of Buddhism, and the bodhisattva, who is the example which all Mahayana Buddhists are expected to follow as far as their powers allow, has so trained his mind that even in the most painful and

unhappy situations it is still full of calm inner joy. The following passage is from die Compendium of Doctrine; the first paragraph is the work of the

author, Shantideva, while the second is quoted from a lost sutra, the Meeting

of Father and Son (Pitrputrasamagama).

[From SiJ(sasarnuccayaf 181 f.]

Indeed nothing is difficult after practice. Simple folk, such as porters,

fishermen and plowmen, for instance, are not overcome by depression, for

their minds are marked by the scars of the many pains with which they earn their humble livings, and which they have learned to bear. How much the more should one be cheerful in a task of which the purpose is

to reach the incomparable state where all the joys of all beings, all the

joys of the bodhisattvas are to be found. . . . Consciousness of sorrow

and joy comes by habit; so, if whenever sorrow arises we make a habit of associating with it a feeling of joy, consciousness of joy will indeed

arise. The fruit of this is a contemplative spirit full of joy in all things. . . .

So the bodhisattva ... is happy even when subjected to the tortures of

hell. . . ^ When he is being beaten with canes or whips, when he is thrown into prison, he still feels happy.

6 . . . For . . . this was the re-

solve of the Great Being, the bodhisattva: "May those who feed me win the joy of tranquillity and peace, with those who protect me, honor me,

respect me, and revere me. And those who revile me, afflict me, beat me, cut me in pieces with their swords, or take my life may they all obtain the joy of complete enlightenment, may they be awakened to perfect and sublime enlightenment." With such thoughts and actions and resolves he

cultivates . . and develops the consciousness of joy in his relations with

all beings, and so he acquires a contemplative spirit filled with joy in all

things . . . and becomes imperturbable not to be shaken by all the

deeds of Mara.

6 Here a long list of the most gruesome tortures is omitted.

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The Good Deeds of the Bodhisattva

We have seen that the bodhisattva has ten "Perfections," A further list of good qualities

is sometimes attributed to him. Notice that the emphasis is on the

positive virtues of altruism, benevolence, and compassion.

[From Tathagataguhya Sutra, Si^sdsamuccaya, p. 274]

There are ten ways by which a bodhisattva gains . . . strength:

He will give up his body and his life . . . but he will not give up the Law of Righteousness.

He bows humbly to all beings, and does not increase in pride. He has compassion on the weak and does not dislike them.

He gives the best food to those who are hungry. He protects those who are afraid.

He strives for the healing of those who are sick-

He delights the poor with his riches.

He repairs the shrines of the Buddha with plaster. He speaks to all beings pleasingly. He shares his riches with those afflicted by poverty. He bears the burdens of those who are tired and weary.

The Evils of Meat-Eating

According to the scriptures of the Theravada school the Buddha allowed his

followers to eat flesh if they were not responsible for killing the animal pro-

viding the meat, and if it was not specially killed to feed them. To this day most Buddhists in Ceylon and other lands where Theravada prevails eat meat

and fish, which are supplied by Muslim or Christian butchers or fishermen.

Like the great Ashoka, however, many Buddhists have felt that meat-eating of

any kind is out of harmony with the spirit of the Law of Righteousness, and

have been vegetarians. The following passage criticizes the Theravada teaching on meat-eating, and enjoins strict vegetarianism. The words are attributed to

the Buddha.

[From Lah^avatara Sutra, pp. 245 ff.]

Here in this long journey of birth-and-death there is no living being who

... has not at some time been your mother or father, brother or sister,

son or daughter. ... So how can the bodhisattva, who wishes to treat all

beings as though they were himself, ... eat the flesh of any living being.

. . . Therefore, wherever living beings evolve, men should feel toward

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them as to their own kin, and, looking on all beings as their only child, should refrain from eating meat. . . .

The bodhisattva, . , . desirous of cultivating the virtue of love, should not eat meat, lest he cause terror to living beings. Dogs, when they see, even at a distance, an outcaste . . . who likes earing meat, are terrified with fear, and think, "They are the dealers of death, they will kill us!"

Even the animalculae in earth and air and water, who have a very keen sense of smell, will detect at a distance the odor of the demons in meat-

eaters, and will run away as fast as they can from the death which threat-

ens them. . . .

Moreover the meat-eater sleeps in sorrow and wakes in sorrow. All his

dreams are nightmares, and they make his hair stand on end. . . . Things other than human sap his vitality. Often he is struck with terror, and trembles without cause." . . . He knows no measure in his eating, and there is no flavor, digestibility, or nourishment in his food. His bowels

are filled with worms and other creatures, which are the cause of leprosy; and he ceases to think of resisting diseases. . . .

It is not true . , . that meat is right and proper for the disciple when the animal was not killed by himself or by his orders, and when it was not killed specially for him. . . . Pressed by a desire for the taste of meat

people may string together their sophistries in defense of meat-eating . . . and declare that the Lord permitted meat as legitimate food, that it occurs

in the list of permitted foods, and that he himself ate it. But ... it is

nowhere allowed in the sutras as a ... legitimate food. . . . All meat-

eating in any form or manner and in any circumstances is prohibited, un-

conditionally and once and for all.

The Gift of Food

From the Buddhist point of view, as Ashoka said, there is no greater gift than the gift of the Law of Righteousness; but Buddhism never disparaged the value or merit of practical acts of kindness and chanty. The Buddhists, as we have seen, set much store on physical wellbeing. The passage which follows will show that poverty and hunger, unless voluntarily undertaken for a worthy cause, were looked on as unmitigated evils, liable to lead to sin and hence to an unhappy rebirth.

This passage is from the Tamil classic Manimegalai, perhaps of the sixth

century AJX, which is wholly Buddhist in inspiration, and concludes with an

exposition of Mahayana logic and the doctrine of the Chain of^ Causation. The

poem tells of Manimegalai, a beautiful girl who, after many adventures, real- ized the uselessness and sorrow of the world and became a Buddhist nun. Here, led by a demi-goddess, she finds a magic bowl, which gives an inexhaustible

supply of food.

[From Mammegalai> 11.55-122]

The bowl rose in the water and . . . moved toward her hand. She was

glad beyond measure, and sang a hymn in praise of the Buddha: "Hail the feet of the hero, the victor over Mara!

Hail the feet of him who destroyed the path of evil! Hail the feet of the Great One, setting men on the road of Righteousness! Hail the feet of the All Wise One, who gives others the eye of wisdom! Hail the feet of him whose ears are deaf to evil! Hail the feet of him whose tongue never uttered untruth! Hail the feet of him who went down to purgatory to put an end to suf-

fering. . . .

My tongue cannot praise you duly All I can do is to bend my body at your feet!"

While she was praying thus Tivatilagai told her of the pains of hunger and of the virtue of those who help living beings to satisfy it. "Hunger," she said to Manimegalai, "ruins good birth, and destroys all nobility; it

destroys the love of learned men for their learning, even though they previously thought it the most valuable thing in life; hunger takes away all sense of shame, and ruins the beauty of the features; and it even forces

men to stand with their wives at the doors of others. This is the nature of

hunger, the source of evil craving, and those who relieve it the tongue cannot praise too highly! Food given to those who can afford it is charity wasted,

7 but food given to relieve the hunger of those who cannot satisfy it otherwise is charity indeed, and those who give it will prosper in this

world, for those who give food give life. So go on and give food to allay the hunger of those who are hungry."

"In a past life," said Manimegalai, "my husband died . . . and I mounted the pyre with him. As I burned I remembered that I had once

given food to a Buddhist monk named Sadusakkara; and I believe it is be- cause of this virtuous thought at the moment of death that this bowl of

7 This may be a criticism of the Hindu virtue of dana, which is usually translated "char- ity/* but includes feasts given to brahmans who may be much richer than the donor.

plenty has come into my hands. Just as a mother's breast begins to give milk at the mere sight of her hungry baby, so may this bowl in my hand

always give food ... at the sight of those who suffer hunger and wander

even in pouring rain or scorching sun in search of food to relieve it."

The Three Bodies of the Buddha

The following passage expounds the doctrine of the Three Bodies (Tn\aya). It is taken from Asanga's Ornament of Mahdydna Sutras, a versified com-

pendium of Mahayana doctrine, with a prose commentary. The latter is quoted where it throws light on the difficult and elliptical verses.

[From MahayanasutralahJsara, 9.60-66]

The Body of Essence, the Body of Bliss, 8 the Created Body these are the

bodies of the Buddhas.

The first is the basis of the two others.

The Body of Bliss varies in all the planes of the Universe, according to

region,

In name, in form, and in experience of phenomena. But the Body of Essence, uniform and subtle, is inherent in the Body of

Bliss,

And through the one the other controls its experience, when it manifests

itself at will.

Commentary: The Body of Essence is uniform for all the Buddhas, Because there is no real difference between them. . . .

The Created Body displays with skill birth, enlightenment, and Nirvana, For it possesses much magic power to lead men to enlightenment. The Body of the Buddhas is wholly comprised in these three bodies. . . .

In basis, tendency, and act they are uniform.

They are stable by nature, by persistence, and by connection.

Commentary: The Three Bodies are one and the same for all the Bud-

dhas for three reasons: basis, for the basis of phenomena 9

is indivisible;

tendency, because there is no tendency particular to one Buddha and not 8 Sambhoga, more literally "enjoyment"; in some contexts it implies little more than

"experience." 9 Dharmadhatu, the Absolute.

to another; and act, because their actions are common to all. And the Three Bodies have a threefold stability : by nature, for the Body of Essence

is essentially stable; by persistence, for the Body of Bliss experiences phe- nomena unceasingly; and by connection, for the Created Body, once it

has passed away, shows its metamorphoses again and again.

Emptiness

The doctrine of Sunyata, "Emptiness" or "the Void," is aptly expressed in these fine verses from the Multitude of Graceful Actions, a life of the Buddha in mixed verse and prose, replete with marvels and miracles of all kinds, which

formed the basis of Sir Edwin Arnold's famous poem, The Light of Asia.

[From Lahtavistara, 13-175-77]

All things conditioned are instable, impermanent,

Fragile in essence, as an unbaked pot, Like something borrowed, or a city founded on sand,

They last a short while only.

They are inevitably destroyed, Like plaster washed off in the rains,

Like the sandy bank of a river

They are conditioned, and their true nature is frail.

They are like the flame of a lamp, Which rises suddenly and as soon goes out.

They have no power of endurance, like the wind

Or like foam, unsubstantial, essentially feeble.

They have no inner power, being essentially empty, Like the stem of a plantain, if one thinks clearly,

Like conjuring tricks deluding the mind,

Or a fist closed on nothing to tease a child. . . .

From wisps of grass the rope is spun

By dint of exertion.

By turns of the wheel the buckets are raised from the well,

Yet each turn of itself is futile.

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So the turning of all the components o becoming

Arises from the interaction of one with another.

In the unit the turning cannot be traced

Either at the beginning or end.

Where the seed is, there is the young plant, But the seed has not the nature of the plant,

Nor is it something other than the plant, nor is it the plant So is the nature of the Law of Righteousness, neither transient nor

eternal.

All things conditioned are conditioned by ignorance,

And on final analysis they do not exist, For they and .the conditioning ignorance alike are Emptiness

In their essential nature, without power of action. . . .

The mystic knows the beginning and end

Of consciousness, its production and passing away He knows that it came from nowhere and returns to nowhere, And is empty [of reality], like a conjuring trick.

Through the concomitance of three factors

Firesticks, fuel, and the work of the hand

Fire is kindled. It serves its purpose

And quickly goes out again*

A wise man may seek here, there, and everywhere Whence it has come, and whither it has gone,

Through every region in all directions, But he cannot find it in its essential nature. . , .

Thus all things in this world of contingence Are dependent on causes and conditions.

The mystic knows what is true reality, And sees all conditioned things as empty and powerless.

Faith in Emptiness

The following passage needs little comment. Belief in Sunyavada, the doctrine of Emptiness, encourages a stoical and noble equanimity.

[From Dharmasangiti Sutra, Sifysasarnuccaya, p. 264]

He who maintains the doctrine of Emptiness is not allured by the things of the world, because they have no basis. He is not excited by gain or dejected by loss. Fame does not dazzle him and infamy does not shame him. Scorn does not repel him, praise does not attract him. Pleasure does

not please him, pain does not trouble him. He who is not allured by the

things of the world knows Emptiness^ and one who maintains the doc- trine of Emptiness has neither likes nor dislikes. What he likes he knows to be only Emptiness and sees it as such.

Karma and Rebirth

In an illusory world, rebirth is also illusory. The things a man craves for have no more reality than a dream, but he craves nevertheless, and hence his

illusory ego is reborn in a new but equally illusory body. Notice the importance of the last conscious thought before death, which plays a very decisive part in the nature of the rebirth. The chief speaker in the following dialogue is said to be the Buddha.

[From Pitrputrasamagama, $i\sasamuccaya, pp. 251-52]

"The senses are as though illusions and their objects as dreams. For in-

stance a sleeping man might dream that he had made love to a beautiful

country girl, and he might remember her when he awoke. What do you think . . . does the beautiful girl he dreamed of really exist?"

"No, Lord."

"And would the man be wise to remember the girl of his dreams, or to believe that he had really made love to her ?"

"No, Lord, because she doesn't really exist at all, so how could he have made love to her though of course he might think he did under the influ- ence of weakness or fatigue."

"In just the same way a foolish and ignorant man of the world sees

pleasant forms and believes in their existence. Hence he is pleased, and

so he feels passion and acts accordingly. . . . But from the very beginning his actions are feeble, impeded, wasted, and changed in their course by

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circumstances. . . . And when he ends his days, as the time of death ap- proaches, his vitality is obstructed with the exhaustion o his allotted span of years, the karma that fell to his lot dwindles, and hence his previous actions form the object of the last thought of his mind as it disappears.

Then, just as the man on first waking from sleep thinks of the country

girl about whom he dreamed, the first thought on rebirth arises from two causes the last thought of the previous life as its governing principle, and the actions of the previous life as its basis. Thus a man is reborn in the purgatories, or as an animal, a spirit, a demon, a human being, or a

god. . . . The stopping of the last thought is known as decease, the ap-

pearance of the first thought as rebirth. Nothing passes from life to life,

but decease and rebirth take place nevertheless. . . . But the last thought, the actions (karma), and the first thought, when they arise come from

nowhere and when they cease go nowhere, for all are essentially defective, of themselves empty. ... In the whole process no one acts and no one

experiences the results of action, except by verbal convention.

Suchness

The Vijnanavadin school called their conception of the Absolute Tathata or

"Suchness," in which all phenomenal appearances are lost in the one ultimate

being. The following passage is taken from a text which was translated into Chi-

nese in the seventh century from a recension more interesting than the extant Sanskrit form. The whole passage considers the "Suchness'* of the five com-

ponents of being in turn* Here we give only the passage relating to the first of these.10

[From Mahdprajnaparamitd, ch. 29, i]

What is meant by ... knowing in accordance with truth the marks of form? It means that a bodhisattva . . . knows that form is nothing but

holes and cracks and is indeed a mass of bubbles, with a nature that has

no hardness or solidity. . . .

What is meant by ... knowing in accordance with truth the origin and extinction of form? It means that a bodhisattva . . . knows . . . that when form originates it comes from nowhere and when it is extin-

10 Translated by Dr. Arthur Waley from the Chinese version of Hsiian Tsang. Reprinted

by permission of Messrs. Bruno Cassirer, Oxford, from Euddhtst Texts through the Ages, ed. by Edward Conzc, Oxford, 1954, p. 154 f.

[176]

guished it goes nowhere, but that though it neither comes nor goes yet its origination and extinction do jointly exist. . . .

What is meant by knowing ... in accordance with truth about the Suchness of form? It means that a bodhisattva . . . knows . . . that Such-

ness of form is not subject to origination or extinction, that it neither

comes nor goes, is neither foul nor clean, neither increases nor diminishes, is constant in its own nature, is never empty, false or changeful, and is therefore called Suchness.

All Depends on the Mind

The following passage expresses the idealism of Mahayana thought. [From Ratnamegha Sutra, SiJ^sasamuccaya, p. 121-22]

All phenomena originate in the mind, and when the mind is fully known all phenomena are fully known. For by the mind the world is led ...

and through the mind karma is piled up, whether good or evil. The mind

swings like a firebrand, 11 the mind rears up like a wave, the mind burns

like a forest fire, like a great flood the mind bears all things away. The

bodhisattva, thoroughly examining the nature of things, dwells in ever-

present mindfulness of the activity of the mind, and so he does not fall

into the mind's power, but the mind comes under his control. And with the mind under his control all phenomena are under his control.

Nirvana Is Here and Now

The two following passages, the first Madhyamika, and the second Vijna- navadin in tendency, illustrate the Mahayana doctrine that Nirvana, the high- est state, Pure Being, the Absolute, the Buddha's Body of Essence, is present at all times and everywhere, and needs only to be recognized. Thus the older

pessimism of Buddhism is replaced by what is almost optimism. With this

change of outlook comes an impatience with the learned philosophers and

moralists who repeat their long and dreary sermons on the woes of samsara, the round of birth-and-death. Though this attitude may have contributed to the antinomian tendencies of tantric Buddhism, it will probably stir an an-

swering chord in many Western minds. Most people are like the man in the

parable of the Lost Son, who year after year cleared away the refuse of his father's house without knowing that he was the son and heir.

31 An allusion to a famous simile. The world is like a firebrand which, when swung round in the hand, resembles a solid wheel of flame.

[177]

[From Si1(sasamuccaya, p. 257] That which the Lord revealed in his perfect enlightenment was not form or sensation or perception or psychic constructions or thought; for none

of these five components come into being, neither does supreme wisdom come into being . . . and how can that which does not come into being know that which also does not come into being? Since nothing can be

grasped, what is the Buddha, what is wisdom, what is the bodhisattva, what is revelation? All the components are by nature empty just conven-

tion, just names, agreed tokens, coverings. . . .

Thus all things are the perfection of being, infinite perfection, unob- scured perfection, unconditioned perfection. All things are enlightenment, for they must be recognized as without essential nature even the five

greatest sins 12

are enlightenment, for enlightenment has no essential na-

ture and neither have the five greatest sins. Thus those who seek for Nirvana are to be laughed at, for the man in the midst of birth-and-death is also seeking Nirvana.

[From LanJ(avatara Sutra, pp. 61-62] Those who are afraid of the sorrow which arises from . . . the round of birth-and-death seek for Nirvana; they do not realize that between birth-

and-death and Nirvana there is really no difference at all. They see Nir-

vana as the absence of all ... becoming, and the cessation of all contact

of sense-organ and sense-object, and they will not understand that it is

really only the inner realization of the store of impressions. 13

. . . Hence

they teach the three Vehicles, 14 but not the doctrine that nothing truly

exists but the mind, in which are no images. Therefore . . . they do not

know the extent of what has been perceived by the minds of past, present, and future Buddhas, and continue in the conviction that the world extends

beyond the range of the mind's eye. . . . And so they keep on rolling . . . on the wheel of birth-and-death.

Praise of Dharma

Dharma, the cosmic Law of Righteousness proclaimed by the Buddha, was revered quite as highly by the Mahayanists as by the Theravadins. The ulti-

13 Murdering one's mother, murdering one's father, murdering a perfected being

trying to destroy the Buddhist Order, and maliciously injuring a Buddha. 13 Alayavtjndna.M The two "Lesser Vehicles** (to salvation) of the older Buddhism namely, those of

the disciples and of Private Buddhas and the vehicle of the bodhisattva.

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mate body of the Buddha, which was roughly equivalent to the World-Soul of the Hindus, was called the Dharma-body, and the basic element of the universe was also often known as Dharma-dhdtu, "the Raw-material of the Law," espe- cially by the Vijnanavada.

15 The following passage, perhaps originally intended for liturgical purposes, exemplifies the mystical attitude toward Dharma, which was widespread in later Buddhism. Here Dharma seems to have much in com- mon with the Tao of Lao Tzu. Notice that it is prior to the heavenly Buddhas themselves.

[From Dharmasangiti Sutra, Siksasamuccaya, pp. 32223]

The blessed Buddhas, of virtues endless and limitless, are born of the Law of Righteousness; they dwell in the Law, are fashioned by the Law; they have the Law as their master, the Law as their light, the Law as their field of action, the Law as their refuge. They are produced by the Law . . . and all the joys in this world and the next are born of the Law and

produced by the Law. . . .

The Law is equal, equal for all beings. For low or middle or high the Law cares nothing.

So must I make my thought like the Law. The Law has no regard for the pleasant. Impartial is the Law. So must I make my thought like the Law.

The Law is not dependent upon time. Timeless is the Law. . . So must I make my thought like the Law.

The Law is not in the lofty without being in the low. Neither up nor down will the Law bend. So must I make my thought like the Law.

The Law is not in that which is whole without being in that which is broken. Devoid of all superiority or inferiority is the Law.

So must I make my thought like the Law. The Law is not in the noble without being in the humble. No care for fields of activity has the Law.

So must I make my thought like the Law. The Law is not in the day without being in the night. . . . Ever firm is the Law.

So must I make my thought like the Law. The Law does not lose the occasion of conversion. There is never delay with the Law.

15 Or, as many philosophers of this school would have interpreted it, "the Raw-material

of Phenomena," since dharma in Buddhism had also a special philosophical connotation.

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So must I make my thought like the Law. The Law has neither shortage nor abundance. Immeasurable, innumera- ble is the Law. Like space it never lessens or grows. So must I make my thought like the Law.

The Law is not guarded by beings. Beings are protected by the Law. So must I make my thought like the Law.

The Law does not seek refuge. The refuge of all the world is the Law. So must I make my thought like the Law.

The Law has none who can resist it. Irresistible is the Law. So must I make my thought like the Law.

The Law has no preferences. Without preference is the Law. So must I make my thought like the Law.

The Law has no fear of the terrors of birth-and-death, nor is it lured by Nirvana. Ever without misgiving is the Law.

So must I make my thought like the Law.

Perfect Wisdom Personified

Prajnaparamtta, the Perfection of Wisdom, is praised in many passages of Mahayana literature. As with the early Jews, the divine Wisdom was personi- fied,

16 but the process went much further with the Buddhists than with the Jews, for in India Prajnaparamita became a goddess worshiped in the form of an icon. She was especially cultivated in the Vajrayana, but by no means

neglected in Mahayanist sects.

[From Astasahasrifyz Prajnaparaimta, 7.170-71]

Perfect Wisdom spreads her radiance, , . and is worthy of worship. Spotless, the whole world cannot stain her. ... In her we may find re-

fuge; her works are most excellent; she brings us to safety under the shel-

tering wings of enlightenment. She brings light to the blind, that all fears

and calamities may be dispelled, . . . and she scatters the gloom and dark- ness of delusion. She leads those who have gone astray to the right path. She is omniscience; without beginning or end is Perfect Wisdom, who has Emptiness as her characteristic mark; she is the mother of the Bodhisat- tvas. . . . She cannot be struck down, the protector of the unprotected, ... the Perfect Wisdom of the Buddhas, she turns the Wheel of the Law.

"Compare especially Proverbs 8 and 9-1-6.

[do]

The Blessings of Peace 17

The following passage is one of the few in the literature of early India which call upon the many kings of the land to forget their quarrels and live together in peace. It seems to contain an implicit criticism of the Hindu ideals of king- ship, which encouraged kings to aim at territorial aggrandizement, and to

attack their neighbors without good reason, in order to gain homage and tribute.

In the sixth section of the Sutra of the Excellent Golden Light, the four

great Kings Vaishravana, Dhritarashtra, Virudhaka, and Virupaksha, who are the gods guarding the four quarters of the earth and correspond to the Lo~

fypalas or world-protectors of Hindu mythology, approach the Buddha and declare that they will give their special protection to those earthly kings who

patronize monks who recite the sutra, and encourage its propagation in their domains. The Buddha replies with the words which follow. The sutra proba- bly belongs to the third or fourth century A.D., before the full expansion of the

Gupta empire, when warfare was widespread. The reference to the title deva-

putra, "Son of the Gods," in the passage quoted after the following suggests that it emanated from northwestern India, where devaputra was a royal title of the Kushana kings.

[From Suvarnaprabhdsottama Sutra, 6, pp. 73-75]

Protect all those -royal families, cities, lands, and provinces, save them, cherish them, guard them, ward off invasion from them, give them peace and prosperity. Keep them free from all fear, calamity, and evil portent. Turn back the troops o their enemies and create in all the earthly kings of India a desire to avoid fighting, attacking, quarreling, or disputing

with their neighbors. . . . When the eighty-four thousand kings of the

eighty-four thousand cities of India are contented with their own terri- tories and with their own kingly state and their own hoards of treasure

they will not attack one another or raise mutual strife. They will gain their thrones by the due accumulation of the merit of former deeds; they will be satisfied with their own kingly state, and witt not destroy one an-

other, nor show their mettle by laying waste whole provinces. When all the eighty-four thousand kings of the eighty-four thousand capital cities

of India think of their mutual welfare and feel mutual affection and joy, . . . contented in their own domains, . . . India will be prosperous, well-

fed, pleasant, and populous. The earth will be fertile, and the months and

17 We are indebted to Dr. Edward Conze for drawing our notice to this and the following passage, which have not hitherto received from historians the attention they deserve.

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seasons and years will all occur at the proper time. 18 Planets and stars,

moon and sun, will duly bring on the days and nights. Rain will fall upon earth at the proper time. And all living beings in India will be rich with

all manner of riches and corn, very prosperous but not greedy.

The Divine Right (and Duty) of Kings

As we have seen, the early Buddhists evolved the story of the first king Mahasammata, which implies a doctrine of social contract. In Hinduism, how-

ever, ideas of a different kind developed, and from early in the Christian era

it was widely proclaimed in Hindu religious literature that the king was "a

great god in human form," made of eternal particles of the chief gods of the

Hindu pantheon. It became usual to address the king as Deva or "god," and

the older ideas of Buddhism on kingship were, at least in Mahayana circles, modified in consequence. The Sutra of the Excellent Golden Light, as well as the striking call for peace

previously quoted, contains one of the few passages in the Mahayana scriptures in which problems of government are discussed. It is not admitted that the

king is a god in his own right, but he holds his high estate by the authority of die gods, and therefore is entitled to be addressed as Deva, and as "Son of

the Gods." This doctrine of divine appointment may be compared with that

widely proclaimed in England during the Stuart period, and it is also

closely akin to the Chinese doctrine of the "mandate of Heaven." Like the Son

of Heaven in imperial China, the Indian "Son of the Gods" held his title on

condition of fulfilling his function properly, and might incur the anger of his

divine parents. The verses quoted implicitly admit the moral right of revolt

against a wicked or negligent king, for in conspiring against him his subjects are serving the heavenly purpose, and plotting the overthrow of one who no

longer enjoys the divine blessing on which his right to govern depends. This

too is a doctrine well known in China. This poem on government, in Buddhist Sanskrit, purports to be a speech

of the high god Brahma, delivered to the four Great Kings, whom we have met in the previous extract.

[From Suvarnaprabhasottama Sutra, 12 (cento)}

How does a king, who is born of men, come to be called divine?

Why is a king called the Son of the Gods ?

18 Note that, as we have seen elsewhere, the welfare of the whole land, and even the reg- ularity of the calendar and of heavenly phenomena generally, were believed to be dependent on the morality o men, and more especially on the morality of ruling kings. This idea, which is also found in Hinduism, was well known in China, where it developed inde-

pendently.

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If a king is born in this world of mortals,

How can it be that a god rules over men ?

I will tell you of the origin of kings, who are born in the world of mortals. And for what reason kings exist, and rule over every province. By the authority of the great gods a king enters his mother's womb. First he is ordained by the gods only then does he find an embryo.

What though he is born or dies in the world of mortals

Arising from the gods he is called the Son of the Gods.

The thirty-three great gods assign the fortune of the king. The ruler of men is created as son of all the gods, To put a stop to unrighteousness, to prevent evil deeds, To establish all beings in well-doing, and to show them the way to heaven. Whether man, or god, or fairy, or demon, Or outcaste, he is a true king who prevents evil deeds. Such a king is mother and father to those who do good. He was appointed by the gods to show the results of karma. . . .

But when a king disregards the evil done in his kingdom, And does not inflict just punishment on the criminal. From his neglect of evil, unrighteousness grows apace, And fraud and strife increase in the land.

The thirty-three great gods grow angry in their palaces When the king disregards the evil done in his kingdom.

Then the land is afflicted with fierce and terrible crime, And it perishes and falls into the power of the enemy. Then property, families, and hoarded wealth all vanish, And with varied deeds of deceit men ruin one another.

Whatever his reasons, if a king does not do his duty He ruins his kingdom, as a great elephant a bed of lotuses.

Harsh winds blow, and rain falls out of season,

Planets and stars are unpropitious, as are the moon and sun,

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Corn, flowers, and fruit and seed do not ripen properly. And there is famine, when the king is negligent. . . .

Then all the kings of the gods say one to another, "This king is unrighteous, he has taken the side of unrighteousness!"

Such a king will not for long anger the gods; From the wrath of the gods his kingdom will perish. . . .

He will be bereft of all that he values, whether by brother or son, He will be parted from his beloved wife, his daughter will die. Fire will fall from heaven, and mock-suns also.

Fear of the enemy and hunger will grow apace. His beloved counselor will die, and his favorite elephant; His favorite horses will die one by one, and his camels. . .

There will be strife and violence and fraud in all the provinces;

Calamity will afflict the land, and terrible plague.

The brahmans will then be unrighteous, The ministers and the judges unrighteous.

The unrighteous will be revered, And the righteous man will be chastised. . . . Where the wicked are honored and the good are scorned

There will be famine, thunderbolts, and death . . .

All living beings will be ugly, having little vigor, very weak;

They will eat much, but they will not be filled.

They will have no strength, and no virility All beings in the land will be lacking in vigor. . . *

Many ills such as these befall the land Whose king is partial [in justice] and disregards evil deeds. . . .

But he who distinguishes good deeds from evil, Who shows the results of karma he is called a king. Ordained by the host of gods, the gods delight in him.

For the sake of himself or others, to preserve the righteousness of his land,

And to put down the rogues and criminals in his domains, Such a king would give up [if need be] his life and his kingdom. . . .

Therefore a king should abandon his own precious life, But not the jewel of Righteousness, whereby the world is gladdened.

Magical Utterances

It would be wrong to depict Mahayana Buddhism as simply a system of idealist

philosophy, with a pantheon of benevolent and compassionate deities and an

exalted and altruistic ethical system. It contained many elements from a lower stratum of belief, as will be made clear from the following extract from the

Lan\avatara Sutra, one of the most important sacred texts of Mahayana Bud-

dhism, from which we have already given two quotations. Belief in the magical efficacy of certain syllables, phrases, and verses is as

old as the Rtg Veda. The Pali scriptures, however, pay little attention to this

aspect of popular religion, and it would seem that the early Buddhists who were responsible for the compilation of these texts took a comparatively rational-

istic view of the world. The criticism of vain and useless rituals contained in the Pali texts and in Ashoka's edicts was probably intended to cover the vain

repetition of mantras or magical utterances. But from early in the Christian

era onwards, such things became more and more closely associated with

Buddhism, especially with the Mahayana sects. Hinduism and Buddhism alike

developed schools which taught that the constant repetition of mantras was a

sure means of salvation. The following passage is not strictly tantric, for it does not attribute to the mantras it quotes any efficiency other than in the dis-

pelling of evil spirits; but the importance given to the mantras, and the fact that

they are attributed to the Buddha himself, show that Mahayana Buddhism was,

by the fourth or fifth century A.D., permeated with the ideas which were to lead

to fully developed tantricism.

[From Lanl^avatdra Sutra, pp. 260-61]

Then the Lord addressed the Great Being, the Bodhisattva Mahamati

thus:

Mahamati, hold to these magic syllables of the Lan}(avatarat recited , .

by all the Buddhas, past, present,. and future. Now I will repeat them, that those who proclaim the Law of Righteousness may keep them in mind:

Tutte tutu vutte vutte patte patte \atte \atte amale amale vimale vimale

nime ntme hime hime vame vame J(de \ale \ale T(ak atte matte vatte

tutte jnette sputte t(atte fytte latte patte dime dime cole cole pace pace

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bandhe bandhe ance mance dutdre dutdre patdre patdre ar%J$e ar

sartye cafyre cafyrc dime dime hime hime tu tu tu tu du du du du ru ru ru ru phu phu phu phu svdha. . . .

If men and women o good birth hold, retain, recite, and realize these

magical syllables, nothing harmful shall come upon them whether a

god, a goddess, a serpent-spirit, a fairy, or a demon. 19 ... If anyone

should be in the grip of misfortune, let him recite these one hundred and

eight times, and the evil spirits, weeping and wailing, will go off in an-

other direction.

"The names of many other supernatural beings follow.

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CHAPTER VIII

THE VEHICLE OF THE THUNDERBOLT AND THE DECLINE OF BUDDHISM IN INDIA

The early centuries after Christ were very prosperous ones for Buddhism, In the Northwest it seems to have been the major religion, for hardly any

specifically Hindu remains of this period are to be found there. Elsewhere

the influence of Buddhism can be measured by the numerous remains of

stupas and monasteries to be found in many parts of India, which are

among the finest and most beautiful relics of ancient Indian civilization.

From India Buddhism spread not only to Central Asia and China but also to many parts of Southeast Asia. It is certain that it had some effect on the

religious thought of the Middle East, and Buddhist influence has been

traced in Neo-Platonism, Gnosticism, and Manichaeism. Many authorities

believe that early Christianity was influenced, directly or indirectly, by Buddhist ideas. In the Eastern churches the story of Buddha's abandon-

ment of his home for a life of asceticism, "the Great Going-forth," has

been adapted as a Christian legend, the name of its protagonist, St. Josa-

phat, being evidently a corruption of the word bodhtsattva.

But never in any part of India did Buddhism wholly supplant the other

cults and systems. Theistic Hinduism continued to develop even during the period when Buddhism was strongest, as did the six orthodox philo-

sophical systems. Layfolk, though they might support Buddhist monks

and worship at Buddhist shrines, would usually patronize brahmans also,

and call on their services for the domestic rites such as birth ceremonies,

initiations, marriages, and funerals, which played and still play so big

a part in Indian life. Outside the monastic order those who looked on

themselves as exclusively Buddhist were at all times probably compara-

tively few, and Ashoka, when he called on his subjects to respect the

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members of all sects and patronized Buddhists and Ajivikas and probably

other sects also, merely followed the practice of most religiously minded

Indians down to the present day. It must be remembered that Indian reli-

gion is not exclusive. The most fanatical sectarian would probably agree that all the other sects had some qualified truth and validity. Hence Bud-

dhism was never wholly cut off from the main stream of Indian religion.

The fourth century A.D. saw the rise of a second great empire, which at

its zenith controlled the whole of northern India from Saurashtra to

Bengal. This was the empire of the Guptas, whose greatest emperors

were Hindus and gave their chief patronage to Vaishnavism. 1 From this

period Buddhism began to lose ground in India. Its decline was at first

almost imperceptible. The Chinese traveler Fa-hsien, who was in India at

the very beginning of the fifth century, testified to the numerous well-

populated Buddhist monasteries in all parts of the land. He noted, how-

ever, that Buddhists and Hindus joined in the same religious processions,

as though Buddhism was looked on as a branch of Hinduism, rather than

as an independent religion. In the seventh century the later Chinese trav-

elers such as Hsiian Tsang and I Tsing reported a considerable decline in

Buddhism. Numerous monasteries, even in the sacred Buddhist sites,

were deserted and in ruins, and many monks were said to be corrupt, and

given to superstitious and un-Buddhist practices. Some access of strength no doubt resulted from the support of Harsha (606-647), one of the last

Hindu emperors to control the major part of northern India, who is said

by Hsiian Tsang to have ended his life as a devotee of Buddhism. The

chief stronghold of Buddhism from this time onward was Bihar ard

Bengal. In Bihar the great Buddhist monastery of Nalanda, probabx,

founded in the fifth century AJ>.> was one of the chief centers of learning

in the whole of India, to which students came from as far afield as China

and Java, In eastern India Buddhism continued to flourish until the

twelfth century, with the support of the Pala dynasty, which ruled Bihar

and Bengal, and the kings of which, though by no means exclusive in

their religious allegiance, gave their chief support to Buddhism. It was

from this region that Buddhism was carried in the eighth century to

Nepal and Tibet, to be revived and strengthened by later missions in the

eleventh century.

The Buddhism which prevailed in India at this time was of a type very 1 The cult of Vishnu.

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different from that known to the pious emperor Ashoka. The Hmayana schools had almost disappeared in eastern India, and allegiance was di-

vided between the Mahayana and a new branch of Buddhism, often re- ferred to as a separate vehicle, "the Vehicle of the Thunderbolt'* (Va-jra-

ydna) . From the middle of the fifth century onwards, with the decline of the Gupta empire, Indians began to take more and more interest in the

cults of feminine divinities and in the practice of magico-religious rites, which were believed to lead to salvation or to superhuman power, and

which often contained licentious or repulsive features. There is no reason

to believe that such practices were new they can be traced in one form or another right back to the Vedas. But until this time they are little in

evidence either in literature or in art, and we must assume that they had not much support among the educated, but were practiced chiefly by the lower social orders. As with many other features of Hinduism, they grad- ually influenced the upper classes, until in the Middle Ages groups of

initiates, both Hindu and Buddhist, were to be found all over India, who

practiced strange secret ceremonies in order to gain the magic power which, it was believed, would lead to salvation.

Earlier Buddhism had never been so rationalistic as to reject the super- natural. Thus it was taken for granted that the monk who was highly advanced in his spiritual training was capable of supranormal cognition and of marvelous feats such as levitation. The Buddha himself is said

to have made a mango tree grow from a stone in a single night and to

have multiplied himself a thousandfold; but these miracles were only

performed on a single occasion to show the superiority of Buddhism over

other sects, and the Master gave explicit instructions to his followers that

they were not to make use of their magical powers, the exercise of which

might lead them astray from the straight path to Nirvana. There were,

however, at all times hermit monks, living apart from the monasteries

in solitude or semi-solitude, and it was probably among such monks that

the practice of magic grew. The new magical Buddhism, like the magical Hinduism which arose at

about the same time, is often known as Tantricism, from the Tantras, or

scriptures of the sects, describing the spells, formulas, and rites which the

systems advocated. Probably Tantricism did not appear in organized Bud-

dhism until the seventh century, when Hsuan Tsang reported that certain

monastic communities were given to magical practices. Tantric Buddhism

was of two main branches, known as Right and Left Hand, as in Tantric

Hinduism. The Right Hand, though it became very influential in China

and Japan, has left little surviving literature in Sanskrit; it was distin-

guished by devotion to masculine divinities. The Left Hand sects, to which the name Vajraydna ("Vehicle of the Thunderbolt") was chiefly

applied, postulated feminine counterparts or wives to the Buddhas, bo

dhisattvas, and other divinities of the mythology of later Buddhism, and

devoted their chief attention to these Tdrds, or "Savioresses." As in Hindu-

ism they were thought of as the personified active aspects of the deities in

question. The lore of this form of Buddhism was not generally given to

the ordinary believer, but was imparted only to the initiate, who need not be a monk, but might be a layman. Adepts who had learned the secrets of

Vajrayana at the feet of a spiritual preceptor (guru) would meet together,

usually at night, in small groups to perform their secret ceremonies.

Among the chief features of the ritual of Vajrayana was the repetition o mystical syllables and phrases (mantra), such as the famous Om mani padme hum? Yoga postures and meditation were practiced. But the Tantric groups also followed more questionable methods of gaining salva-

tion. It was believed that once the adept had reached a certain degree of

spiritual attainment the normal rules of moral behavior were no longer valid for him, and that their deliberate breach, if committed in an odor of

sanctity, would actually help him on the upward path. Thus drunkenness,

meat-eating, and sexual promiscuity were often indulged in, as well as

such repulsive psychopathic practices as eating ordure, and sometimes

even ritual murder. Such antinomianism was perhaps the logical corollary of one of the doctrines which Tantric Buddhism took over from the Yoga- chara school of Mahayana, that all things in the universe were on ultimate

analysis the illusory products of mind.

We must not believe that the whole of Tantric Buddhism is included in the practice of unpleasant secret rites. Many Tantric circles practiced such rites only symbolically, and their teachers often produced works of

*"Ah! The jewel is indeed in the lotus I" Though there are other interpretations this seems the most probable significance of the mysterious and elliptical phrase, which is specially connected with the Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara, and is still believed in Tibet to have immense potency. Its significance may be sexual, implying that the Bodhisattva has united with his TariL

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considerable philosophical subtlety, while the ethical tone of some passages in the Tantricist Saraha's Treasury of Couplets (Dohafysa), one of the last

Buddhist works produced in India is of the highest. The Vajrayana developed its own system of philosophy by adapting the

doctrines of the Vijnanavadins and Madhyarnikas to its own world view. It admitted the emptiness of all things, but maintained that, 'once the

emptiness was fully recognized, the phenomenal world was not to be dis-

paraged, for it was fundamentally identical with the universal Emptiness itself. Thus the adept was encouraged to utilize the phenomenal world for his psychic progress to supreme wisdom. The world was a Means

(upaya, a masculine noun in Sanskrit), and full consciousness of the

Emptiness of all things was the Supreme Wisdom (prajna, a feminine

noun), often personified both in Mahayana and Vajrayana circles as a

goddess. Final bliss was to be obtained by the union of the phenomenal Means with the noumenal Wisdom, and the most vivid symbol of such

union was sexual intercourse. Thus a philosophical basis was found for the erotic practices of Tantric Buddhism. The Vajrayana position was rather like that of certain deviationist Christian sects, the morals of which

were completely antinomian, because their members were the Elect, and

thus above the law.

The end of Buddhism in India is still not completely elucidated. Bud- dhist monasteries survived in many parts of the land until the time of the Muslim invasions at the very end of the twelfth century. Though there

had been some loss of ground to Hinduism, it is clear that the great mon-

asteries of Bihar and Bengal were inhabited down to this time. Fine illus-

trated manuscripts of Mahayana and Tantric scriptures were produced in

Eastern India, some of which found their way to Nepal, where they have

survived to this day. Inscriptions and archaeological evidence show that

there were still fairly prosperous Buddhist monasteries at the sacred sites

of Sarnath, near VaranasI, where the Buddha preached his first sermon, and Shravasti, in northern Uttar Pradesh, where he spent much of his

actual life. In the Deccan and the Dravidian South there are few evidences

of Buddhism after the tenth century, though here and there it survived.

It would seem that the life of the monasteries became gradually more

and more estranged from that of the people, and that the activities of the

monks, grown wealthy from long standing endowments, became increas-

ingly confined to small circles of initiates. This, however, is not the

whole story, for Buddhists were among the earliest writers of Bengali,

and this would indicate an attempt to make contact with a popular audi-

ence. Thus the end of Buddhism was not wholly due to the divorce of

Buddhism and everyday life, or to corruption and decay, as some have

suggested.

By the time of the Guptas we find the Buddha worshiped in his shrines

as a Hindu god, with all the ritual of puja, 3 and Buddhist monks and

Hindu priests joined in the same processions. The Pala kings, who

claimed to be "supreme worshipers of the Buddha," were also proud of

the fact that they maintained all the rules of Hindu dharma, 4 and many

of their ministers were orthodox brahmans. We can perhaps imagine the attitude of the layman to Buddhism from this analogy. For ordinary folk

living near a Buddhist monastery, Buddha would be one god among

many; they might pay him special homage and worship because their

ancestors had done so and because his temple was nearby, but they would

not look upon his worship as in any way excluding them from the Hindu

fold. Medieval Hinduism knew many sects, each specially devoted to one

or other of the gods, who was looked upon as supreme, the lesser gods

being mere emanations or secondary forms of the great one. From the

point of view of the layman this would be the position of Buddhism a

sect of Hinduism with its own special order of devotees, ihe monks,

pledged to the service of their god. It cannot be too strongly empha-

sized that Hinduism has always tended to assimilate rather than to ex-

clude.

At this time anti-Buddhist activity was not completely unknown. There

are traditions, most of them preserved only in Buddhist sources and there-

fore suspect of exaggeration, of occasional fierce persecution by anti-

Buddhist kings, chiefly Shaivites, 5 some of whom are said even to have

gone as far as to place a price on the head of every Buddhist monk. Allow-

ing for all exaggerations, it is clear that some kings were strongly anti-

Buddhist and took active steps to discourage Buddhism. More serious

opposition came from certain medieval Hindu philosophers and their

disciples. Teachers such as Rumania and Shankara are said to have trav-

eled far and wide throughout India preaching their own doctrines and

attacking those of their rivals, and Buddhism seems to have been singled

a Worship of an idol with offerings of lights, flowers, food, etc.

* The Sacred Law. 6 Worshipers of Shiva.

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out for special attention by those reformers. Anti-Buddhist propaganda o one kind or another may have had a significant influence in the decline of Buddhism.

By the time of the Muslim invasion (1192 AJ>.) Buddhism was rapidly merging in the body of Hinduism. The process is exemplified in the doctrine of the incarnations of Vishnu, which does not appear in its final

form until just before the Muslim invasion. Here the Buddha figures as

an incarnation of the Supreme God, who took human form in order either to put a stop to the sacrifice of living animals, or, according to

some formulations, to destroy the wicked by leading them to deny the

Vedas and so accomplish their own perdition. Thus the Buddha was placed, in theory at least, on the same exalted level as the great popular divinities

Krishna and Rama, and his devotees might worship him as a full member of the orthodox pantheon. There is no reason to believe that the cult of

Buddha as a Hindu god was ever widespread, but certainly in the great

temple of Gaya, the scene of the Master's enlightenment, he was adored

by simple Hindu pilgrims with all the rites of Hinduism as a Hindu god until very recent times, when the ancient temple was transferred back to Buddhist hands. Other traces of Buddhism survive in parts of eastern

India. Thus it is said that the peasants of Bengal and Orissa still worship a divinity called Dharma, who seems to be a faint folk recollection of the ancient religion of the land.

When the Turkish horsemen occupied Bihar and Bengal, slew or ex-

pelled the "shaven-headed brahmans," as they called the Buddhist monks,

and destroyed their monasteries and libraries, Buddhism was dead in

India. The furohitas (chaplains) of Hinduism, who performed the do-

mestic rites for the layfolk, and the Hindu ascetics who wandered from

place to place, were in need of no organization and could survive the

disruption of the Muslim invasion and the aggressive propaganda of the

alien faith. Buddhism, dependent on the monasteries for its survival and

without the same lay support as Hinduism received, was destroyed by the

invader. It is noteworthy that Islam had its greatest success in those parts of India where Buddhism had been strongest, in the Northwest, and in

Bengal. Only in the Himalayan regions, especially Nepal, did Buddhism

survive, kept alive largely by contact with Tibet. Though in many parts of Asia it has flourished, and indeed spread and developed in the last seven

hundred years, in the land of its birth it has died. Only in the last few

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decades have intelligent Indians begun once more to take an interest in

the religion founded by India's greatest son. Thanks largely to the work

of the Mahabodhi Society the sacred sites o Buddhism are once more

cared for, and Buddhist monasteries again exist in many parts of India.

Though the number of professing Buddhists in India and Pakistan is still

very small, there is no doubt that the doctrines of Buddhism are begin-

ning to influence more and more Indians, and Buddhism may well be-

come a force to be reckoned with in the India of the future.

To the Pure All Things Are Pure

The doctrine that the round of birth-and-death was really the same as Nirvana, the cult of feminine divinities, and the growing interest in magic, especially

magical utterances, led to the appearance of Vajrayana, or Tantric Buddhism. The rather dangerous view that all things are legitimate to those who fully know the truth is already to be found in specifically Mahayana texts. In the texts of Vajrayana it is developed further, for it is declared that, at a certain

stage of self-development, to give way to the passions, especially the sexual

passions, is a positive help along the upward path. This passage is taken from a Tantric poem, Disquisition on the Purification of the Intellect^ composed by Aryadeva

1 toward the end of the seventh century.

[From Ctttavisuddhipra1(arana, pp. 24-38]

They who do not see the truth

Think of birth-and-death as distinct from Nirvana, But they who do see the truth Think of neither. . .

This discrimination is the demon Who produces the ocean of transmigration.

Freed from it the great ones are released

From the bonds of becoming.

Plain folk are afflicted

With the poison of doubt. . . . He who is all compassion . . . Should uproot it completely.

1 Not the same as an earlier Aryadeva, disciple of Nagarjuna and author of the Four- hundred Stanzas (Catuksatafa) .

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As a clear crystal assumes The color of another object,

So the jewel of the mind is colored With the hue of what it imagines.

The jewel of the mind is naturally devoid Of the color of these ideas,

Originally pure, unoriginated,

Impersonal, and immaculate.

So, with all one's might, one should do Whatever fools condemn,

And, since one's mind is pure, Dwell in union with one's divinity.

2

The mystics, pure of mind, Dally with lovely girls,

Infatuated with the poisonous flame of passion, That they may be set free from desire.

By his meditations the sage is his own Garuda,3

Who draw's out the venom [of snakebite] and drinks it. He makes his deity innocuous, And is not affected by the poison. * . .

When he has developed a mind of wisdom And has set his heart on enlightenment

There is nothing he may not do To uproot the world [from his mind].

He is not Buddha, he is not set free, If he does not see the world

As originally pure, unoriginated, Impersonal, and immaculate.

'That is, the woman -with whom the Tantricist practices his rites. *A mythical, divine bird, the enemy and slayer of snakes.

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The mystic duly dwells

On the manifold merits of his divinity, He delights in thoughts of passion. And by the enjoyment of passion is set free.

What must we do ? Where are to be found The manifold potencies of being?

A man who is poisoned may be cured By another poison, the antidote.

Water in the ear is removed by more water, A thorn [in the skin] by another thorn.

So wise men rid themselves of passion By yet more passion.

As a washerman uses dirt

To wash clean a garment, So, with impurity,

The wise man makes himself pure.

Everything Is Buddha_

The last phase of Buddhism in India was the school of Tantricism sometimes known as Sahajayana or Sahafiya, "the Vehicle of the Innate," which stressed the doctrine that Ultimate Being was ever present in all things living, a view not strange to Buddhism, and very well known in Hinduism. The Sahajayana teachers, like other Tantricists, strongly supported the view that sexual activity and other forms of worldly pleasure were positive helps to salvation for those who made use of them in the proper spirit, but their teaching was distinguished by its emphasis on simplicity it was possible for the ordinary layman, living a normal life in every respect, to achieve salvation, simply by recognizing the Buddha within himself and all things. The teachers of this school began to write in the vernaculars, and a number

of their poems and series of verses, composed either in Apabhramsha L or

Old Bengali, survive from among the many which must now be lost. All these works date from the tenth to the twelfth centuries. Unlike Sanskrit poetry their verses are rhymed and they employ meters which are still widely used in

1 The early medieval vernaculars, which had moved much further from Sanskrit than had Pali or the Prakrits, and were much closer to the modern languages of India.

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the vernaculars. For these reasons they give an impression very different from

that of earlier Buddhist poetry. In their simplicity of style, and in the simplicity of their doctrines, they seem to look forward rather than back towards the

simple mystical verse of Kabir, who also taught that the Ultimate Being was

to be found in one's own home, as one went about one's daily work. Like

Kabir's verses again they sometimes have a strong ethical content; for all their

emphasis on the value of sex as a means of salvation, the Sahajayana teachers, like all Buddhists, taught the virtues of compassion, kindliness, and helpful- ness.

The following verses are taken from the Treasury of Couplets ascribed to

Saraha, and written in Apabhramsha in the eleventh or twelfth century.

[From Saraha, Doha\Qsa, v. i02-end; as translated by D. S. Snellgrove in

Conze, Buddhist Texts, pp. 238-39]

As is Nirvana so is Samsara.2

Do not think there is any distinction. Yet it possesses no single nature,

For I know it as quite pure.

Do not sit at home, do not go to the forest, But recognize mind wherever you are.

When one abides in complete and perfect enlightenment, Where is Samsara and where is Nirvana?

Oh know this truth, That neither at home nor in the forest does enlightenment dwell.

Be free from prevarication In the self-nature of immaculate thought!

"This is my self and this is another." Be free of this bond which encompasses you about,

And your own self is thereby released.

Do not err in this matter of self and other.

Everything is Buddha without exception. Here is that immaculate and final stage, Where thought is pure in its true nature.

a Transmigration, i.e., this world.

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The fair tree of thought that knows no duality,

Spreads through the triple world.

It bears the flower and fruit of compassion, And its name is service of others.

The fair tree of the Void abounds with flowers, Acts of compassion of many kinds,

And fruit for others appearing spontaneously, For this joy has no actual thought of another.

So the fair tree of the Void also lacks compassion, Without shoots or flowers or foliage,

And whoever imagines them there, falls down, For branches there are none.8

The two trees spring from one seed, And for that reason there is but one fruit.

He who thinks of them thus indistinguishable, Is released from Nirvana and Samsara.

If a man in need approaches and goes away hopes unfulfilled, It is better he should abandon that house

Than take the bowl that has been thrown from the door.

Not to be helpful to others, Not to give to those in need,

This is the fruit of Samsara.

Better than this is to renounce the idea of a self.

He who clings to the Void And neglects Compassion,

Does not reach the highest stage. 3 All things arc ultimately one in the eternal and infinite Emptiness which is the body of

the Buddha; therefore there is no real distinction between self and others, and on analysis the "fair tree" is nonexistent. But, as we shall see in the following verse, on a still higher plane of thought it shares the reality of the Ultimate Being, and therefore, to the man who sees the world with complete clarity, acts of mercy and kindness are still valid.

[198]

But he who practices only Compassion, Does not gain release from toils o existence,

He, however, who is strong in practice o both, Remains neither in Sarnsara nor in Nirvana.

[ 199]

HINDUISM

Buddhism and Jainism, which appear from archaeological evidence to have achieved considerable influence in India from c.2oo B.C. to A.D. C.2OO, were

gradually displaced by what came to be known as Hinduism, so-called because at the time of the Muslim conquest (AJ>. c.isoo) it was already the religion of the vast majority of Indians (Persian Hindu, "Indian"). Even today, despite the long period of Muslim rule (thirteenth to eight- eenth centuries), with its numerous conversions to Islam, and the cen-

tury or two (depending on the area) of British rule, Hindus account for

three-fourths of the inhabitants of the subcontinent; the Buddhists have

disappeared except in outlying areas (e.g., Tibet, Ceylon, Southeast Asia,

etc.) ; and the Jains form a minority of little but commercial significance. Hinduism is divided into innumerable sects and has no well-defined,

large-scale ecclesiastic organization. Its two most general characteristics

are the caste system and agreement about the sacredness of its most an-

cient scriptures, the Veda, which though considered essentially eternal, were revealed to the sages, the rishis. The caste system is itself supposed to rest on the authority of the Veda and in a sense the whole society forms

an ecclesiastical organization, with its own canon law, the Sacred Law

(dharrna), also based on the Veda. The apex of the pyramidal caste

system is the brahman class, who because they are the authoritative inter-

preters and transmitters of the Veda, and sole ministrants of the religious

sacraments, are likewise considered sacred. The hierarchy of caste is based

upon how close a caste comes in its way of life to the pattern set by the

brahmans, who are themselves ranged into a hierarchy of castes on the basis of scriptural learning, adherence to the Sacred Law, and birth (that is, on the recognition won by their particular caste over a long period of

time).

Hindus generally believe that the soul is eternal but is bound by the law of karrna ("action") to the world of matter, which it can only escape after spiritual progress through an endless series of births. Different

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schools and sects have different views about metaphysics and the nature

and method of release (moksha) from transmigration. The Song of the

Lord (Bhagavad Glta) sets forth three basic paths: those of knowledge, selfless action, and devotion to God. They are regarded as complementary rather than mutually exclusive. As understood today, the path of knowl-

edge implies an awareness that reality is one and spiritual, the Brahman, with which each apparently individual soul is identical, and which is

sat, chit, ananda pure being, intelligence, and bliss. All distinctions,

including the entire phenomenal world, have only a relative reality but

re ultimately false and the result of the creative illusion (maya) of the

Brahman. The path of devotion implies belief in a supreme personal god as the ultimate reality, the creator, preserver, and destroyer of the uni-

verse; salvation, viewed as various degrees of nearness to, and com-

munion with, God, is dependent on God's grace in response to the devotee's

intense and unswerving devotion and service. The major division in

Hinduism is between the devotees of Vishnu and those of Shiva.

Neither the path of knowledge nor that of devotion need be, or

ordinarily is, strictly monistic or monotheistic in practice. After all, man's

desires, needs, and sufferings are many, and corresponding to these there

are hosts of minor gods as well as various incarnations, manifestations, and aspects of the major gods. All these are generally united mythologi-

cally to one or the other major god. Thus Krishna and Rama are the most important incarnations of Vishnu; Shiva's spouse is the Mother

Goddess, known as Devi, Kali, etc. As the Hindu generally does not fol-

low any rigid dogma, there is a great deal of interpenetration between the

various views of the divine, with the result that in India there are poly-

theistic monists, dualistic monotheists, etc. The various views are or-

dered by the monists, who follow the philosophy of the Upanishads as

interpreted by Shankara (ninth century A.D.) into descending levels of

apprehension of one and the same truth. The monistic view, whether

pure monism or not, is often referred to as Higher Hinduism, the other

views as Popular or Sectarian Hinduism. Included in the latter are more

humble beliefs among the lowest strata of the* population, such as the wor-

ship of various animals, trees, diseases, and even stones*

Devotion to the devotee's chosen deity (ista-devata) may be purely

spiritual, but it is usually manifested by puja, the ritual of worship and

service of an idol of the deity (bathing the idol, offerings of food and

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water, flowers, lights, music and dancing). Just as sacrifice (yajna) was

characteristic of early Brahmanism, renunciation (sannyasa) of the

Upanishads (and Theravada Buddhism and Jainism), puja is character-

istic of Hinduism (and Mahayana Buddhism). The idol or idols must be

housed and cared for, and this requires temples and priests. Temples

grew more and more elaborate with time, as did the ritual of worship. In fact, temples came to play a most important religious, cultural and

artistic, and even economic role in medieval India.

The orthodox Hindu believes that the ultimate truth in matters of re-

ligion is to be found in the Veda, which is called Shruti, revelation. Later

scriptures represent interpretations or codifications of that truth and are

therefore called Smriti (human) tradition. The sectarian may also believe that his god revealed a more explicit doctrine in some still more recent

scripture (agama or tantra). Thus the Hindu sees religious development in Hinduism as the emphasis of now this, now that aspect of the Veda, or as a gradually deeper and more complete perception of the truth which

was there in the Veda all the time. Thus the six orthodox systems of phi-

losophy all claim Vedic authority, a claim which later Hindus have ac-

cepted in the belief that all were complementary visions (darshanas) of

the one Truth. Even the Hindu's major gods, Vishnu or Shiva, had been

worshiped in Vedic times too (though both were quite minor figures in

the early Veda), so that later theistic movements were seen as a con-

tinuation and expansion of an earlier faith.

We have seen how the ideal of cosmic ethical interdependence of the earliest (the hymnal) portion of the Veda, the Samhita, gave way to the

principle of ritualistic sacrificial and magical cosmic interdependence in the Brahmana period, and the latter, in turn, to the conclusion that

ultimate reality was one, the Brahman, identical with man's Self, Atman, as revealed in the concluding portion of the Veda, namely, the Upanishads. The doctrine of the Upanishads was really only the expression within the Vedic or Brahmanical tradition of a great quietistic movement char- acterized by a deep disillusionment with life, probably closely associated

with the elaboration of the doctrines of karma and rebirth. The same movement was the basis of the heterodox faiths of Buddhism and Jainism, Thus if the earlier periods of the Brahmanical tradition had emphasized the positive values of life, symbolized by the ritual designed to help achieve those values, namely, the sacrifice (yajna), the last period was

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pessimistic and its ideal was renunciation (sannyasa) of worldly life for

the life of a religious mendicant.

The new outlook affected first and most profoundly those groups of brahmans who had been given to theosophical speculations since late

Rig-Vedic times, many of whom already lived in forest hermitages. But the ritualists, who formed the great majority of brahmans, were also af- fected to some extent and adopted, in the Sacred Law, renunciation as

the ultimate religious ideal of man, though to be followed only after a

man had fulfilled all his social obligations during most of his adult life.

(The elaboration of the Sacred Law is contemporary with the Upanishads in its beginnings but continued on for several centuries after Christ.) Side by side with these developments in hieratic and intellectual cir-

cles, there are indications cropping up even in early texts of more popu- lar religious movements centering around the worship of various supreme

gods.'This may well be a popular expression of the same search for cos- mic unity in an Absolute which we found at the intellectual level in the Veda: e.g., the Brahma (Sanskrit Brahman, a masculine noun) of the

Mahabhdrata, an early supreme creator god, is a personalized form of

the Upanishadic Brahman (neuter in Sanskrit) . These theistic movements

must have grown in importance over a long period before they took on

the trappings of philosophical thought, e.g., in a late Upanishad glorify-

ing Shiva, the Svetasvatara, and from this time we can follow the de-

velopment of theism through its own vast literature. The somewhat later and much more famous Song of the Lord (Bhagavad Gitd), dedicated to Krishna further advocates action according to dharma, ordained duty, and thus the Sacred Law comes to form a part of the new dispensation. Thus fortified by philosophy and the Brahmanical Sacred Law, Hindu-

ism, as the new theistic movements are called, spread rapidly and to a great extent absorbed the rival faiths of Buddhism and Jainism.

Intellectually, the Upanishadic doctrine of an eternal, immutable es-

sence of all things was easier to reconcile with theism than the Buddhist

doctrine of universal impermanence. Socially, the Sacred Law, evolved

chiefly on the basis of the older Brahmanism, became the property of

Hinduism and was applied and propagated by both kings and brahmans.

Politically, the monistic, monotheistic, and socially hierarchical tendencies

of Hinduism accorded better with the growing power and divinization

o kings. Finally, by slight adjustments of the mythology the Hindu

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gods could be given an antiquity far beyond human traditions, as well as the scriptural authority of the Veda. Thus Krishna became an avatar

(incarnation) of the Vedic Vishnu, Shiva another name for the Vedic

Rudra, and the other gods of the new pantheon were somehow brought into derivative relationship to these two. The mantle of Vedic authority also covered the Sacred Law, the orthodox systems of philosophy, and, in

fact, the whole of Hinduism. Hinduism is thus both a new religion and, in certain respects, a continuation of the older Brahmanism.

In contrast to the earlier Brahmanism which was restricted in principle to those of Aryan birth, and in contrast also to Theravada Buddhism and

Jainism, which offered the prospect of immediate salvation only to the

monk, the new theistic movements offered an easy path to salvation for

all, the path of devotion to God, without the need for forsaking life in

society. The new ideal was also egalitarian as regards the hope of salva-

tion were not all devotees, from whatever class, equally dear to God?

Hinduism thus offered a strong religious bond, transcending class or caste

distinctions, to a society threatened with disintegration by the foreign invasions and rule of the second century B.C. to A.D. c.3oo and later.

The periods in which these developments were brought to their fullest

expression in Hindu culture were the dynasties of the Guptas in the North

(fourth and fifth centuries AJ>.) and the Pallavas (c, fourth to ninth cen-

turies AJX) and Cholas (c. ninth to c. twelfth centuries) in the South. The

Gupta Age is the classical period of Hindu culture, which was to be imi-

tated but not surpassed by later ages. It was brought to an end in the North

c.5oo by repeated invasions of* the Huns which must have greatly im-

poverished northern India and which ushered in what we refer to as the Indian medieval period, distinguished from the earlier, classical age not

by any break in cultural continuity but rather by lesser creativity and the

spread of popular religious movements centered on devotionalism and

magic. Politically there was a gradual disintegration and centralized em-

pires gave way to looser, more feudalistic types of political organization, which were no match for the Turkish Muslim raiders and invaders from

Ghazni and Ghur in present Afghanistan (c.iooo-i2oo). While the Dravidian South, which had never been Brahmanical, had

early been converted to Buddhism or Jainism, in the North from the

Shunga (second to first centuries B.C.) to the Gupta period Hinduism had

made much headway against the heterodox religions. From the North,

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probably due in part to the prestige of the Guptas, the movement spread

to the South, and the Pallava rulers were converted to Hinduism. It was

with their help and that of their successors, the Cholas, that southern India

became the stronghold of the Hindu tradition after the Muslim invasions

in the north.

From the foregoing it will be clear that Hinduism was much more than

an aggregation of devotional cults and philosophical schools it was a

way of life. To understand this way of life in its fullness and variety, we

must first see how the major fields of human endeavor were ordered, ac-

cording to the traditional Hindu conception, in relation to the ultimate

ends of man.

A. YARROW

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CHAPTER IX

THE FOUR ENDS OF MAN

One of the main concepts which underlies the Hindu attitude to life and

daily conduct is that of the four ends of man (purushartha) . The first of these is characterized by considerations of righteousness, duty, and vir-

tue. This is called dharma. There are other activities, however, through which a man seeks to gain something for himself or pursue his own pleas- ure. When the object of this activity is some material gam, it is called artha; when it is love or pleasure, it is \arna. Finally, there is the renunciation

of all these activities in order to devote oneself to religious or spiritual

activities with the aim of liberating oneself from the worldly life; this is

moJ(sa. These four are referred to as "the tetrad" (caturvarga) .

In early texts it is more usual to find the aspirations of man stated as three: dharma, material gain, and love or pleasure. Dharma then refers

to the rehgio-ethical ideal, which we may translate as "virtue." The basic

meaning of dharma, a word derived from the root dkr, "to sustain," is

the moral law, which sustains the world, human society, and the indi- vidual. Dharma thus replaced the Vedic word rita, the principle of cosmic ethical interdependence. Though dharma generally refers to religiously ordained duty, in other passages it may just mean morality, right conduct, or the rules of conduct (mores, customs, codes, or laws) of a group. When

Upanishadic mysticism and quietism came to be included in the religio- ethical ideal, dharma was classified into two aspects, the one relating to

activity (fravrttf) and the other to retirement from life (nivrtti). Then nivrtti itself later became a separate end of man under the name moksha, spiritual liberation. When moksha, now representing the higher religious ideal, is opposed to dharma, the latter no longer refers to the whole of

religion but continues to include all ritual activities and ethical duties and

ideals, such as right, righteousness, virtue, justice, propriety, morality,

beneficence, and nonviolence. Dharma is in fact a key word of Hindu

culture, and Hinduism itself is sometimes designated as Sanatana

Dharma, the Eternal Dharma.

[206]

The great epic, the Mahabharata, carries dharma as its burden, for it states at the end as the essence of its teachings: "With uplifted arms I

cry, none heeds; from dharma [religious duty], material gain and pleas- ure flow;

1 then, why is not dharma pursued? Neither for the sake of

pleasure, nor out of fear or avarice, no, not even for the sake of one's

life should one give up dharma; dharma stands alone for all time;

pleasure and pain are transitory." While this great epic makes its hero,

Yudhishthira, the very son of the God of Dharma (Dharma-putra) and one who had no enemy (Ajdtafotru), the other epic, the Rdmdyana, makes its hero, Rama, dharma itself in flesh and blood.

The pursuits of material gain and pleasure are both necessary for life for no one can live without either acquiring some goods or enjoying

things to some extent but they should be controlled by considerations

of dharma. While material gain and pleasure refer to actuality, dharma refers to an ideal principle or rule or norm to which man should conform in his activities in the world, with reference to himself or in relation to

his fellow-beings. Dharma is therefore assigned first place, because it is the regulating factor, except for which the pursuit of material gain and

pleasure would lead man to ruin or into conflict with his fellow-beings. The Upanishads call upon man not to covet another's wealth (Udvdsya, i.i). Even kings, whose role in life is so closely bound up with material activities and considerations, are asked to observe and enforce dharma;

2

they are considered merely regents and executors of dharma. A king who follows the injunctions of dharma is called a royal sage (rdfa-rsi); his

victories, the victories of dharma (as the poet Kalidasa says); and his

rule, the rule of dharma. The Lawboof^ of Ydjnaval%ya (Yd-jnavaUfya Smrti) states that where there is a conflict between principle and policy,

righteousness and material advantage, dharma and artha, the former

should prevail* Similarly control by dharma is insisted upon for love or

pleasure (kama) also. In a well-known passage, the Bhagavad Gltd

(7.11) makes the Lord identify Himself with such desire (kama) as is

consistent with dharma. The Hindu ideal does not preach abstinence from pleasure for all or at all stages; it rather preaches, universally, the

1 Fulfilling one's religious duties, which included both ritual and ethical duties, was

thought to lead to material rewards and pleasures both in this life and in heaven. * Ordained duty, especially justice, the first and main religious duty of a king, and social

duties (i.e., the class system).

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ideal of chastened love, or pleasure regulated by considerations of both

morality and material wellbemg. The pursuit of moksha or liberation is placed last, as according to the

Hindu scheme of values, it ought to be the final and supreme aspiration of

man. The desire for liberation from the endless cycle of transmigration to

which the spirit is subjected is so ingrained in the Hindu that however

much he may wander about in life, he does not fail in his later years to

pursue this yearning of the soul. Even in these days of Western education

many who have led a modern life find a change coming over them and

heed the nostalgic call of the Hindu spirit. Examples of this change are not

wanting even among politicians; be they Moderates, Congressmen, or

Praja-Socialists, they hear that inner voice to which the national poet

Kalidasa gave expression as he laid down his pen: "And as for me, may Shiv& the almighty, end this cycle of rebirth."

From the Science of Dkarma

Each of the first three ends of man was the subject-matter of a separate science: dharma, religion, of the Dharma Sastra, the science of dharma, which we translate freely as the Sacred Law; artha, material gain, of the Artha Sdstra, the science of material gain; and kama, love or pleasure, of the Kama Sastra, the science of love. Moksha, spiritual liberation, is not separately mentioned in

the readings given below, but is included under dharma.

[From Manu Smrti, 2,224] Some say that dharma [virtue] and material gain are good, others that

pleasure and material gain are good, and still others that dharma alone

or pleasure alone is good, but the correct position is that the three should co-

exist without harming each other.

[From Yaftavalkya Smrti, 2.2.21] The science of dharma is of greater authority than the science of ma-

terial gain.

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From the Science of Material Gain: The Conduct of the Ided King

[From Kautihya Artha Sdstra, 1.7]

Therefore by abandoning the six internal enemies, 1 one should gain the

control of his senses; he should gain knowledge by associating himself

with elders, use his intelligence department as his eye, acquire and con-

serve things by exertion, establish righteous rule by commands and

directives, and discipline among the people by the extension of educa-

tion, endear himself to the people by gifts, and provide livelihood to

them with what is beneficial to each.

Having brought his senses under discipline he must avoid betaking to

others' women, appropriating others' wealth, and injuring others; he

must avoid also long sleep, fickleness, falsehood, gaudy dress, associations

which would bring him to grief, and activities that are unrighteous and

unprofitable.

He should enjoy pleasure without detriment to virtue or material gain; he ought not to deprive himself of pleasure. Or he should take to pur- suits virtuous, profitable, and pleasant in such a manner that they are

mutually helpful. Of these, virtue, material gain and pleasure, if one is

pursued by him to the exclusion of the others, it affects him adversely as

well as others.

From the Science of Love [From Vatsyayana, Kama Sutra, i.i.i; 1.2.1, 14, 49]

Obeisance to virtue, material gain, and pleasure, [i-i.i]

Man, who could normally live up to a hundred years, must apportion his time and take to virtue, material gain, and pleasure in such a way that these are mutually integrated and do not harm each other. As a boy he

must attend to accomplishments like learning; in youth he should enjoy

himself; in later life he should pursue the ideals of virtue and spiritual liberation. [1.2.1]

When there are all three, virtue, material gain, and pleasure, their mutual superiority is in the order of their precedence. [1.2.14] Thus taking to material gain, pleasure, and virtue, man attains here as

1 Lust, anger, avarice, delusion, pride, and envy.

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well as in the hereafter happiness which is unimpaired and complete.

[1.2.49]

From the Ramdyana

The Ramayana, one of the two national epics of India, is ascribed to Sage ValmikL

[From Rdmayana, 2.21.57-58; 3.9.30]

My dear one! In this world, virtue, material gain, and pleasure are all to be found in the fruit accruing from the pursuit of virtue; I am sure

they will all be found there even as in the case of a chaste wife who is also beloved and blessed with offspring. If there is a case in which the three

are not found together, one should do only that in which there is vir-

tue, for one who is intent solely on material gain is to be hated and to

be engrossed completely in pleasure is also not praiseworthy. [2.21.57-58]

From dharma issue profit and pleasure; one attains everything by dharma, it is dharma which is the essence and strength of the world.

[3-9-3]

From Kaliddsa

Kalidasa (c. 400 A.D.), the foremost Indian poet, has enunciated the fundamen- tal concepts of Hindu thought and culture in his poems and plays.

[From Raghuvam'sa, 1.25; 17.57]

In that wise King Dillpa, who punished only to maintain order and mar- ried only for the sake of progeny, even material gain and love

* were

based on virtue [i.e., religious duty], [1.25]

King Atithi did not put a strain on virtue by his pursuit of material

gain and pleasure, nor did he allow these two to suffer by his pursuit of

virtue; he did not betake to pleasure at the cost of material gain nor vice

versa; he was devoted to the three in a harmonious manner. [17.57] x The basic meaning of kima is clearly required in this context. The meaning is that

the king performed the sexual act not for jts own sake but for the sake of the male progeny required to "pay the debt to the Fathers" by continuing the rites to his ancestors. Likewise material possession, in the form o kingly rule, was for the sake of maintaining law and order.

[210]

CHAPTER X

DHARMA, THE FIRST END OF MAN

The older Brahmanism of the Samhitas and Brahmanas, when faced

with the popularity of the non-Brahmanic religions and the appeal among intellectuals of Upanishadic mysticism, began to consolidate, reorganize,

and revitalize the Brahmanic way of life and thought. In this process a

synthesis was achieved between the older Brahmanical ideal of action

of life viewed as a ritualand the newer, quietistic ideal of withdrawal

and renunciation developed in the Upanishadic period. This revivalist

movement within Brahmanism touched all spheres of human life re-

ligious, academic, domestic, and social. Indeed, it was then for the first

time that conscious efforts were made to evolve a definite pattern of

Brahmanical society. The movement found expression in the texts of the

Sacred Law (Smrti or Dharma Sdstra) as well as in the Epics, the Mahabhdrata and Rdmdyana, and in literature generally, even that

dedicated to such profane subjects as material gain or love.

For vast numbers of Hindus throughout the ages there has been no more

inspiring symbol of dharma than the hero of the epic Rdmdyana, a text

which gives expression to the two main tendencies of the new revivalist

movement social and devotional. Rama, eldest son and rightful heir to

Dasharatha, King of Ayodhya, is deprived of the throne by his stepmother's sudden demand that Dasharatha, in fulfillment of a boon granted long before, crown her own son king and banish Rama, So that his father may keep his pledge to his wife, Rama voluntarily withdraws to live in the wilderness for fourteen years with his faithful wife Sita. In the forest the

sages who have been leading a life of penance and austerity seek help from

the great warrior Rama against demons who are harassing them. This

brings Rama into conflict with the demons, whose king abducts Sita and

keeps her captive in his stronghold, hoping to win her love. After many

struggles Rama and his allies, the monkeys, overcome Ravana and rescue

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Sita. Thereupon Rama is restored to his throne in Ayodhya and sets an

example as king of the most righteous and benevolent rule.

Rama's noble example of devotion to duty, to his father, and to his peo-

ple, as well as Slta's long-suffering fidelity to Rama, have been looked to

as religious and ethical ideals down through the ages. Rama is seen as the

embodiment of dharma, and his triumph over wicked Ravana as the over-

coming of vice (adharma) in order that virtue and the moral law might

prevail in personal and public life. Rama, the embodiment of dharma, is^ also adored as the incarnation of the Supreme Lord who has come into

the world to restore the moral order. In this form he became the object of

a great devotional movement which swept the country in the first cen-

turies AJ>. Generation after generation, poets have celebrated Rama in

poems and plays, in both Sanskrit and vernacular; temples have been built

to him, where sculpture, song, and drama told of his glory and enthroned

him in the hearts of the masses. Eventually the Rdmdyana spread to the

whole world of Southeast Asia where one can still see Ramayana sculp- tures and Ramayana plays. Even today, the epic, in its original Sanskrit

or its vernacular versions, is read and expounded to large gatherings of

devout listeners and in the national struggle for freedom which Mahatma

Gandhi waged, he held forth the establishment of Rdma-rdjya, a reign of

truth and nonviolence, as the ideal.

The Sacred Law and the epics are viewed by the Hindus as only slightly less sacred than the Vedas and together form the body of semi-

canonical scriptures called Smriti "(human) Tradition" as opposed to

the Vedas, which are Shruti "(divine) Revelation." Smriti is supposed to be based on Shruti, as indeed it largely is, and its authority is therefore

only derivative. It is best represented in the Lawbooks, namely, the

earlier Aphorisms on the Domestic Ritual (Grhya Sutras) and Aphorisms on Dharma (Dharma Sutras), in prose, and the later expanded versified

codes, called Dharma Sdstras or Smrtis, and related texts. The most famous of these latter codes are the LawbooJ^ of Manu (Manu Smrti, Shunga period, second to first centuries B.C.) and that of Yajnavalkya

(Ydjnavalfya Smrti, early Gupta period, c. fourth century AJX). In time the major period of Smriti (the Lawbooks and epics) covers

roughly a thousand years (c.500 B.C. tq A.D. 0500). Smriti gave India an

integrated philosophy of life and social organization which stood the

test, on the one hand, of foreign invasions and rule over several centuries

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(second century B.C. to A.D. 0300), and on the other, of the heterodox re-

ligions, furnishing a pattern for the integration and absorption of both.

The same period of foreign invasions and rule saw the rapid spread of theistic devotional cults, which after early opposition came to accept the

authority of the Sacred Law and the Vedic scriptures, and in return gained the support of orthodox Brahmanism. The alliance soon grew into the

single, dynamic movement though divided into several schools and sects known as Hinduism. In contrast to Brahmanism, Hinduism was a mass movement, which brought together into a single culture and

polity, presided over by the Sacred Law of the brahmans, various peo- ples, classes, and religious traditions. This fusion of diverse forces pro- duced one of the world's great classical periods, that of Hindu culture in the Gupta Age (fourth and fifth centuries A.D.). The central concept which was elaborated and emphasized by Smriti

was that of dharma. The word has been used in most of the Brahmanic texts from the Rtg Veda downwards, and in different contexts, as we have seen, it has denoted different ideas, such as, Vedic ritual, ethical con-

duct, caste rules, and civil and criminal law. The Sacred Law is the codi- fication of dharma. Actually, the concept of dharma is all-comprehensive and may be, broadly speaking, said to comprise precepts which aim at

securing the material and spiritual sustenance and growth of the individ-

ual and society. Another significant characteristic of dharma which de-

serves to be specially noted is that it was regarded as not being static. The content of dharma often changed in the changing contexts of time, place, and social environment.

In spite of the comprehensive character of dharma, in its most common connotation it was limited to two principal ideals, namely the organiza- tion of social life through well-defined and well-regulated classes (varnas) and the organization of an individual's life within those classes into defi-

nite stages (ashramas). Thus, in popular parlance, dharma almost came

to mean just varna-ashrama-dharma, that is the dharmas (ordained

duties) of the four classes and the four stages of life.

The system of the four classes has come to be regarded as the most es-

sential feature of Brahmanic society. Even later Hinduism, which differs

from Brahmanism in many significant respects, has scrupulously pre- served this peculiar social organization. Though the word varna-vyavastha is generally translated as caste system, it should be remembered that,

strictly speaking, varna does not denote caste as we understand it today. Caste system is jati-vyavastha, which, no doubt, represents a ramification

of the original system of classes. From the early Brahmanic texts we can derive but little historical information regarding the origin and develop- ment of classes and castes. The aim of those texts was avowedly to glorify and defend the social organization governed by the concepts of classes

and castes. They either speak of the divine origin of those social phe- nomena or give some mythical accounts in respect to them. A complex social phenomenon such as the caste system must be the result of the

interaction of a variety of factors. The word varna (color, complexion) itself would indicate that one of these basic factors was racial distinction.

In the Rig Veda we actually come across references to the drya varna

(the "Aryan color," i.e., the Vedic Aryans) and the ddsa varna ("the Dasa color," the name collectively given to all racial groups other than

the Vedic Aryans). In territories where the Aryans were dominant, the

color-line dividing the three upper Aryan social orders from the fourth, that of the despised shudras, was very strict. Draconian penalties were

prescribed for the shudra who struck or insulted an Aryan, or even pre- sumed to sit on the same seat with him. This social cleavage was given

religious sanction and was thus preserved to this day in the distinction

between caste Hindus and shudras. The shudras were denied all access to the Veda, the Vedic sacrifices, and the Aryan sacraments, especially the

investiture with the sacred thread symbolic of the Aryan child's admit-

tance to membership in his class.

Another important factor was magico-ritualistic in character. The four main classes were distinguished from one another on account of the

specific roles which they played in connection with the communal sacri-

fice. These were determined by certain definite concepts of taboo, pollu-

tion, and purification. Corresponding to their roles in the ritual these

classes were assigned distinct colors, which fact also seems to have con-

firmed the use of the word varna with reference to them. This magico- ritualistic origin of the four classes is indirectly indicated by their men-

tion in the Purusha Sukta (Rig Veda, 10.90), as the limbs of the cosmic sac-

rificial Purusha. Then there was the impact on the social organization of the Vedic Aryans of the pattern of social life already evolved by the in-

digenous Indian communities, which must have also been responsible for the consolidation of this social phenomenon. In the initial stages,

these classes were more or less fluid and elastic. But in course of

time they hardened into a definite social system characterized by a large number of endogamous and commensal castes, sub-castes, and mixed

castes. Elaborate discussions occur in texts of the Sacred Law regarding their respective duties, and social and legal privileges and disabilities.

Within these classes and castes, an individual's life was organized into

four distinct stages, called ashramas, in such a manner that the individual

should be enabled to realize, through a properly graded scheme, the four

ends of life. These four stages of life are those of the student, the house-

holder, the hermit or recluse, and the ascetic. It will be seen that the

system of the four stages of life seeks to resolve the conflict between two

ideals, namely, consolidation and progress of society on the one hand and

the spiritual emancipation of the individual on the other. In connection

with the scheme of the four stages the texts of the Sacred Law have stated clearly and at some length the Brahmanic ideals regarding such

topics as education^ position of woman, and family life. Attempts have also been made to render the broad scheme of the four stages more viable and effective by prescribing various sacraments (samskaras), which

are, as it were, the lampposts on the road leading to the full-fledged

growth of man's personality. These sacraments cover man's whole life,

beginning from the prenatal and ending with the post-mortem condi-

tion.

It will thus be seen that the Brahmanists had developed a most compre- hensive system of social thought. This system continues to constitute

though in a more or less modified form the basis of Hindu society even

to this day.

What Is Dharma?

It is difficult to find any one single passage wherein the comprehensive char-

acter of dharma is adequately brought out. Some typical passages are, therefore, given below with the idea that they might cumulatively indicate some char- acteristic features of this highly significant concept in Brahmanism and Hindu- ism.

[From Taittiriya Aranyafo, 10.79] Dharma is the foundation of the whole universe. In this world people go unto a person who is best versed in dharma for guidance. By means of

dharrna one drives away evil. Upon dharma everything is founded. There-

fore, dharma is called the highest good.

[From Makabharata, 12.110.10-11] For the sake of the promotion of strength and efficacy among beings the declaration of dharma is made. Whatever is attended with nonviolence

(ahimsa), 1 that is dharma. Such is the fixed opinion.

Dharma [from a root dhr, "to sustain"] is so called on account of its

capacity for the sustenance of the world. On account of dharma, people are sustained separately in their respective stations.

2

[From Vaifesifyt Sutra, 1.1.2] That from which result material gain and spiritual good is dharma.

[From Manu Smrti, 8.15] Dharma, when violated, verily, destroys; dharma, when preserved, pre- serves: therefore, dharma should not be violated, lest the violated dharma

destroy us.

The Sources and Extent of Dharma

A discussion about the more tangible nature and extent of dharma, as it is generally understood, is given in the following passages.

[From Yajnavaltya Smrti, 1.1.13, 6-9]

Having paid homage to Yajnavalkya, the lord of yogins, the sages said: Please expound to us fully the dharmas of the four classes, the four stages of life, and others.

The lord of yogins, living in Mithila [capital of Videha], having medi- tated for a moment, said to the sages : The laws of that country in which the black antelope roams freely,

3 do you understand carefully. The four Vedas, together with the Puranas,

4 logic, the science of Vedic

interpretation, the Sacred Law [Dharma Shastra], and the [six] limbs of a ln thought, word, and deed: violence of any kind disturbs the proper functioning of

the individual and society, and, therefore, represents the negation of dharma. 3 Confusion regarding the respective duties and functions (and privileges and disabilities)

of different classes unbalances society. One of the long's chief duties is to prevent such confusion.

"That is, the open grazing lands of the north Indian plain. According to Manu (2.23), such a country alone is fit for sacrifice, that is, for Aryan habitation.

* Semihistoncal and religious legends.

the Veda, 5

constitute the fourteen seats of sciences and of dharma. . . .

In a certain country, at a certain time, through certain means, when a

thing is given over to a deserving person with faith then, in that case,

all these items, among others, indicate the concept of dharma* 6

The Vedic scriptures [Shruti], the Sacred Law [Smriti], the practices of the good, whatever is agreeable to one's own self, and the desire which has arisen out of wholesome resolve all these are traditionally known to be the sources of dharma.

Over and above such acts as sacrifice, traditional practices, self-control,

nonviolence, charity, and study of the Veda, this, verily, is the highest

dharma, namely, the realization of the Self by means of yoga. Four persons versed in the Vedas and dharma, or a group of those who

are adept only in the three Vedas, constitute a court. Whatever that court

declares would be dharma; or that, which even one person who is the best among the knowers of the lore of the Self declares, would be dharma.

This passage, which is of the nature of a table of contents, indicates the scope and extent of the Sacred Law, as it was traditionally understood.

[From Manu Smrti, i.m-i8]

The creation of the universe, the procedure in respect of the sacraments, the practices relating to the vow of studentship [the respectful behavior toward teachers, etc.], the highest rule regarding the ceremonial bath

[to be taken at the termination of studentship], The taking of a bride, the definitions of various kinds of marriages, the

regulations concerning the great sacrifices, the eternal rule of the obsequies, The definition of the modes of gaining subsistence, the vows of a

graduate in Vedic studies [i.e., of a brahman householder], the rules re-

garding what may be eaten and what may not be eaten, the purification of men and the purification of things, The laws concerning women, the rules relating to a hermit's life,

spiritual emancipation, renunciation of worldly life, the whole set of the

duties of a king, the deciding of law-suits,

The rules regarding the examination of witnesses, the law governing the relation between husband and wife, the law of inheritance and parti-

5 They are: science of correct pronunciation and accentuation, aphorisms concerning

Vedic ritual, etc., grammar, Vedic etymology, Vedic metrics, and astronomy. 8 The vanous constituents of the activity of giving awaya which is, indeed, the main basis

of all dharma, at least in the final age of a cycle, form, according to the commentator, the causative attributes of dharma.

tion of ancestral property, the law concerning gambling, the removal of

men who prove to be thorns of society, The behavior of vaishyas and shudras, the origin of mixed castes, the

law for all four classes in times of distress, similarly the expiatory rites,

The threefold course of transmigration resulting from a person's karma,

the spiritual good, the examination of merits and demerits of actions,

The laws of specific countries, the laws of specific castes, the eternal

laws of individual families, the laws of heretics and [tribal] communities

all these topics Manu has expounded in this treatise.

Dharma Is Not Static

The following passage brings out a very significant characteristic of dharma,

namely, that the concept and content of dharma change in accordance with the

changing circumstances. Ancient tradition speaks of four ages (yugas) Krita,

Treta, Dvapara, and Kali their duration, respectively, 1,728,000; 1,296,000;

864,000; and 432,000 human years. It is believed that each of these fpur suc-

ceeding ages is characterized by an increasing physical and spiritual deteriora-

tion. No one uniform set of dharmas can, therefore, be made applicable to all the four ages. It is further believed that when one cycle of four ages is com-

pleted, there occurs the end of the universe, which is followed by a new crea- tion and a new cycle.

[From Manu Smrti, 1.81-86]

Four-footed and complete is dharma in the Krita age it is, verily, iden-

tical with Truth. Through behavior contrary to dharma, no gain of any kind accrues to men.

In the other three ages, by reason of some kind of gain [accruing to

men even through behavior contrary to dharma], dharma is deprived successively of one foot [i.e., one-fourth]. On account of the prevalence of

theft, falsehood, and deceitfulness, dharma disappears successively quarter

by quarter. In the Krita age men are free from disease, accomplish all their aims,

and live four hundred years; but in the ages beginning with the Treta, their span of life decreases successively by one quarter. The span of life of mortals mentioned in the Veda, the desired results

of sacrificial rites, and the special spiritual powers of the embodied souls

(that is, of mortals) these result as fruits of men's actions in this world

in accordance with the character of a particular age.

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One set of dharmas is prescribed for men in the Krita age, other sets of dharmas in the Treta and the Dvapara ages and still another set of

dharmas in the Kali age, in accordance with the increasing deterioration

characterizing each successive age.

Austerities [tapas] constitute the highest dharma in the Krita age; in

the Treta, sacred knowledge is declared to be the highest dharma; in the

Dvapara they speak of the performance of sacrifice as the highest dharma;

giving alone is the highest dharma in the Kali age. 7

Varna-Dharma or Organization of the Four Classes

As far as the Brahmanic-Hindu way of life was concerned, the essence of all dharma consisted in the proper functioning of the organization of the four classes or of its later complex development, namely, the caste system. Each class had its own set of duties and obligations (sva-dharma) definitely prescribed and, for the sake of the solidarity and progress of society as a whole, each class or

social unit was expected to act up to the following teaching of the Ehagavad Gltd (3.35): "Far more conducive to the ultimate good is one's own code of conduct (sva-dharma), even though deficient in quality, than an alien code of

conduct, far easier to be practiced though it may be." The four classes of those born from the mouth and limbs of Purusha the

brahman (priest), kshatriya (noble), vaishya (the bourgeois), the shudra (serf) formed a well-knit, almost self-sufficient society.

8

Below this society, yet economically tied to it, were a number of "excluded"

castes, whose contact, shadow, or even sight polluted. They performed impure work such as scavenging, disposing of the dead, leather-work, etc., and had to live outside Aryan communities. They were made to bear distinctive marks and to strike a piece of wood to warn people of their approach. The concept of excluded castes is continued today in the untouchable castes, some of which

may go back to ancient times, others probably being added from time to time from primitive tribes coming to live near more settled communities.

Large parts of India were not conquered by the Aryans but were held by various indigenous peoples, some tribes or classes of whom were observed to have a status and occupations similar to those of the corresponding twice-born

7 Disparity (particularly in respect of material possessions), which is, indeed, the root

cause of all evil and ill-will among men in the present Kali age, can be removed only by "giving away." It is interesting to view in this light such movements in modern India as Bhu-dana (giving away of land), Sampatti-dana (giving away of wealth), &rama-ddna

(making physical labor available to society), etc. 8 The brahmans, kshatriyas, and vaishyas are called dvija or twice-born, because they are

entitled as Aryans to the sacrament of initiation to the study of the Veda, which is re-

garded as their second or spiritual birth. The study or even overhearing of the Vedic scrip- tures by the non-Aryan shudras was forbidden under the most drastic penalties.

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classes. These were called Vratyas and were thought to be twice-born castes

degraded by neglect of the Vedic rites. Though assimilated in principle to

shudras, they were eligible to admission into the caste system as brahmans,

kshatriyas, or vaishyas by having a special sacrifice performed by brahman

priests. This device may have been largely responsible for the integration among the twice-born both of the non-Aryan upper classes found in India by the

Aryans and of later invaders such as the Huns. All other foreigners were

despised "barbarians" (Mlecchas).

[From Manu Smrti, 1.87-98, 102, 107, 108]

For the sake o the preservation of this entire creation, [Purusha], the

exceedingly resplendent one, assigned separate duties to the classes which

had sprung from his mouth, arms, thighs, and feet. 9

Teaching, studying, performing sacrificial rites, so too making others

perform sacrificial rites, and giving away and receiving gifts these he

assigned to the brahmans.

Protection of the people, giving away of wealth, performance of sacri-

ficial rites, study, and nonattachment to sensual pleasures these are, in short, the duties of a kshatriya.

Tending o cattle, giving away of wealth, performance of sacrificial

rites, study, trade and commerce, usury, and agriculture these are the

occupations of a vaishya.

The Lord has prescribed only one occupation [karma] for a shudra,

namely, service without malice of even these other three classes.

Man is stated to be purer above the navel than below it; hence his mouth has been declared to be the purest part by the Self-existent One.

On account of his origin from the best limb of the Cosmic Person, on account of his seniority, and on account of the preservation by him of

the Veda [brahman] the brahman is in respect of dharma the lord of this

entire creation. 10

For the Self-Existent One, having performed penance, produced the

*Cf. Rtg Vtda, 10.90. The divine origin o the four classes is indicated here. It is, there- fore, almost sacrilegious for a lower order to assume the duties of a higher one.

10 Even from the point of view of civil law the brahman enjoyed certain special privileges. In connection with the treasure-trove, for instance, the Manu Smrti lays down (8.37) that if a brahman finds it he may keep the whole of it "for he is master of everything," while persons belonging to other classes cannot do so. The punishments prescribed for a brahman offender are more lenient than those prescribed for lie same offense by persons belonging to other classes. For perjury, persons of the three lower classes shall be fined and banished, but a brahman shall only be banished. Similarly, a brahman is not liable to corporal pun- ishment (Manu Smrti 8.123-24).

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brahman first of all, from his own mouth, for the sake of the conveying of the offerings intended for the gods and those intended for the manes

and for the sake of the preservation of this entire universe.

What created being can be superior to him through whose mouth the

gods always consume the oblations intended for them and the manes

those intended for them?

Of created beings, those which are animate are the best; of the animate, those who subsist by means of their intellect; of the intelligent, men are the best; and of men, the brahrnans are traditionally declared to be the

best;

Of the brahmans, the learned ones are the best; of the learned, those whose intellect is fixed upon ritual activity; of those whose intellect is

fixed upon ritual activity, those who carry out ritual activity; of those who carry out ritual activity, those who realize the Brahman. The very birth of a brahman is the eternal incarnation of dharma. For

he is born for the sake of dharma and tends toward becoming one with the Brahman. . . .

For the sake of the discussion of the brahman's duties and of those of

the other classes according to their precedence, wise Manu, the son of the

Self-existent One, produced this treatise. . . .

In this treatise there are expounded in entirety dharma, the merits and

demerits of [human] actions, and the eternal code of conduct of the four classes.

The code of conduct prescribed by scriptures and ordained by sacred tradition [the Sacred Law] constitutes the highest dharma; hence a twice-born person, conscious of his own Self [seeking spiritual salvation], should be always scrupulous in respect of it.

The Origin of Mixed Castes

This is a conventional description of the origin and nature of the various castes and mixed castes. It can by no means be regarded as reflecting the complex system of more than three thousand real castes, subcastes, mixed castes, and exterior (untouchable) castes, which prevails in India at present. Only one factor is considered in relation to the complex variety of the caste system, namely, mixed marriages; no reference is made to such other factors as occupa- tions, specific religious functions, enforcement of deliberate economic and ad- ministrative policies, etc.

[From Yajnavalfya Smrti, 1.90-96]

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By husbands belonging to a particular class upon wives belonging to

the same class the husbands and wives having been united in un-

blemished marriages are begotten sons who belong to the same caste as that of the father and the mother 11 and who are capable of continuing the line.

The son 12 begotten by a .brahman upon a kshatriya woman is called

Murdhdvastfya; upon a vaishya woman, Ambastha; upon a shudra

woman, Nisdda or even Parasava. IB

The sons begotten upon vaishya and shudra women by a kshatriya are known by tradition respectively as Mdhisya and Ugra. The son begotten by a vaishya upon a shudra woman is known as Karana. This rule is laid down only in respect of married persons. The son 14 begotten upon a brahman woman by a kshatriya is called

Suta; by a vaishya, Vaideha\a; by a shudra, Cdnddla, who is excluded from all considerations of dharma.

A kshatriya woman procreates from a vaishya a son called Mdgadha; and from a shudra, Ksattr. A vaishya woman procreates from a shudra a son called Ayogava.

By a Mahishya is begotten upon a Karana woman a son called Ratha-

%ara. 15 As bad and good are to be regarded respectively the sons born of

hypogamous [pratiloma] and hypergamous [anuloma] marriages. The progressive advance in the social status

16 [of the various mixed

"There is a threefold division of Hindu marriage* i) that in which the husband and the wife belong to the same class; 2) hypergamy, in which the husband belongs to a

higher class than the wife; 3) hypogam>, in which the wife belongs to a higher class than the husband. The offspring of hypogamous unions was especially despised, in direct proportion to the disparity between the ranks of the parents: the Chandala, said to be the

offspring of a shudra by a brahman woman, is the lowest untouchable "This and the next stanza refer to the mixed castes resulting from hypergamous mar-

riages. The sons of hypergamous unions between Aryan parents were also Aryan, though of mixed caste.

18 Two very low castes. "This and the next stanza refer to the mixed castes resulting from hypogamous unions. 15 The Suta (charioteer, bard), Ksattr (doorkeeper), Mdkisya (attendant on cattle), Ratha-

kara (chariot-maker) must have originally had occupational significance. The Nishadas were an aboriginal tribe in origin and lived by fishing and hunting. Ambastha (healer, doc- tor), Vaidehalta, and Magadha (trader) are clearly regional names, implying that these castes came from Ambashtha, Videha, or Magadha. It may be seen how the castes named in this treatise had the most varied origins and were somehow integrated into a hierarchical system based on the theory of hypergamy. We must admire, however, the Brahman au- thor's ingenuity in choosing appropriate occupational castes for the offspring of different

hybrid unions.

"This stanza is important in that it speaks of the possibility of a mixed caste being

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castes] should be known as resulting in the seventh or even in the fifth union.

17 In cases of inversion of duties one is reduced to the status equal

[to that of the caste whose way of life he adopts also at the end of the same

period]. The higher and lower [status of sons born of unions between real castes and mixed castes] is to be determined on the same principle as be-

fore [the principle of hypergamy],

Initiation to Studentship

A brahman, kshatriya, or vaishya boy is formally taken to a preceptor to be initiated to the disciplined life of a student of sacred knowledge. This initiation

(upanayana) constitutes his second or spiritual birth his birth from his parents being only a physical birth. Persons belonging to the first three classes are there-

fore called dvijas or twice-born. With the initiation commences the first stage of life (ashrama), namely, Vedic studentship or brahmacharya. The different initiation ages for the various classes suggest- that their courses of study were different. The brahman boy's was without doubt intellectually the hardest and he was probably the only one expected to master a whole Veda. The kshatriya's education was also in the hands of a brahman preceptor, but much emphasis must have been given to training in military arts and government* As we can see from the selection given below from a work dating several cen- turies before Christ, a long period of education was compulsory in principle for all Aryans, who thus learned a common language (Sanskrit) and acquired a common culture. The superior linguistic, cultural, and social cohesion of the Aryans vis-a-vis the various non-Aryan tribes and peoples insured Aryan domination political, social, and cultural over the greater part of India even more than their military victories.

[From Asvaldyana Grhya Sutra, 1.19.1-13; 20.1-7; 21*5-7; 22.1-5]

In the eighth year one should initiate a brahman; or in the eighth year from the conception in the embryo; in the eleventh year, a kshatriya; in the twelfth, a vaishya. Until the sixteenth year the proper time for ini-

tiation has not passed for a brahman; until the twenty-second year, for a

elevated to the status of the next higher real caste. It also makes the significant point that a change in occupation (in normal circumstances) often implies a change in caste. In other

words, birth is not the only factor which determines caste, for a Brahman family which lives by the profession of a shudra continuously through seven generations becomes shudra. It is interesting that there is no mention of a person following the profession of a social order higher than his.

17 For instance a brahman begets upon a shudra wife of Nishada daughter. Another brah- man marries this Nishada daughter and begets a daughter. Upon the daughter born in this way in the sixth" generation a brahman husband would beget a son who is himself a brah- man and not a member of any mixed caste.

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kshatriya; until the twenty-fourth year, for a vaishya. After that they

become banished from SavitrL18 One should not initiate them, nor teach

them, nor officiate at their sacrifices; people should not have any dealings with them.

One should initiate a boy who has put on ornaments, the hair on whose

head is properly taken care of, who is clothed in a new garment that has not yet been washed, or in an antelope skin if he is a brahman, in the skin

of a spotted deer if he is a kshatriya, in a goat's skin if he is a vaishya. If

they put on garments, they should put on colored ones: a brahman, a

reddish-yellow one; a kshatriya, a light red one; a vaishya, a yellow one.

As for their girdles: that of a brahman should be made of munja grass; that of a kshatriya, a bow-string; that of a vaishya, woolen. As for their

staffs: that of a brahman should be of palasa wood; that of a kshatriya, of

udumbara wood; that of a vaishya, of bilva wood; or all sorts of staffs are

to be used by students belonging to all classes.

Having offered an oblation while the student touches him on the arm

[implying participation in the offering], the teacher should station him-

self to the north of the sacred fire facing toward the east. To the east of

the sacred fire facing toward the west should the student station himself.

The teacher should then fill with water the two cavities of the hands of

himself and of his student and with the formula tat savttur vrnimahe . . .

should make the water flow down upon the full cavity of the student's

hands by means of the full cavity of his own hands. Having thus poured out the water upon the student's hands, he should with his own hand take

the student's hand together with the thumb with the words: "By the im-

pulse of the god Savitar [the Impeller, i.e., the sun god], with the arms

of the two Ashvins [heavenly physicians], with Pushan's hand [god of

prosperity] I take thee by thy hand, O so-and-so!" The teacher should take the student's hand a second time with the words : "Savitar has taken your

hand, O so-and-so." The teacher should take the student's hand a third time with the words: "Agni [Fire, the god of sacrificial rites] is thy

teacher, O so-and-so!" The teacher should make the student look at the sun and should then say: "God Savitar, this is thy student of sacred

knowledge [brahmachari] ; protect him; may he not die." . . .

Having seized the student's hands with the student's garment and his

18 From initiation and hence from class and Aryan society, Savitri being the Vedic verse used at initiations.

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own hands, the teacher should recite the Savitrl verse firstly fotilth by fourth, then verse-half by verse-half, and finally the whole of it. He should make the student recite the Savitri after himself as far as he is able to do so. On the region of the student's heart the teacher should place his hand with the fingers stretched upwards and say : "Into my vow I put thy heart; after my mind may thy mind follow; with single-aimed vow do thou re- joice in my speech; may God Brihaspati [heavenly priest of the gods] join thee to me.'*

Having tied the girdle round the student and given him the staff, the teacher should instruct him in the disciplined life of a student of sacred

knowledge (brahmacharya) with the words: "A student of sacred knowl-

edge thou art; sip water [a purification rite]; do the ritual act (karma); do not sleep in the daytime; remaining under the direction of the teacher

study the Veda." For twelve years lasts the studentship for the Veda; or

until the student has properly learned it. The student should beg food in the evening and in the morning. He should put fuel on the sacred fires in the evening and in the morning.

19

Marriage and Householder's Duties

The second stage of life, that of the householder, is often characterized as the basis and support of the other three. It is, indeed, the only stage which affords full scope for the realization of the first three ends of man, namely, pleasure (karna), material gain (artha), and virtue (dharma).

[From Asvalayana Grhya Sutra, 1.5.1-3; 6.1-8] One should first examine the family [of the intended bride or bride-

groom], those on the mother's side and on the father's side, as has been

said above. 20 One should give his daughter in marriage to a young man

endowed with intelligence. One should marry a girl who possesses the characteristics of intelligence, beauty, and good character, and who is free from disease. . . .

The father 21 may give away his daughter after decking her with orna- 16 The student lived with the teacher at his residence and helped him in connection with,

among other things, his religious observances. He begged food daily for himself and his teacher. Society bore the responsibility for the maintenance of teachers and students.

30 That is, through ten generations, as has been prescribed in Ashvalayana's Aphorisms on the Vedic Ritual (A. Srauta Sutra, 9.3.20).

21 This passage describes the eight forms of marriage. The three main factors involved in these different forms are money, love, and physical force. Traditionally, the first four forms

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ments and having first offered a libation of water: This is the Brahma form of marriage. A son born to her after such a marriage purifies twelve descendants and twelve ancestors on both her husband's and her own sides. The father may give her away after decking her with ornaments to an officiating priest while a Vedic sacrifice is being performed: that is the

Daiva 22 form of marriage. A son born of such a marriage purifies ten descendants and ten ancestors on both sides. "Practice dharma together,"

a marriage performed with this imposition on the bride and the bride-

groom is the Prajdpatya form of marriage. A son born of such marriage purifies eight descendants and eight ancestors on both sides. A person may marry a girl after having first given a cow and a bull to her father : that is the Arsa^ form of marriage. A son born of such marriage purifies seven descendants and seven ancestors on both sides. A person may marry a girl after having made a mutual agreement with her. That is the Gandharva 24 form of marriage. A person may marry a girl after having satisfied her father with money: that is the Asura ["demonic"] form of

marriage. A person may carry off a girl* while her people are sleeping or are careless about her: that is the Paisdca ["devilish"] form of marriage.

Having killed her people and broken their heads, a person may carry off a girl, while she is weeping, from her relatives who are also weeping: that is the Rd^sasa ["fiendish"] form of marriage.

[From Yajnavalfya Smrti, 1,97-105, 115-16] A householder should perform every day a Smriti rite [i.e., a domestic rite prescribed by the Sacred Law, Smriti] on the nuptial fire or on the fire

brought in at the time of the partition of ancestral property. He should perform a Vedic rite on the sacred fires.

Having attended to the bodily calls, having performed the purificatory rites, and after having first washed the teeth, a twice-born [Aryan] man should offer the morning prayer.

Having offered oblations to the sacred fires, becoming spiritually com-

posed, he should murmur the sacred verses addressed to the sun god. He should also learn the meaning of the Veda and various sciences.

of marriage are accepted as proper, while the remaining four are condemned This becomes clear not only from the names given to the various forms but also from the conventional mention in respect of the first four forms of marriage of the purifying capacity of sons born of those marriages.

83 Lit. "pertaining to the [Vedic] gods.** ^Lit. "pertaining to the [Vedic] sages."

"Lit. "pertaining to the heavenly musicians.**

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He should then go to his lord for securing the means of maintenance and progress. Thereafter having bathed he should worship the gods and

also offer libations of water to the manes.

He should study according to his capacity the three Vedas, the Atharva

Veda, the Puranas, together with the Itihasas [legendary histories], as also

the lore relating to the knowledge of the Self, with a view to accomplish-

ing successfully the sacrifice of muttering prayers [japa-yajna] .

Offering of the food oblation [bali], offering with the utterance svadhd,

performance of Vedic sacrifices, study of the sacred texts, and honoring of

guests these constitute the five great daily sacrifices 25 dedicated re-

spectively to the spirits, the manes, the gods, the Brahman, and men.

He should offer the food oblation to the spirits [by throwing it in the

air] out of the remnant of the food offered to the gods* He should also cast food on the ground for dogs, untouchables, and crows.

Food, as also water, should be offered by the householder to the manes

and men day after day. He should continuously carry on his study. He should never cook for himself only.

Children, married daughters living in the father's house, old relatives,

pregnant women, sick persons, and girls, as also guests and servants

only after having fed these should the householder and his wife eat the

food that has remained. . . .

Having risen before dawn the householder should ponder over what is good for the Self. He should not, as far as possible, neglect His duties in

respect of the three ends of man, namely, virtue, material gain, and pleas-

ure, at their proper times.

Learning, religious performances, age, family relations, and wealth

on account of these and in the order mentioned are men honored in

society. By means of these, if possessed in profusion, even a shiidra de-

serves respect in old age.

The Position of Women

Contradictory views have been expressed concerning the social status of a

Hindu woman. On the one hand it is enjoined that she should be shown the 35 This is an expansion of the older and basic concept of Brahmanical thought, that of the

three debts, to the ancestors or manes, to the gods, and to the rishis or sages. The debt to the manes was discharged by marrying and continuing the race and thus the ceremonies

originally intended to feed tile ancestors. The debt to the gods was discharged by sacrifices and worship and that to the sages through the study and preservation of the scriptures.

utmost respect, while, on the other, she is said to deserve no freedom. This contradiction is more apparent than real, for the emphasis in the latter case is not so much on the denial of any freedom to a woman as on the duty of her near ones to protect her at all costs.

[From Manu Smrtt, 3.55-57; 9.3-7? u> 26]

Women must be honored and adorned by their fathers, brothers, hus- bands, and brothers-in-law who desire great good fortune.

Where women, verily, are honored, there the gods rejoice; where, how-

ever, they are not honored, there all sacred rites prove fruitless.

Where the female relations live in grief that family soon perishes

completely; where, however, they do not suffer from any grievance that

family always prospers. . . .

Her father protects her in childhood, her husband protects her in youth, her sons protect her in old age a woman does not deserve independence. The father who does not give away his daughter in marriage at the

proper time is censurable; censurable is the husband who does not ap- proach his wife in due season; and after the husband is dead, the son,

verily, is censurable, who does not protect his mother.

Even against the slightest provocations should women be particularly guarded; for unguarded they would bring grief to both the families.

Regarding this as the highest dharma of all four classes, husbands,

though weak, must strive to protect their wives.

His own offspring, character, family, self, and dharma does one pro- tect when he protects his wife scrupulously. . . .

The husband should engage his wife in the collection and expenditure of his wealth, in cleanliness, in dharma,

26 in cooking food for the family, and in looking after the necessities of the household. ...

Women destined to bear children, enjoying great good fortune, deserv- ing of worship, the resplendent lights of homes on the one hand and divinities of good luck who reside in the houses on the other between these there is no difference whatsoever.

The Hermit and the Ascetic

In the third stage of life man is expected to retire from active family and social life and seek seclusion. But he should be available for advice and guidance to the family and society whenever they need them. In the last stage, namely, that

26 Ordained duty, especially here religious rites.

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of the life of an ascetic (sannyasin), man completely renounces this worldly life and devotes himself exclusively to spiritual self-realization.

[From Manu Smrtt, 6.1-3, 8 > 25> 33 42, 87-89]

Having thus lived a householder's life according to the prescribed rules, a twice-born householder should, making a firm resolve and keeping his

sense-organs in subjection, live in a forest as recommended in the Sacred Law.

When a householder sees his skin wrinkled and his hair gray and when he sees the son of his son, then he should resort to the forest.

Having given up food produced in villages [by cultivation] and

abandoning all his belongings, he should depart into the forest, either

committing his wife to the care of his sons or departing together with

her. . . .

He should be constantly engaged in study and should be self-controlled, friendly toward all, spiritually composed, ever a liberal giver and never a

receiver, and compassionate toward all beings. . . .

Having consigned the sacred fires into himself 2T

in accordance with the

prescribed rules, he should live without a fire, without a house, a silent

sage subsisting on roots and fruit. . . .

Having thus passed the third part of his life in the forest, he should renounce all attachments to worldly objects and become an ascetic during the fourth part of his life. . . .

He should always wander alone, without any companion, in order to achieve spiritual perfection clearly seeing that such attainment is pos- sible only in the case of the solitary man, who neither forsakes nor is forsaken. . . .

The student, the householder, the hermit, and the ascetic these consti- tute the four separate stages of life, originating from and depending upon the householder's life.

All these stages of life, adopted successively and in accordance with the Shastras, lead the brahman

28 following the prescribed rules to the

highest state.

Of all these, verily, according to the precepts of the Veda and the Smriti

"The three sacred fires are the symbol of a householder's life. During the latter part of his life as a forest hermit the Hindu gives up his sacred fires; these are not to be destroyed but are symbolically consigned into his own self.

48 And also persons belonging to the next two social orders.

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the householder is said to be the most excellent, for he supports the other

three.

The Sacraments

The sacraments (samskaras) help to render the scheme of the four stages of an individual's life more tangible and definite. They represent, as it were, the various landmarks in man's progress through the course of life, which aim at

building up a full-fledged physical and spiritual personality. The following passage represents the earliest enumeration of the sacraments. Note the author's subordination of external ritual to moral qualities at the end of the passage.

[From Gautama Dharma Sutra, 8.14-26]

i) The ceremony relating to the conception of the embryo; 2) the cere-

mony relating to the desired birth of a male child; 3) the parting of the

pregnant wife's hair by the husband [to ward off evil spirits]; 4) the

ceremony relating to the birth of the child; 5) the naming of the child;

6) the first feeding; 7) the tonsure of the child's head; 8) the initiation;

9-12) the four vows taken in connection with the study of the Veda;

13) the ceremonial bath [graduation]; 14) the union with a mate who would practice dharma together with him [i.e., marriage] ; 15-19) the daily performance of the five sacrifices to gods, manes, men, spirits, and the

Brahman; 20-26) and the performance of the following sacrifices, that is, of the seven cooked-food sacrifices . . . ; 27-33) ^ seyen kinds of oblation sacrifices . . . ; 34-40) the seven kinds of soma sacrifices . . . these are the forty sacraments.

Now follow the eight good qualities of the soul, namely, compassion to all beings, forbearance, absence of jealousy, purity, tranquillity, goodness, absence of meanness, and absence of covetousness. He who is sanctified by these forty sacraments but is not endowed with the eight good qualities of the soul does not become united with the Brahman, nor does he even reach the abode of the Brahman. On the other hand, he who is, verily, sanctified by a few only of the sacraments but is endowed with the eight good qualities of the soul becomes united with the Brahman, he dwells in the abode of the Brahman*

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CHAPTER XI

ARTHA, THE SECOND END OF MAN

As we have seen, the ancient Indian concept of dharma as religiously ordained duty touched all aspects of man's relation with the society. One

such aspect was political in character and often manifested itself in the

form of the relation between the subject and the state. In view of the fact

that the state in ancient India was mostly mgnarchical^^this aspect of

dharma "was known as the Raja-dharma, the dharma (duty) of kings.

Naturally enough, the Raja-dharma, which, by and large, corresponded

with political science, formed but^one of the many topics dealt with in tHe

larger scheme ofDHarma Shastra. The latter was normally divided into

three main sections, namely, rules of conduct (acdra), civil and criminal

and expiation_anct f^ishmcn^^jfrdyascitta) . The

Rd-ja-dharma was included in the section embodying the rules of conduct.

In the course of time, however, polity came to be considered important

enough to be recognized as an independent branch of knowledge, under

the name of Artha Shastra, the science of profit or material gain. As against Dharma Shastra, Artha Shastra may be said to have given quite a new

orientation to political theory and practice. This new orientation reflected, at least to a certain extent, the increasing intensity of the struggle for

power in ancient India and the growing complexity of the methods used

to gain and keep control over the land and its peoples. Indeed, it is possible to find some indications of this new political ideology in the Mahdbhdrata

itself. In order to overpower the Kaurava warriors like Bhishma, Drona,

and Kama, the Pandavas often employed, under the active direction of

Lord Krishna himself, ruses and stratagems which were not in strict ac-

cordance with the traditional rules of righteous war (dharma-yuddha) .

The ultimate victory of the Pandavas over the.Kauravas symbolizes, in a

sense, the predominance of the new Artha Shastra ideal over the older epic ideal of chivalry. As for the essential difference between the sacred law

and the science of material gain, it may be stated in broad and rather

oversimplified terms as follows: While Dharma Shastra insisted on the

righteousness of both the^ means and thiTencis7 Artha Shastra concerned

itself primarily with the attainment of "the ends irrespective of the nature

oTTtKrineanrem^ unlikely that one of the

re^6ns"^wKy w Aith

r

r5hastra is traditionally believed to be a science ancil-

lary to the Atharva Veda is the similarity of their attitude toward the

means and the ends. ^\^J^^_S^^r^^^gy completely dominated the polity of ancient India. Attempts were made, fiowever, from time to

timeTto reasserFthe Superiority of Dharma Shastra over Artha Shastra by

prescribing that, in case of conflict between the two, Dharma Shastra

should prevail.

It is probable that besides the mostly theoretical Dharma Sutras (Aph- orisms on Dharma) which do not seem to have been specifically related to

any particular set of social and political conditions, there had existed

some kind of Artha Shastra literature presumably in the form of sutras

or aphorisms and more realistic in outlook which served as a practical

guide for the pursuit and exercise of power. That literature is now

unfortunately not available except perhaps in fragments and is mainly

known through references to it in later works. In 1905, however, a remark-

able monument belonging to the second phase of the evolution of that

literature the phase of thorough amplification of the older aphorisms-

first came to public attention. This is the well-known Treatise on Material

Gain (Artha Sdstra) x attributed to Kautilya, the minister of Chandragupta

Maurya, who was a contemporary of Alexander the Great. Though the

kernel of the work may perhaps look back to the fourth century B.C., in its

present form it is possibly as late as the fourth century AJ>. This work is of

exceptional interest and value, for it has almost revolutionized the tradi-

tional view regarding certain aspects of ancient Indian history and culture.

The Treatise on Material Gain of Kautilya reflects, in a striking man-

ner, the social and political forces which were at work in India during the

fourth century B.C. Alexander's incursions into India (326-325 B.C.) had

helped to emphasize the need for establishing a central political and mili-

tary power. The Treatise on Material Gain has, accordingly, laid down

policies aimed at welding together, into a more or less unified pattern and

under the control direct or indirect of a single authority, the multi-

*$dstra means treatise, collectively "a discipline or science,"

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plicity of smaller states that had crowded the stage of Indian history at

that time. Interstate relations thus constitute one of the main topics in

Kautilya's Treatise. Kautilya defines Artha Shastra as the science which

treats of the means of acquiring and maintaining the earth, and indeed

deals with practical government administration more fully than with

theorizing about the fundamental principles of political science. In social

matters, Kautilya has transcended the exclusiveness of ancient Brahman-

ism and has at the same time successfully counteracted the renunciatory tendencies of the Upamshads and early Buddhism. The exaltation of royal power in the legislative sphere and the elaboration of a complex bureauc-

racy in the executive sphere were certainly new to Indian polity. It is not

unlikely that in these matters Kautilya has derived inspiration from for-

eign more particularly, Hellenistic sources.

To the intense political and military activity of the early Maurya period, which is reflected in the teachings of the science of material gain, there

was a reaction i$ the reign of Ashoka ^.273-232 B.C.), the grandson of

Chandragupta and the third Maurya emperor, who turned away from the Machiavellian ways of Artha Shastra to the ways of righteousness or

dharma, and in particular to the teachings of the Buddha. Under Ashoka's

patronage Buddhism received great impetus and, consequently, threw out a strong challenge to the ancient Brahmanic traditions. The last

Maurya monarch's commander-in-chief, Pushyamitra Shunga, who over- threw his master and thereby established his own dynasty in Magadha, was, on the other hand, a strong adherent of Brahmanism. Therefore, when he came to power he made a bold bid to resuscitate the Brahmanic

way of life and thought. He performed the traditional horse sacrifice, helped the promotion of the Sanskrit language and literature, and tried to reestablish the Brahmanic ideals in the social sphere. It is out of this last activity that the Latubool^ of Manu (Manu Smrti) has presumably evolved, but in whatever little the author has said aBout polity one finds

hardly anything original. The epic Mahdbhdrata, which is, in its final lit-

erary form, more or less contemporaneous with the Lawboo\ of Manu, is definitely richer in political speculations. The entire Rdja-dAarma ("dharma of kings") section of the Sdntiparvan ("the Book of Peace," the twelfth book), for instance, constitutes a veritable compendium of political theories, rules of diplomacy, and details of administration. But the main achievement of the Mahdbhdrata consists in the synthesis of the older the-

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ones which it has attempted rather than in the enunciation of any new

ones. And perhaps more significant than such theoretical discussions are the indications of political thought and practice which can be gleaned from the events actually described in the epic. At any rate, the total polity of Hindu India throughout its history from the Shunga period (second to

first centuries B.C.) onward may be said to have been the result of a

blending together of the political ideology of Kautilya's Treatise on Mate-

rial Gain (in its present or an earlier form) and the social ideology of the

LawbooJ^ of Manu.

Among later works in Sanskrit dealing with the subject of political science may be mentioned the Lawboof^ of Ydjnavalfya, the Essence of

Policy of the School of Kdmandaty (Kamandafyiya Ntti Sara), and the

Policy of Shufyra ($u%ra Niti) . What the Lawbook of Manu was in^ rela- tion to the Shungaj>eriodL^he Lausboo\ ^f^Yajnjit/al^ya m^y be said to have been in relation to the Gupta period (fourth to fifth centuries A.D.) .

* --- I" mini -i- ._ ^ [L^ ^ ^ m M. ** -ii * i- i if-T P

ThoughtKe latter, like its predecessor, makes no original contribu- tion to ancient Indian polity, it reflects, to a large extent, the social

changes which had been brought about by the beginning of the Gupta

epoch. The Gupta lawgivers brought all persons, irrespective of caste,

property, and position in society, under the purview of the king's supreme law. No person was regarded as being above the law. For instance, the

LawbooJ^ of Yajnavalfya denied to the brahmans several legal concessions

which they had previously enjoyed. It also did away with the many legal inequities from which the shudra suffered. The law relating to women was also considerably revised and brought in line with their changed social status. The Gupta rulers were by no means bent on social revolution; indeed they retain much that has the sanction of orthodox tradition. Never-

theless, it is significant that whereas in earlier lawbooks there is no dis-

tinction between secular and religious law, in the LawbooJ^ of Yd^jnaval^ya these two aspects of law are clearly separated and vyavahara or law proper is discussed far more systematically. It further lays greater stress on private law than on criminal law.

The Essence of Policy . . . which also is traditionally ascribed to the

Gupta period (A.D. c^oo), is but a metrical conspectus of Kautilya's Trea-

tise on Material Gain. Its author shows no originality whatsoever nor are

any traces to be found in it of any practical experience of governmental administration on his part. The Essence of Policy indicates on the one

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hand the unique sway which Kautilya's work held over ancient Indian

polity, and on the other, the general decline of political thought in the

succeeding periods. The same may be said of the Kural, a comprehensive work in Tamil by Tiruvalluvar, which deals with the three ends of man. This work probably dates from AJD. 450-500 and, like most of the Tamil literature produced in that period, shows unmistakable influence of earlier

Sanskrit works. Even a casual perusal of the section on polity in the Kural would make it quite evident that Tiruvalluvar was closely ac-

quainted with Kautilya's Treatise and has derived his inspiration and

material from that work. Contrary to our expectations, therefore, the Kural does not contain any political thought which can be characterized

as peculiar to South India. The last phase of the history of ancient Indian

polity is represented by the Policy of Shu\ra, which is usually ascribed to

about AJD. 800. This work also is in the nature of a conspectus of earlier works on polity, but it is remarkable for its detailed treatment of the ad- ministrative machinery, foreign relations, and military policy,

Dharma As the Supreme Authority

The normal form of the state in ancient India was monarchy. Temporal sover-

eignty, however, was usually considered to be based on religious authority. Thus, the dharma, the religious and moral law, elaborated and preserved by the brahmans, was thought to be the source of kshatra, the sovereign power of the king, and therefore superior to it. The coronation ceremony^ it is true, represented the application of this spiritual power in the temporal realm, and in that respect the custodians of spiritual power on earth were regarded as

subordinate to the temporal authority vested in the king. Nevertheless, the

king's chaplain (purohita), who was considered the embodiment of brahman, spiritual power, served as the king's mentor in temporal as well as spiritual matters. In this capacity he and other brahman advisers attempted to guide and restrain the king's exercise of power, reminding him that it was not ab- solute. In so far as they actually succeeded in inspiring respect for dharma in the ruler, the brahmans were thereby able to serve as a kind of check on the

monarchy. Social prosperity and the harmonious functioning of society were believed

to depend upon a society composed of the four social orders, namely, brahman,

kshatriya, vaishya, and shudra, representing respectively spiritual authority,

temporal power, wealth, and labor. The society could not flourish in the absence of any of its four constituents. The regulation and prosperity of such an ordered society was not so much the function of the king as it was of dharma or law. Thus, in the Rig Veda each person in the ordered universe (sat) had

a particular function (vrata) to perform. The regulation of this ordered uni-

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verse was established by cosmic law or order, rita or dharma. Hence, the

performance of duty in accordance with this law brought about a state of

harmony with the ordered universe (sat) and was regarded as satya (truth). In this way, cosmic law was identified with truth and was regarded as the ultimate authority to which even the king was obliged to yield. This supremacy of dharma is the ba^jg^cpricerjt,of^ancient Indian social and political thought.

- [From BIThad Aranya\a Upanisad, 1.4!I'M4]

Verily, in the beginning this [world] was brahman, being only one. That

brahman, being one, did not prosper. It therefore brought forth an excel-

lent form, kshatra, such as those among the gods who are embodiments of kshatra, namely Indra, Varuna. . . . Therefore, there is nothing higher than kshatra. Therefore, the brahman sits below the kshatriya at the coro-

nation [rdjasuya] sacrifice. Thereby, indeed, brahman confers honor on

kshatra. The source of kshatra, however, is this very brahman. Therefore, even though the king attains supremacy, finally he has to resort to brah-

man, which is, indeed, his own source. So a king who injures a brahman attacks his own source. He becomes more sinful as does one who injures his superiors.

Still he did not prosper. He created the community [viS, i.e., the

vaishyas], such as those classes of gods, who are designated by groups, namely, the Vasus, the Rudras, the Adityas. . . .

Still he did not prosper. He created the menial class [fudra-varna], such as Pushan among the gods. Verily, this earth is Pushan for it nour-

ishes all this, whatever there is. 1

Still he did not prosper. That brahman brought forth an excellent form, dharma [law]. This dharma is the sovereign power ruling over kshatra

itself. Therefore, there is nothing higher than dharma. Thereby, even the

weak can overcome the strong with the help of dharma as with the help of a king. Verily, that which is dharma is truth [satya]. Therefore, they

say of a man who speaks dharma, that he speaks the truth, for, verily, these two are one and the same.

The Origin of Kingship

In Vedic literature there are various speculations, mostly embodied in mythical

legends, about such topics as the origin and nature of kingship, the functions

1 Pushan is a Vedic deity represented as a pastoral divinity and pathmaker par excellence. The principal functions indicate his service to gods and men. Similarly, the shudras are the servants of the three higher classes. There is here, too, a pun on Pushan and the earth which nourishes (pvsyati) the world.

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of the king, and types of sovereignty. Though the most frequent theory ex-

pounded is that of the divine origin of kingship, in the Vedic literature itself references to any divinity attaching to the person of an historical king are rare.

Occasionally in the Rig Veda or Atharva Veda a king is referred to as half-god or even a god above mortals. In ancient India, however, the king is not regarded as an incarnation on earth of any one particular deity, though he is often repre- sented as the embodiment of a number of divinities. The idea of the personality of a king having been formed of essential particles derived from different gods was developed, perhaps for the first time, in the Lawboo^ of Manu (e.g. Manu Smrti, 7.4-8).

In some older texts there are also suggestions that the king was selected or

chosen, usually on account of some pressing need or special urgency, such as war, and was expected to fulfill certain obligations to the people. Public opinion expressed itself through popular assemblies or councils (sabha, samitt) and

something akin to a social contract between the king and his subjects was under- stood to exist. However this may be, it should be remembered that the normal form of state in ancient India was monarchy, usually with some form of religious sanction, and that the normal form of monarchy was hereditary. One theory of the divine origin of kingship is found in the Mahabharata,

where, for instance, Brahma or Prajapati, the lord of creatures, is said to have rescued the human race from a state of nature by laying down a code of conduct for all people and by creating the institution of kingship. In the following pas- sage three distinct stages in the evolution of kingship are indicated, namely, the

golden age of stateless society under the regulation of dharma, in which individ- uals were conscious of their duties toward themselves and their fellow men, and external agencies, like state or government, were unnecessary; the period of

decadence characterized by the prevalence of a state of nature; and finally the

period which saw the divine establishment of law and the first king, Virajas, as administrator of law.

[From Mahabharata, 12.59.5, X3~3> 93"94]

Yudhishthira said: "This word 'king' (raja) is so very current in this

world, O Bharata; how has it originated? Tell me that, O grandfather." Bhishma said: "Certainly, O best among men, do you listen to every-

thing in its entirety how kingship originated first during the golden age (krita-yuga) . Neither kingship nor king was there in the beginning, neither scepter (danda) nor the bearer of a scepter. All people protected

one another, by means o righteous conduct (dharma) . Thus, while pro-

tecting one another by means of righteous conduct, O Bharata, men even- tually fell into a state of spiritual lassitude. Then delusion overcame them.

Men were thus overpowered by infatuation, O leader of men, on account of the delusion of understanding; their sense of righteous conduct was lost.

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When understanding was lost, all men, O best of the Bharatas, overpow- ered by infatuation, became victims of greed. Then they sought to acquire what should not be acquired. Thereby, indeed, O lord, another vice, namely desire, overcame them. Attachment then attacked them, who had

become victims of desire. Attached to objects of sense, they did not dis-

criminate between right and wrong action, O Yudhishthira. They did not avoid, O king of kings, pursuing what was not worth pursuing, nor, similarly, did they discriminate between what should be said and what

should not be said, between the edible and inedible, and between right and wrong. When this world of men had been submerged in dissipation, all spiritual knowledge [brahman] perished; and when spiritual knowl-

edge perished, O king, righteous conduct also perished. "When spiritual knowledge and righteous conduct perished, the gods

were overcome with fear, and fearfully sought refuge with Brahma, the

creator. Going to the great lord, the ancestor of the worlds, all the gods, afflicted with sorrow, misery, and fear, with folded hands said: *O Lord,

the eternal spiritual knowledge, which had existed in the world of men has perished because of greed, infatuation, and tie like, therefore we have

become fearful. Through the loss of spiritual knowledge, righteous con-

duct also has perished, O God. Therefore, O Lord of the three worlds, mortals have reached a state of indifference. Verily, we showered rain on

earth, but mortals showered rain [i.e., oblations] up to heaven. As a result

of the cessation of ritual activity on their part, we faced a serious peril. O grandfather, decide what is most beneficial to us under these circum- stances.'

"Then, the self-born lord said to all those gods: 'I will consider what is

most beneficial; let your fear depart, O leaders of the gods.' "Thereupon he composed a work consisting of a hundred thousand

chapters out of his own mind, wherein righteous conduct (dharma), as well as material gain (artha) and enjoyment of sensual pleasures

(kama) were described. This group, known as the threefold classification of human objectives, was expounded by the self-born lord; so, too, a fourth objective, spiritual emancipation (moksha), which aims at a dif-

ferent goal, and which constitutes a separate group by itself.

"Then the gods approached Vishnu, the lord of creatures, and said:

'Indicate to us that one person among mortals who alone is worthy of the

highest eminence/ Then the blessed lord god Narayana reflected, and

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brought forth an illustrious mind-born son, called Virajas [who became

the first king]."

The Science of Polity

The important place of political and economic thought, in relation to the other major fields of human inquiry and speculation, is set forth in the passages which follow.

[From Kautillya Artha Sastra, 1.2, 3, 4, 7] Philosophy, the Veda, the science of economics, and the science of polity

these are the sciences. - . .

Sankhya, Yoga, and materialism these constitute philosophy. Distin-

guishing, with proper reasoning, between good and evil m the Vedic reli- gion, between profit and nonprofit in the science of economics, and be-

tween right policy and wrong policy in the science of polity, and deter-

mining the comparative validity and invalidity of these sciences [under

specific circumstances], philosophy becomes helpful to the people, keeps

the mind steady in woe and weal, and produces adroitness of understand-

ing, speech, and action. . . .

The Sdma Veda, the Rig Veda, and the Yajur Veda constitute the tril-

ogy of the Vedas. These, the Atharva Veda, and the Itihdsa Veda (the Veda of history and legends) make up the Vedas. Phonetics, ritual, gram-

mar, etymology, metrics, and astronomy these are the limbs [ancillary

sciences] of the Veda. The way of life taught in the trilogy of the Vedas

[and other Vedic works] is helpful on account of its having laid down the

duties of the four classes and the four stages of life* . . .

Agriculture, cattle-breeding, trade, and commerce constitute the main

topics dealt with in the science of economics; it is helpful on account of

its making available grains, cattle, gold, raw material, and free labor.

Through the knowledge of economics, a king brings under his control

his own party and the enemy's party with the help of treasury and army. The scepter

1 (dandd) is the means of the acquisition and the preserva-

tion of philosophy, the Veda, and economics. The science treating with

the effective bearing of the scepter is the science of polity (Danda Niti). It

conduces to the acquisition of what is not acquired, the preservation of

what has been acquired, the growth of what has been preserved, and the

1 That is, government as opposed to anarchy.

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distribution among worthy people of what has grown. It is on it [the science of polity] that the proper functioning of society [lit., the world]

depends. . . .

"Of the three ends of human life, material gain is, verily, the most

important." So says Kautilya. "On material gain depends the realization of dharma and pleasure."

2

[From Sufyra Nttt, 1.4-19] Other sciences treat of one or another field of human activity, while the

science of policy (Niti Shastra) 3

is helpful in all respects and conduces to

the stability of human society. As the science of policy is the source of dharma, material gain, and

pleasure, and as it is traditionally said to lead to spiritual emancipation, a

king should always study it diligently.

Through the knowledge of the science of policy, kings and others be-

come conquerors of their foes and conciliators of their own people. Kings who are skillful in working out the right policy always prevail. Can the knowledge of words and their meanings not be acquired with-

out the study of grammar, and of material categories without the study of logic, and the science of reasoning and of ritual practices and pro- cedures without the study of the Purva Mimdmsd?

4 Can the limitations

and destructibihty of bodily existence not be realized without the study of the Vedanta texts ? 5

Further, these sciences treat only of their own special subjects. They are, accordingly, studied only by such persons as follow their respective

teachings. Their study implies mere adroitness of intellect. Of what avail

are they to people interested and engaged in everyday affairs? On the other hand, the stability of any human affairs is not possible without the science of policy, in the same way as the functioning of the physical bodies

of men is not possible without food. The science of policy conduces to the fulfillment of all desires and is,

therefore, respected by all people. It is quite indispensable even to a king, for he is the lord of all people.

Just as diseases are bound to make their appearance in the case of per- 2 Consequently the Artha Shastra, the science of material gain (i.e., polity), is the most

important science. 8 Lit., science of wise conduct (niti), another name for the science of material gain or

polity (Artha Shastra). 4 The philosophy of ritual.

5 The Upanishads.

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sons who eat unwholesome foods, so do enemies make their appearance some immediately and some in course of time in respect of kings who are devoid of the knowledge of the science of policy; but it never happens that they do not make their appearance at all.

The primary duty of a king consists of the protection of his subjects and

the constant keeping under control of evil elements. These two cannot

possibly be accomplished without the science of policy. Absence of the knowledge of the science of policy is, verily, the weak-

est point of a king it is ever dangerous. It is said to be a great help to

the growth of the enemy and to the diminution of one's own power. Whoever abandons the science of policy and behaves independently

[that is, without any consideration for the teachings of the science] suf-

fers from misery. Service of such an independent [i.e., self-willed, capri-

cious] master is like licking the sharp edge of the sword.

A king who follows the science of policy is easily propitiated,6 while one who does not follow it cannot be easily propitiated. Where both

right policy and might exist, there prevails all-round glory. In order that the entire kingdom should, of its own accord, become

productive of good, right policy should be employed and maintained by

a king. This should, indeed, be done by a king also for his own good. A kingdom divided within itself, the army disintegrated, the civil

service headed by ministers disorganized these are always the result of

the ineptitude of a king who is devoid of the knowledge of the science of

policy.

Duties of a King

Ancient Indian polity does not treat specifically of the rights and the privileges of the subject but leaves them to be inferred from the duties and the responsi- bilities of the king, with which it deals at some length. The following passage, which deals with the duties of a king, prescribes that the king regulate his

activities according to a definite timetable. A king was expected to keep him- self in touch with every department of administration. Special emphasis was

put on the inadvisability of his isolation from his subjects*

[From Kautillya Artha Sastra, 1.19]

Only if a king is himself energetically active, do his officers follow him

energetically. If he is sluggish, they too remain sluggish. And, besides, 6 Or: has his own desires easily fulfilled.

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they eat up his works. 1 He is thereby easily overpowered by his enemies.

Therefore, he should ever dedicate himself energetically to activity. He should divide the day as well as the night into eight parts. . . . Dur-

ing the first one-eighth part of the day, he should listen to reports per-

taining to the organization of law and order and to income and expendi- ture. During the second, he should attend to the affairs of the urban and

the rural population. During the third, he should take his bath and meal

and devote himself to study. During the fourth, he should receive gold and the departmental heads. During the fifth, he should hold consultations

with the council of ministers through correspondence and also keep him-

self informed of the secret reports brought by spies. During the sixth, he

should devote himself freely to amusement or listen to the counsel of the

ministers. During the seventh, he should inspect the military formations

of elephants, cavalry, chariots, and infantry. During the eighth, he, to-

gether with the commander-in-chief of the army, should make plans for

campaigns of conquest. When the day has come to an end he should offer the evening prayers.

During the first one-eighth part of the night, he should meet the offi-

cers of the secret service. During the second, he should take his bath and

meals and also devote himself to study. During the third, at the sounding of the trumpets, he should enter the bed chamber and should sleep

through the fourth and fifth. Waking up at the sounding of the trumpets, he should, during the sixth part, ponder over the teachings of the sciences

and his urgent duties for the day. During the seventh, he should hold

consultations and send out the officers of the secret service for their

operations. During the eighth, accompanied by sacrificial priests, pre-

ceptors, and the chaplain, he should receive benedictions; he should also

have interviews with the physician, the kitchen-superintendent, and the

astrologer. Thereafter, he should circumambulate by the right 2 a cow

with a calf and an ox and then proceed to the reception hall. Or he should divide the day and the night into parts in accordance with his own capac- ities and thereby attend to his duties.

When he has gone to the reception hall, he should not allow such per- sons, as have come for business, to remain sticking to the doors of the hall

[i.e., waiting in vain]. For, a king, with whom it is difficult for the people to have an audience, is made to confuse between right action and wrong

1 That is, spoil or bring to naught his works. a As a mark of respect or reverence.

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action by his close entourage. Thereby he suffers from the disaffection of

his own subjects or falls prey to the enemy. Therefore he should attend to the affairs relating to gods,

3 hermitages, heretics, learned brahmans, cat-

tle, and holy places as also those of minors, the aged, the sick, those in

difficulty, the helpless, and women in the order of their enumeration or in accordance with the importance or the urgency of the affairs.

A king should attend to all urgent business, he should not put it off. For what has been thus put off becomes either difficult or altogether im-

possible to accomplish.

Seated in the fire-chamber and accompanied by the chaplain and the

preceptor he should look into the business of the knowers of the Veda

and the ascetics having first got up from his seat and having respectfully

greeted them.

Only in the company of the adepts in the three Vedas, and not by

himself, should he decide the affairs of the ascetics as also of the experts in magical practices lest these become enraged. The vow of the king is energetic activity, his sacrifice is constituted of

the discharge of his own administrative duties; his sacrifical fee [to the

officiating priests] is his impartiality of attitude toward all; his sacrificial

consecration is his anointment as king.

In the happiness of the subjects lies the happiness of the king; in their

welfare, his own welfare. The welfare of the king does not lie in the ful- fillment of what is dear to him; whatever is dear to the subjects constitutes

his welfare.

Therefore, ever energetic, a king should act up to the precepts of the

science of material gain. Energetic activity is the source of material gain;

its opposite, of downfall.

In the absence of energetic activity, the loss of what has already been

obtained and of what still remains to be obtained is certain. The fruit

of one's works is achieved through energetic activity one obtains abun-

dance of material prosperity.

The Seven Limbs of the State

Though monarchy was the normal form of state in ancient India, the sovereign

power was never concentrated in the person or the office of the monarch alone.

'This refers to endowments, etc. in the name of the gods. Note the relatively high im-

portance of the "heretics," mostly Buddhists and Jains, coming right after Hindu temples

and brahman hermitages*

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The state or sovereignty was regarded as an organic whole made up of seven

constituents, which are called the "limbs" of the body politic the monarch

being just one of those constituents. The state can function effectively only if these constituents remain properly integrated with one another. Modern

political theorists mention territory, population, and central government as

together constituting the state. It is interesting to note the additional constituents

mentioned by Kautilya, who is first among ancient Indian writers to advance the theory of the seven constituents of the state.

[From KautiUya Artha Sastra, 6.1]

The king, the ministers, the country, the forts, the treasury, the army, and the allies are the constituents of the state.

Of these, the perfection of the king is this: Born of a high family; non-

fatalistic; endowed with strong character; looking up to [experienced] old men [for guidance]; religious, truthful in speech; not inconsistent

[in his behavior]; grateful; having liberal aims; full of abundant energy; not procrastinating; controller of his feudatories; of determined intellect;

having an assembly of ministers of no mean quality; intent on discipline these are the qualities by means of which people are attracted toward him.

Inquiry; study; perception; retention; analytical knowledge; critical acu-

rnen; keenness for the realization of reality these are the qualities of the

intellect. Valor; impetuosity; agility; and dexterity these are the qualities of energy. Of profound knowledge; endowed with strong memory, cogi- tative faculty, and physical strength; exalted; easily controlling himself;

adept in arts; rid of difficulties; 4 capable bearer of the scepter; openly

responding both to acts of help and harm; full of shame [to do anything

evil]; capable of dealing adequately with visitations of nature and the

constituents of state; seeing far and wide; utilizing for his work the op-

portunities afforded by the proper place, time, and personal vigor; skilled

in discriminating between conditions which require conclusion of a treaty and manifestation of valor, letting off the enemies and curbing them, and

waiting under the pretext of some mutual understanding and taking ad-

vantage of the enemies' weak points; laughing joyfully, but guardedly and without loss of dignity; looking straight and with uncrooked brow; free

from passion, anger, greed, obstinacy, fickleness, heat, and calumny;

capable of self-management; speaking with people smilingly but with

dignity; observing customs as taught by elderly people these are the

qualities of the personality.

* Or: not addicted to vices.

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The perfection of the ministers has been described earlier. 5

Firm in the midland and at the boundaries; capable of affording sub-

sistence to its own people and^ in case of difficulties, also to outsiders; easy to defend; affording easy livelihood to the people; full of hatred for the

enemy; capable of controlling [by its strategic position] the dominions

of the feudatories; devoid of muddy, rocky, salty, uneven, and thorny tracts, and of forests infested with treacherous animals and wild animals;

pleasing; rich in arable land, mines, and timber and elephant forests;

wholesome to cows; wholesome to men; with well-preserved pastures; rich in cattle; not depending entirely on ram; possessing waterways and

overland roads; having markets full of valuable, manifold, and abundant

ware; capable of bearing the burden of army and taxation; having indus-

trious agriculturists, stupid masters, 6 and a population largely consisting of

the lower classes [i.e., the economically productive classes, vaishyas and

shudras]; inhabited by devoted and respectable men this is the perfection of the country.

The perfection of the forts has been described earlier. 7

Lawfully inherited from his ancestors or earned by the king himself;

mainly consisting of gold and silver; full of manifold and big precious stones and bars of gold; and such as would endure a calamity even of a

long duration and also a state of things which brought in no income this

is the perfection of the treasury.

Coming down from father and grandfather; constant in its loyalties; obedient; having the sons and wives of soldiers contented and well pro- vided for; not becoming disintegrated in military campaigns in foreign

lands; everywhere unassailable; capable of bearing pain; experienced in

many battles; expert in the science of all the weapons of war; regarding the rise and the downfall of the king as equivalent to their own and conse-

quently not double-dealing with him; mainly consisting of kshatriyas

[nobles] this is the perfection of the army.

Coming down from father and grandfather; constant in their loyalties; B Kauttllya Artha Sastra 1.9. It is mentioned there that a minister should be, among other

things, native, born of high family, influential, trained in arts, endowed with foresight,

bold, eloquent, possessed of enthusiasm, dignity, endurance, etc.

"According to the Essence of Policy . . . (4.54), the leading personalities in the country should be stupid. The commentator explains: Where the leaders of the community are foolish, the king can rule according to his own sweet will and without any obstruction.

7 Kautoliya Artha Rostra 2.3. On all the boundaries of the kingdom there should be de-

fensive fortifications. Mention is made of water-forts, mountain-forts, desert-forts, and forest-forts. Details regarding their construction are also given.

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obedient; not double-dealing; capable -of preparing for war on a large scale and quickly this is the perfection of the allies.

Not born of a royal family; greedy; having an assembly of ministers

who are mean; with his subjects antagonistic toward him; inclined toward

injustice; non-diligent; overcome by calamities; devoid of enthusiasm;

fatalistic; indiscreet in his actions; helpless; supportless; impotent; and

ever doing harm to others this is the perfection of the enemy. For such

an enemy is easy to uproot.

Excepting the enemy these seven constituents, characterized by the

development of their respective qualities and serving as limbs of sover-

eignty, are said to be intended for promoting the perfection of the sov-

ereignty.

A king endowed with a significant personality makes the imperfect constituents perfect. A king without personality, on the other hand, de- stroys the constituents even thoughthey are well developed and effectively attached to one another.

Therefore, even the ruler of the four ends of the earth, the constituents

of whose sovereignty are spoiled and who is not endowed with a signifi- cant personality, is either destroyed by the constituents themselves or is

overpowered by his enemies.

On the other hand, a ruler who is endowed with a significant personal- ity, is blessed with perfect constituents of sovereignty, and is a knower of

statecraft, though possessing a small dominion, verily, conquers the entire

earth he does not suffer a setback.

The Circle of States and Interstate Policy

The theory of the circle of states and that of the sixfold interstate policy, as formulated by the political theorists of ancient India, may appear rather doc-

trinaire, but they clearly involve certain principles which must have been de-

rived from practical political experience. The normal state of affairs is seen as a balance of power among the various states, but the ruler is impressed with the need for always remaining on his guard, for tactfully watching the situation,

and, whenever an opportunity offers itself, for acting as a hammer unto others lest he himself be turned into an anvil.

[From KautiUya Artha Sastra, 6.2; 7.1]

Repose and activity constitute the source of acquisition and maintenance

of wealth. Effort toward the acquisition of the fruits of works undertaken

is activity. Effort toward the continuance of the enjoyment of the fruits

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of works is repose. The source of repose and activity is the sixfold policy. Its possible results

are deterioration, stagnation, and progress. Its human

aspect is constituted of right policy and wrong policy; its divine aspect of

good luck and bad luck. For the divine working and the human working

together keep the world going. That which is brought about by unseen

forces is the divine. Thereby, the acquisition of the desired fruit denotes

good luck; that of the undesired, bad luck. That which is brought about

by the visible forces is the human. Thereby, the accomplishment of ac-

quisition and maintenance denotes right policy; nonaccomplishment,

wrong policy. The human aspect can be thought about [and taken care

of]; the divine cannot be thought about [and taken care of].

The king who is endowed with personality and the material constitu-

ents of sovereignty and on whom all right policy rests is called the con-

queror. 8 That which encircles him on all sides and prevails in the territory

immediately adjacent to his is the constituent of the circle of states known

as the enemy. Similarly, that which prevails in the territory which is

separated from the conqueror's territory by one [namely, by the enemy's

territory] is the constituent known as friend. A neighboring prince having the fullest measure of antagonism is an enemy. When he is in difficulty, he should be attacked; when he is without support or has weak support, he should be exterminated. In contrary circumstances [that is, when he is

strong or has strong support], he should be harassed or weakened. These

are the peculiar attitudes to be taken toward an enemy.

From the enemy onward and in front of the conqueror are the friend, the enemy's friend, the friend's friend, and the enemy's friend's friend,

ruling over the consecutively adjacent territories. In the rear of the con-

queror there are the rear-seizer, 9 the challenger,

10 the ally of the rear-

seizer, and the ally of the challenger [ruling over the consecutively adja-

cent territories].

The prince ruling over the territory immediately adjacent to that of the

conqueror is the conqueror's "natural" enemy. One who is born in the

same family as the conqueror is his "born" enemy. One who is himself

8 The conqueror is the king with reference to whom all the teachings of Kautilya's Trea- tise are taught. He may, indeed, be said to be the hero of this treatse. It is he who is the

center of the circle of states and who is expected to employ the sixfold interstate policy. A

king, according to Kautilya, must always aim at victories over others. 9 An inimical prince who Attacks the rear of the conqueror. Akranda, lit. one who shouts, is a prince who "challenges" the rear-scizer on behalf

of the conqueror or who warns the conqueror of the rear attack.

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antagonistic to the conqueror or creates antagonism toward him among others is his "factitious" enemy. The prince ruling over the territory im-

mediately beyond the one adjacent to that of the conqueror is his "natural"

friend. One who is related to the conqueror through the father or the mother is his "born" friend. One with whom the conqueror has sought refuge for the sake of wealth or life is his "factitious" friend.

The prince who rules over the territory adjacent to those of the enemy and of the conqueror and who is capable of favoring both of them, whether they are united or not, or of keeping them under restraint when

they are not united, is the middle king. The prince who rules over a territory lying beyond those of the enemy,

the conqueror, and the middle king, who is stronger than the other kings constituting the circles of states, and who is capable of favoring the enemy, the conqueror, and the middle king, whether they are united or not, or of

keeping them under restraint when they are not united, is the neutral

king.

These twelve n are the primary kings constituting the circles of states. The conqueror, his friend, and friend's friend are the three primary

constituents of his own circle of states. They are, each of them, possessed of the five constituents of sovereignty, namely, minister, country, fort,

treasury, and army. Each circle of states, accordingly, consists of eighteen constituents.

12 Hereby are explained also the circles of states belonging to

the enemy, the middle king, and the neutral king. Thus there are in all four circles of states.13 There are twelve primary

kings; 14 and sixty constituents of sovereignty;

15 in all, there are seventy-

two constituents.16 [6.2] The circle of states is the source of the sixfold policy. The teacher says:

"Peace, war, marking time, attack, seeking refuge, and duplicity are the

u Namely: conqueror, enemy, friend, enemy's friend, friend's fncnd, enemy's friend's

friend, rear-seizer, challenger, rear-seizer's ally, challenger's ally, the middle king, and the neutral king.

13 That is, six constituents of sovereignty for each state, omitting the seventh, the ally, which is already implicit in the scheme.u

Namely, those of the conqueror, the enemy, the middle king, and the neutral king.w Namely, the same four main kings and their respective friends and friends' friends. The

rear-scizer, the challenger, and their respective allies do not seem to have been included in this number.

15 Each of the twelve kings has five constituents of sovereignty (besides himself) , omitting the ally as above.

18 The above sixty plus the twelve kings.

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six forms of interstate policy." "There are only two forms of policy," says

Vatavyadhi, "for the sixfold policy is actually accomplished through peace

and war." Kautilya says: "The forms of policy are, verily, six in number, for conditions are different in different cases."

Of these six forms: binding through pledges means peace; offensive

operation means war; apparent indifference means marking time;

strengthening one's position means attack; giving oneself to another [as a subordinate ally or vassal] means seeking refuge; keeping oneself en-

gaged simultaneously in peace and war with the same state means du-

plicity. These are the six forms of policy. When one king [the would-be conqueror] is weaker than the other

[i.e., his immediate neighbor, the enemy], he should make peace with

him. When he is stronger than the other, he should make war with him. When he thinks: "The other is not capable of putting me down nor am I capable of putting him down," he should mark time. When he possesses an excess of the necessary means, he should attack. When he is devoid of

strength, 17 he should seek refuge with another. When his end can be

achieved only through the help of an ally, he should practice duplicity. So is the sixfold policy laid down. [7.1]

State Administration

This statement about the qualifications and functions of the principal ministers of the king clearly indicates a very complex and highly specialized governmental organization. It is also typical of the ancient Indian writings on polity, which concerned themselves more with the concrete administrative details than with abstract political theorizing.

[From Suty-a Nitt, 2.69, 70, 77-108]

The chaplain, the deputy, the premier, the commandant, the counsellor, the judge, the scholar, the economic adviser, the minister, and the ambas-

sador these are the king's ten primary officers. . . .

Well-versed in ritual formulas and practices, learned in the three Vedas,

diligent about religious duties, conqueror of his sense-organs, subduer of

anger, devoid of greed and infatuation, possessed of the knowledge of the

17 Strength, as Kautilya has said elsewhere, is of three kinds: strength of wise counsel

(which is made up of knowledge and wisdom), strength of sovereignty (which is made up of treasury and army), and strength of personal enterprise (which is made up of the will to martial glory).

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six limbs o the Veda and of the science of archery together with its

various branches, one fearing whose anger even the king becomes de-

voted to righteous conduct and right policy, skilled in polity and the sci-

ence of weapons, missiles, and military tactics such should the chaplain

be; such a chaplain is, verily, also the preceptor capable of cursing and

blessing alike. Those with reference to whom the king thinks: "Without the proper advice of these primary officers, my kingdom may be lost and there may be a general setback" they should be regarded as good minis- ters* Is the growth of the kingdom possible without such ministers

whom the king does not fear? Just as women are to be adorned with ornaments, dresses, etc., so too should these ministers be adorned and

propitiated. What is the use of those ministers, whose counsels conduce neither to any aggrandizement of kingdom, population, army, treasury, and good kingship, nor to destruction of the enemy? He who can discriminate between what is to be done and what is not

to be done is traditionally known to be qualified for the office of the

deputy. The premier is the supervisor of all things, and the commandant is .well versed in military science and technique. The counsellor is skilled in polity and the scholar is the master o the essential tenets of righteous conduct. The judge possesses the knowledge of popular customs and

principles of law. One who possesses an insight into the proper time and

place for any action is called the minister, while one who knows the in- come and expenditure of the state is known as the economic adviser. One who can delve into the innermost thoughts and the secret actions, who has good memory, who has an insight into the proper time and

place for any action, who is a master of the sixfold policy, who is an effective speaker, and who is fearless such a one should be made the ambassador.

The deputy should always advise the king about a thing which, though unwholesome, has to be done, about the time when a thing is fit to be done instantly, and about a thing which, though wholesome, should

not be done. He should make him act, or himself act, or should neither act nor advise.1 The premier should, indeed, find out whether a thing is effective or ineffective, and watch over all the working in connection with

the state functions entrusted to all officers. The commandant should be in

charge of elephants, as also of horses, chariots, and foot-soldiers, so of 1 When he feels that such action or advice is not necessary.

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strong camels and, verily, of oxen; of those who are studied in military musical instruments, code-languages, ensigns, and battle-arrays, of van-

guards and rearguards; of bearers of royal emblems, weapons, and mis-

siles; of menial servants; and of servants of middle and high grades. He should find out the ef&cacy of missiles, missile-throwers, and cavalry; he

should also find out how many among the troops are capable of action, how many are old, and how many new; he should further find out how

many among the troops are incapable o action, how many are equipped with arms, ammunition, and gunpowder, and how much is the quantity of war material. Having carefully thought over all this the commandant

should properly report to the king as to what is to be done. The counsellor

should consider as to how, when, and in respect of whom the policies of conciliation, bribery, dissension, and punishment are to be employed and

as to what their result would be whether great, moderate, or small. He should then decide on some action and report it to the king. The judge should always advise the king after examining, while seated in the court

with his assessors, the plaints brought forth by men, by means of witness, written documents, rights accruing from possession, artifices, and ordeals

first finding out as to which of these means is effective in which suits

and after getting the decisions agreed upon by the majority confirmed

through the application of logic, direct observation, inference, and

analogy as also of popular customs. The scholar should study the rules

of conduct which are current, which have become archaic, and which are

observed by the people, which are prescribed in scriptures, which are not

applicable at a particular time, and which are opposed to scriptures and

popular customs, and recommend to the king such rules as would be

conducive to happiness in this life and hereafter. The economic adviser

should report to the king on the following items: the quantity of com-

modities like grass, etc., stored during a particular year; the quantity

spent; and the quantity in movables and immovables which has been

left as balance. The minister should investigate and report to the king on

how many cities, villages, and forests there are, how much knd is under

cultivation, who received rent from it and how much, how much re-

mains after paying off the rent, how much land is uncultivated, how

much revenue is realized in a particular year by way of taxes and fines, how much revenue accrues from uncultivated land and how much from

forests, how much is realized from mines and how much from treasure-

troves, how much is added to the state treasury as not belonging to any- body, as lost [and found], as recovered from thieves, and as stored up. The characteristics and functions of the ten ministers are thus briefly

mentioned. The king should judge their competence by looking into

their written reports and oral instructions. He should appoint them to each post by rotation. He should never make these officers more power- ful than himself; he should invest these ten primary officers with equal

authority.

[252]

CHAPTER XII

KAMA, THE THIRD END OF MAN

The place of kama or the pursuit of love and pleasure in the balanced Hindu scheme of life derives from the importance attached to the life of the married householder (grhastha). In more than one authoritative

text, the householder's life is considered to be the greatest of the four

stages of life. Hinduism does not hold up monasticism or eremitism as a

common ideal for all; it considers, rather, that the strains and trials of household management, family life, and social obligations are a use-

ful discipline contributing to the preparation of man for the final life of retirement and spiritual endeavor. The place assigned to pleasure provides also for its regulated enjoyment, rather than its suppression, and

thus for the development of a well-rounded personality. Constantly re-

minding the householder of his duties (i.e., dharma) as also of the

higher nature of the Ultimate Reality which was the final goal to be at-

tained, the Hindu code of conduct saw to it that the normal man did not degenerate into an epicure or profligate. Love chastened by suffering was held up even by poets and dramatists as capable of effecting a lasting

spiritual union, and some of the best poetry in Sanskrit reflects this spirit and attitude toward love. The longing of hearts in love was taken as the

most effective image to depict the yearning of the devotee to God or the

seeking by the individual soul of the Supreme Soul, a symbolism which

is at the base of a greater part of the erotic art of India. Hindu aesthetes

explained the philosophy of beauty in terms of the enjoyment or perception

of a state of sublime composure or blissful serenity which was a reflection,

intimation, image, or glimpse of the enduring bliss of the spirit in its true

realization through knowledge. As in the case of the science of material gain (i.e., of polity), the sci-

ence of love or pleasure (Kama Shastra) also was studied systematically

[253]

and in exhaustive detail, the object being to comprehend all types of per- sons and situations, normal and otherwise. The separate disciplines and

techniques elaborated upon, however, as well as the special cases and

situations dealt with, should be considered in relation to the general view

of life from which these branches of knowledge were evolved, and

which continued to regulate and guide them. The history of the growth of these separate disciplines is set forth at the outset in texts like the

Aphorisms on Love (Kama Sutra) of Vatsyayana, where it is said that it was the gods and sages that promulgated these sciences of material

gain and pleasure, along with the sacred law, and that at the beginning it was all one comprehensive code of conduct. As time went by, each

section was separately elaborated by later sages and teachers, in con-

formity with the comprehensive scheme of values represented by duty

(dharma), material gain, pleasure, and spiritual emancipation. The cultured person and in particular the courtesan of Sanskrit literature

(the Indian equivalent of the Japanese geisha) was expected to be educated

in sixty-four \alas (arts and sciences), a term often equated with hifa "art" or vidyd "science." Though this number may vary in older Jain and Buddhist texts, a standard list of sixty-four is given by Vatsyayana in the

Kama Sutra and a slightly different one in the Policy of Shutya. These arts include dancing, singing, acting, flower-arranging, gambling, legerde-

main, distillation of spiritous liquors, sewing and embroidery work, first-

aid, metallurgy, cooking, chemistry, posture, dueling, gymnastics, horology,

dyeing, architecture and engineering, minerology, calligraphy, swimming,

leatherwork, archery, driving horses and elephants, composition and solu-

tion of riddles and other puzzles, nursing and rearing of children, and the

like.

The Man of Taste and Culture

In contrast to the characterization of the Hindu outlook as pessimistic and

other-worldly, is the following description, taken from Vatsyayana's Aphorisms on Love (c. A.D. 400), of the man-about-town who enjoys the good things of life, has a cultured taste, and moves in the most refined social and artistic circles.

The word for civilization in Sanskrit is, like its Western counterpart, associated with the town and city (nagara). The nagara^a in Sanskrit means the civilized or cultured urban individual.

[From Vatsyayana, Kama Sutra, 1.4]

[254]

After acquisition of learning, a person should with the help of the ma-

terial resources obtained by him through gifts from others, personal gain, commerce or service,

1

marry and set up a home, and then follow the ways of the man of taste and culture (ndgara%a). He may make his abode, in accordance with the calling chosen by him,

in a city, in a commercial center, or a town; any of these that he chooses

should be inhabited by good people. There he should make for himself a house, with water nearby, having a

garden, provided with separate apartments for different activities, and

having two retiring rooms.

In the retiring room in the forepart of the house, there shall be a fine

couch, with two pillows, pliant at the center, having a pure white sheet; there shall be by its side another couch of lesser height [for lying down]; at the head, there shall be a wicker-seat [for doing his prayers] and a plat- form for the sandal paste left over after the night's use, a garland, a

box for wax and scents, peelings of pomegranate fruit [a mouth de-

odorant] and betel leaves; a spittoon on the ground; a lute hanging on a

bracket on the wall, a painting-board and box of colors, some books and

garlands of %uranta\a flowers; not far away on the floor, different kinds

of seats; a dice-board; outside the room, cages for the birds kept for play-

ing with; and at a remote end [outside], things for private use.

In the garden a swing, well covered and under the shade of a tree, as

also an earthen platform strewn with the falling flowers of the garden. Such is to be the layout of his residence.

He must get up early in the morning, answer the calls of nature, wash his teeth, smear his body with just a little

2 fragrant paste, inhale fragrant

smoke, wear some flower, just give the lips a rub with wax and red

juice, look at his face in the mirror, chew betel leaves along with some

mouth deodorants, and then attend to his work.

Every day he must bathe; every second day, have a massage; every third

day, apply phenafa* to the legs; every fourth day have a partial shave

and clipping of the nails; every fifth [?] or tenth day a more complete 1 These four means of acquiring wealth acceptance as gift, personal gain, commerce, and

service apply respectively to the four classes, brahman, kshatriya, vaishya, and shudra. This

suggests that the refined accomplishments, cultural preoccupations, and pursuit of art and

pleasure were not restricted to any single segment of society. * The commentary hastens to state that too much of these do not speak well of the person's

refinement*

*To ward off stiffness of the legs.

[255]

shave; he must frequently wipe off the perspiration in the armpit; have

his food in the forenoon and afternoon.4

After eating [in the forenoon] comes playing with parrots and myna birds and making them talk; and indulging in cock and ram fights and in other artistic activities; also attending to the work he has with his friends

and companions. Then a little nap. In the forenoon still, he dresses and

goes out for social calls and for enjoyment of the company of others. In

the evening he enjoys music and dance. At the end of it, in his own

apartments, decorated and fragrant with smoke, he awaits, along with his

companions, his beloved who has given him an engagement, or else sends her a message and himself goes out to meet her. . . . Such is the daily routine.

He should arrange excursions in parties for attending festivals, salons for

enjoying literature and art, drinking parties, excursions to parks, and group

games. Once a fortnight or month, on the day sacred to particular deities, the actors and dancers attached to the temple of Sarasvati [the Goddess of

learning] gather and present shows [for the cultured citizens of the place] ; or visiting actors and musicians from other places present their programs in the Sarasvati temple.

AESTHETIC SPECULATIONS

Beauty has been a subject of Indian comment and speculation since the earliest times. The Rig Vedic poet reveled in the beauties of both nature and man; he attached the highest value to beauty of expression in the art of poetry, and had, besides several general terms, the specific names

Lakshml and Shrl for beauty. In the supplementary hymns of the Rig Veda he had already devoted a poem to the concept of a deity presiding over beauty and prosperity. In the Brahmanas we come upon the word

hlpa, the common term for art in the sensd of a perfect or refined form or

replica, and the whole world is described as a brilliant piece of divine art or handiwork. The Upanishads, which conceive of the ultimate reality as the one imperishable substratum of the form of existence, knowledge, and

bliss, speak of it also as the fullness of perfection and the fountainhead of

all enjoyment, rasa (Taituriya, 2.7); from it proceed literature and other * But in the forenoon and evening, according to the medical authority Charayana.

[256]

forms of artistic expression (Brhad Aranya^a, 2 4.10) ; and to it, as in praise

of the Supreme Being, all song is sung (Chdndogya 1.7.6). The epics, the

Rdmdyana and the Mahdbhdrata, along with the Puranas, set forth the

conception of a personal God, who is the embodiment of all beauty, and

the object of man's devotion, service, and rapturous exaltation. Whatever

is beautiful here in this world is so because of the spark of this divine beauty

in it, says the Ehagavad Gild (10.41). Musicians later developed their philosophy along lines indicated by

the Vedas and Upanishads, according to which music and spiritual en-

deavor were closely linked. All songs were to be composed and sung in

praise of God; less lofty themes were not considered acceptable. Further-

more, the very act of singing was likened to the yogic discipline involving the control of breath and concentration. Indian music is, unlike the

harmonic system of the modern West, a melodic or modal system in

which the highest form of art is the continued singing of pure melody

(raga) unaided by any words. This pure melodic elaboration helps both

the singer and listener to become absorbed in the depths of his own being or transported to a plane where all mundane memory ceases to intrude

or disturb the blissfulness, restfulness, or poise which the spirit achieves.

The high spiritual value set upon music is not only attested in the texts

and the songs, but is also demonstrated by the fact that all the great musicians of India have been revered as saints.

The art of sculpture, iconography, and painting, as exemplified in the

temples and rockcut caves, had a similar spiritual inspiration, content, and

purpose.

It is in the fields of drama and poetry that a theory of art was system-

atically developed. Though the popular roots of the drama are shown in

some of its social forms, the highest type of drama was conceived to be

the heroic play in which the acts of gods, incarnations of the Supreme

Divinity, or the sublime royal heroes of the epics were "imitated" or "re-

presented"; similarly the highest form of the poetic art was also the epic or the grand poem which was a continuation of the Ramayana and the

Mahdbhdrata, following them in theme and treatment, though at less

length. The holding forth before the people of elevated character and ac-

tion was, nevertheless, a secondary purpose; critics agreed that the didac-

tic aspect of a play or poem should always be subordinated to the primary aim of artistic enjoyment.

[257]

But if enjoyment of poetry and drama is the primary end, what then

is the essence of this enjoyment? If poetry and drama depict a variety of

characters and actions, with a consequent mixture of pleasant and un-

pleasant feelings, how is it all rendered equally or uniformly relishable? What is there in art that distinguishes it from the world and nature? If the poem, play, or picture presents a different reality, what is the nature

of this reality? To questions such as these Indian critics have addressed themselves.

For them the essential thing in poetry or drama is not story and character

as such, but the emotion which they embody and which the poet tries to

communicate. The emotional interest of a work centers around certain

primary sentiments felt by all human beings, around which other sec-

ondary emotions hover. Thus love, heroism, pathos, and a few others

are seen as ultimate sentiments which constitute their own explana- tion; not so the subsidiary or transitory feelings such as doubt or despond-

ency, anxiety, longing, or jealousy all of which require further and mul-

tiple explanations as to their causes. Now these major enduring senti ments (sthayi-bhavas) are embedded as impressions in every heart, and

the portrayal of situations in poems and plays touches the correspond-

ing emotional instincts in the cultivated reader or spectator. Though any human being possesses a similar emotional endowment, only the culti- vated person can respond fully to artistic presentations. In others the re-

sponse may be hindered either by a lack of culture or by momentary preoccupations arising from irrelevant and distracting circumstances.

In overcoming or eliminating the latter, the artistic atmosphere of the

theater, the music, the poetic diction are all helpful. One who is thus

responsive is called "a person of attuned heart" (sa-hrdaya), one who identifies himself with the representation. Because the rapport is achieved

through an emotional response and appreciation, such a person is also

called a rasifo, one who has aesthetic taste (rasa, lit. "flavor," "relish"). These words rasa and rasifo are as much key words of Indian culture as dharma or brahman, and suggest how in Indian culture there is an im-

perceptible shading-off from the spiritual to the aesthetic, and vice versa.

How can the designated emotions, circumscribed by person, time, and place, be shared by spectators or readers? In life, one's emotions produce in onlookers quite varied reactions; what happens to them, then, in art ?

Bharata said in his Treatise on Dramaturgy (N&tya tfasfra, c. second

century B.C. to second century AJX), and this was further elucidated by

the tenth-century critic Bhatta Nayaka, 1 that in the emotions of the world

a process of universalization occurs, thanks to their artistic expression,

in music, acting, etc., and it is in their universal aspect, as love or

heroism as such, and not as the love and the heroism of such and such

characters, that a spectator finds them appealing to his own correspond-

ing instincts. Along with this universalization, there is also a process of

abstraction which detaches a painful situation from its painful setting.

When the worldly emotion ceases to have its former personal reference, its painfulness, loathsomeness, etc., are all transcended. Thus, all the emo-

tions presented in art are transferred to a supramundane plane, and the

so-called enjoyment comes to represent a unique category of experience

unlike anything that is known to result from ordinary worldly pleasures. This universalization and sublimation also disassociates the emotion from

its particularized form, e.g., love, etc., so that it is relished simply as

aesthetic emotion (rasa).

This aesthetic emotion is therefore of the nature of a serenity (vifrdnti)

of the heart or spirit, a condition in which the restlessness attendant upon mundane activity

2 is stilled by the play of artistic presentation. It is in

this respect that aesthetic bliss is considered akin to the Supreme Beati-

tude. This is not, of course, the same as the Supreme Beatitude, from

which, when once attained, there is no falling away. The realization of

aesthetic bliss is a condition brought about and brought to an end by the

presentation and withdrawal of the artistic stimulus. Yet it offers a mo-

mentary glimpse of the Supreme Bliss, and continuous efforts to partake

of it are a means of preparing the soul for its supreme self-realization.

Now the artistic stimulus which brought forth this end is neither real nor unreal; it is indescribable; the cognition of this is again unique, being

none of the known types of actual perception, inference, memory, etc. It

is best described by analogy to the nature of the world as seen in idealistic

metaphysics such as that of Kashmir Shaivism or Shankara's Advaita

(monism). Like Shaivism and Advaita, Sankhya also contributed its

*His work is called the Mirror of the Heart (Hrdayadarpana). 9 The critic Abhinavagupta adopts here the Sankhya psychology of the three qualities or

dispositions of the mind: the sublime, "punty"; ^e restless, "passion"; and the stupid, "darkness" (see below under Sankhya). Sorrow is me outcome of the resdess disposition of

"passion," but thanks to the artistic presentation, the sublime disposition of "purity*' domi-

nates over it and sublimates the tragic situation.

[259]

ideas to the theory set forth above; it is from the Sankhya system that

Abhinavagupta (A.D. c.iooo), 8 the foremost exponent of this point of view,

seeks assistance when explaining the phenomenon of our enjoyment of

tragic plays and the sentiment of pathos. This notable theory of aesthetic bkss is first adumbrated in both its

broad outlines and technical details in Bharata's comprehensive Treatise

on Dramaturgy, which is the earliest extant work in the field. Later, cri-

tics asserted that the emotional theory applied primarily to drama, where

the actual impersonation of characters by different actors, and actual act-

ing, made emotional communication direct, while in poetry this com-

munication was indirect, since everything had to be put into words.

Therefore, according to these early rhetoricians, Bhamaha, Dandin, Vamana 4 (seventh, eighth, and ninth centuries) who dealt with poetry primarily, emotion or rasa was subordinated to expression, which was

embellished by various elements such as style, figure, and elegance.

Subsequently the school of neo-critics headed by Anandavardhana 5 (ninth

century) unified criticism by treating the problems of poetry and drama

as fundamentally identical, and restoring the supreme place to emotion.

Anandavardhana's thesis was elucidated and developed further by the

Kashminan Shaiva philosopher Abhinavagupta, but even after the work of this writer, some younger critics like Kuntaka,

6 almost contemporary with Abhinavagupta, reargued the case for poetic art being one pre-

eminently of expression, to which everything else was subordinated.

Bhatta Nayaka, whose contribution to the problem of aesthetic emotion

in the theory of universalization has already been noted, and who wrote a little before Abhinavagupta, also upheld the expressionistic view of po-

etry. He clearly distinguished poetry from scriptural injunction on the one hand, and story or news on the other. In scripture, the words or the

letter of the text was the chief thing; in story or narrative, the ideas

alone mattered; but in poetry the way, the manner in which one used

words or put his ideas, was what mattered.

Even those who took their stand on rasa or emotion as the essence of * Author of a commentary on Bharata's Treatise on Dramaturgy and another on the

Light on Suggestion (T>hvanyaloka) of Anandavardhana. * The works of these writers are called, respectively: the Ornaments of Poetry (Kavyalan-

kara), the Mirror of Poetry (Kavyadarfa), and Aphorisms on the Ornaments of Poetry {Kavyalah^ara Sutra}, with commentary by the same author.

6 His classic is called the Light on Suggestion.

* Author of the Life of Striding Expression (Va^rokpftvita).

[ 26o]

poetry had to take into consideration the unique character of poetic ex-

pression; they were required to explain how this communication of emo-

tion took place. While ideas actually can be conveyed by words, emotions

cannot be evoked by mere mention of them. Poetry must represent the

attendant emotional factors, the human participants, the background of

nature, and the actions resulting from those feelings which come in the

train of a major sentiment. It is through these that the sentiments of

love, etc., are aroused in a responsive reader or spectator. Now this realm of emotion is something which lies beyond the reach of either the pri-

mary sense or its secondary metaphorical shifts; it is only through sug-

gestion that emotion can be communicated. Therefore the leading neo-

critic, Anandavardhana, expounded the doctrine of suggestion (dhvani,

vyanjana) or revelation (pra%afa) as the chief means by which art

achieves its highest communication. This dhvani, which has to do with the

overtones of words, could render even the communication of ideas and

figurative turns more charming by the power of suggestion than by

straightforward statement. One paramount reason adduced by Ananda-

vardhana in support of his claim that suggestion is the sole means of com-

munication was the emotional response produced by music through the

inarticulated sounds of pure melody, where there obviously could be no

question of verbal communication, primary or secondary. And this was as true of sight as of sound. The look in a lady's eye might have a profound emotional significance, unexplainable except in terms of suggestion.

There were, however, a few critics who still refused to acknowledge the need to ascribe to words such an intangible quality as suggestion when

known processes of verbal import or cognition existed, such as the

speaker's intention, presumption, and inference. King Bhoja 7

(eleventh

century), who tried to take a rather dispassionate view of the Kashmirian

contributions from his distant Malwa, found it more reasonable to take

an eclectic approach, which would not reject the idea of suggestion, but

would make it part of the poet's intention. He tried also to reconcile the ancients and the neo-critics in regard to the respective importance of

expression and emotion. The most noteworthy contribution of Bhoja lies in his theory of aesthetic emotion, which, however, few after him un-

derstood properly. Bhoja tackled the problem of poetry and the world

7 His two works in this field are the Necklace of Sarasvati (Sarasva&kanthabhctrana,

[Sarasvati is the Goddess of learning]) and the Illumination of 'Love ($rngarapra%ds&).

[26! ]

together and tried to find some common basis for explaining culture itself. Aesthetic emotion, according to him, is a refinement of the human

ego (ahamkara) or the development of one's self-consciousness (abhi-

mdna) which takes one's personality to that peak of perfection at which one reflects upon one's Self and feels the joy of its fulfillment

Such was the interpretation given to the word srngara which ordinarily means love, but which to Bhoja meant the Self's Love for Itself, and of

which the love for various persons and things in the world is only an

empirical manifestation. This inner Self, not so much at rest with itself as aglow with its own essential energy of love, is die one aesthetic emo- tion which is fed and nourished by the other feelings arising out of it

and surrounding it, like the flames of a fire. The poetic emotions, such as love, heroism, etc., only enkindle this inner fire of the Self; and in the

measure of their contribution to the burnishment of this inner Self this

sublimated ego the poetry, art, or cultural activity of the world may be considered fruitful.

Among the lesser critics, there was about the same time (eleventh cen-

tury) in Kashmir, the pupil of Abhmavagupta, Kshemendra, 8 who

worked out the idea of proportion and propriety, fivita, as the very life of poetic beauty. Lastly, we might mention Jagannatha Pandita,

9

who flourished in the seventeenth century. Following in the main school of thought handed down by Abhmavagupta, he defined poetry as words

which convey an idea of beauty, and beauty as the delectation of a unique

category of supramundane joy.

DRAMATURGY

Bkaratas Treatise on Dramaturgy [FromNatya Sastra, 1.14-15, 17, 104-8, 113-14; 6,10, 15-21,31,32; 27.49- 53> 55> 5*>> 59-62; 36.72, 74-76]

[God Brahma said:] I will create the lore of drama which promotes dharma [virtue], material gain, and fame, which will show for posterity all activities, which is enriched with the ideas of all branches of knowl-

edge and presents all the arts; I shall create it, along with the story re-

quired for its theme, with its teachings and the summary of its topics,

"Author of the tract Examination of Propriety (Aucttyavicaracarcci) . 9 Author of The Bearer of the Ganges of Emotion.

[262]

. . . Brahma extracted the text from the Rig Veda, songs from the

Santa Veda, actions from the Yajur Veda, and the emotions from the

Atharva Veda. [1.14-17]

[Brahma said:] The drama is a representation of the nature or feel-

ings of the whole universe. In some place it depicts dharma, play some-

where else, material gain at another place, quietude in yet another, fun

at one place, fight at another place, love at one place, and killing at

another. The drama that I have devised is a representation of the ac-

tivities of the world; the virtuous ones have here virtue, and the amor-

ous ones, love; the undisciplined ones are tamed here, and the dis-

ciplined ones exhibit their discipline; it emboldens the weak, energizes

the heroic, enlightens the ignorant, and imparts erudition to the scholars;

it depicts the gaiety of lords, teaches fortitude to those tormented by

misery, shows gains to the materially minded, and firmness to the agi-

tated; thus it is endowed with variegated" feelings and embodies varied

states. [1.104-8]

There is no knowledge, craft, learning, art, practical skill, or action

which is not found in drama. [1.113-14]

Enactions, their subsidiary moods, actions, technique, style, mode, pro- duction and success, song and instrumentation, and theater these form

the resume of the topics of dramaturgy. [6.10] The great Brahma mentioned eight emotions: love, humor, pathos, vio-

lence, heroism, fear, loathsomeness, and wonder. 1 The enduring moods

from which these aesthetic emotions develop are love, laughter, sorrow,

anger, effort, fear, loathing, and surprise. The transitory feelings are

thirty-three, despondency, langor, apprehension, envy, elation [etc.],

[6.15-21]

We shall speak first of the emotions [rasas]. Nothing goes on in a drama without emotion. This emotion is manifested by the interaction of

cause, effect, and accessory moods. What is the illustration? Just as a

dish or culinary taste is brought about by the mingling of various

viands, even so is an emotional state engendered by the coming together of various feelings or emotional conditions; just as by molasses and other

food-materials, the six culinary tastes are made, even so the eight perma-

x Some recensions of the text read a ninth emotion, quietude; later, from the eighth cen-

tury onwards, the ninth was not only accepted, but also considered the greatest of all the

emotions.

[263]

nent emotional moods are brought to a state of relishability by the in- teraction of manifold emotional conditions. The Sages asked: What is the meaning of the word rasa [emotion; lit. flavor, relish]? The reply given is: rasa is so called because it is relished. How is rasa relished? The reply is: Just as healthy men, eating food dressed with manifold ac-

cessories, enjoy the different tastes [the sweet, the sour, etc.], and derive

exhilaration, etc., even so, the spectators with attuned minds relish the

permanent emotional states [love, heroism, etc.], which are presented and nourished with manifold feelings and their actions through limbs,

speech, and involuntary physical manifestations. [6.31, 32] I shall now set forth the characteristics of spectators. They should be

men of character and pedigree; endowed with composure, conduct, and

learning; intent on good name and virtue; unbiased; of proper age; well versed in drama and its constituent elements; vigilant, pure, and impar-

tial; experts in instruments and make-up; conversant with dialects; adepts in arts and crafts; knowledgeable in the dexterous art of gesticulation and in the intricacies of the major and minor emotional states; proficient in lexicon, prosody, and different branches of learning such men are to be made spectators for witnessing a drama. He who is satisfied when the feeling of satisfaction is portrayed, himself becomes sorrow-stricken

when sorrow is shown, and attains the state of helplessness when help- lessness is enacted he is the proper spectator in a drama. [2749-53, 55]

It is not expected that all these qualities will be present in a single

spectator. . * . Those in youth will be pleased with the love portrayed, the connoisseurs with the technical elements, those devoted to mundane

things with the material activities presented, and the dispassionate ones

with the efforts toward spiritual liberation depicted; of varied character

are those figuring in a play and the play rests on such variety of charac-

ter. The valorous ones will delight in themes of loathsomeness, violence,

fights, and battles, and the elders will always revel in tales of virtue and

mythological themes. The young, the common folk, the women would

always like burlesque and striking make-up. Thus he who is, by virtue of the response of the corresponding feeling or situation, able to enter

into a particular theme is considered a fit spectator for that kind of theme,

being endowed with those qualities needed for being a proper spectator.

[27.56, 59-62]

The science and production of drama helps the intellectual growth of

[-264]

people; it has in it the activity of the whole universe, and presents the

knowledge contained in all its branches. . . .

He who listens to this branch of knowledge promulgated by God Brahma, he who produces a drama, and he who attentively witnesses it such a person attains to that meritorious state which those versed in the

Vedas, the performers of sacrifices, and the donors of gifts attain. Among the duties of the king, provision for the enactment of plays is said to be

highly useful; to present to the people a play is a gift esteemed highly

among various kinds of gifts. [36.72, 74-76]

POETICS

Mammata's Illumination of Poetry

A standard textbook of neo-criticism written c. A.D. noo. [From Mammata, Kavyapra\a

f sat Chapters i, 4]

The muse of the poet is all glorious, bringing- into being as it does a creation beautified by the nine sentiments [lit. flavors], free from the

limitations imposed by nature, uniformly blissful, and not dependent on

anything else. . . .

Poetry is for fame, material gain, worldly knowledge, removal of ad-

versity, immediate realization of supreme bliss, and for instruction ad-

ministered sweetly in the manner of one's beloved wife, . . .

The bliss that arises immediately on the delectation of the emotions de-

picted in the poem and which makes one oblivious of every other cogni- tion forms the highest of all the fruits of poetry.

Scriptural texts like the Veda command like masters and in them the very letter of the text is the chief thing. The stories of the mythological books and epics have their main emphasis on just conveying the meaning, and

they instruct like friends. Poetry, on the other hand, is different from

these two kinds of writings. Poetry is the activity of the poet who is

gifted in depicting things on a supramundane plane; his writing is con-

sequently such that in it word and meaning are together subservient

and the emphasis is on the unique poetic activity which aims at evoca-

tion of emotional response; * therefore poetry like a beloved spouse, makes

1 This explanation of the difference between poetic expression and other writing was given

by the critic Bhatta Nayaka, According to him, poetry is an emphasis on the manner of aay- ing a thing.

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one absorbed in one emotion, wins over both the poet and the reader alike

with its message that one should be virtuous like Rama and not vicious like Ravana.2 Hence, one should put forth effort in the direction of poetic

composition.

This poetry is word and sense devoid o flaws, and from it occassionally the figures [of speech and sound] may be absent; that is, word and sense in poetry always have the figures, but if in some place, the figure is not

clearly recognizable, the fact of the expression being poetry is not af-

fected. . . .

This poetry, the wise say, is the highest and is called "poetry of sug-

gestion" if its suggested element excels the expressed one. . . . The po-

etry is middling and called "poetry in which the suggested is subordi-

nated to the expressed" if the suggested is not dominant over the ex-

pressed. . . . That category of poetry is inferior in which there is no

suggested element and there is only some strikingness of sound or sense.

Strikingness includes stylistic qualities and figures. [Ch. i]

Among the suggested elements are those in which the sequence of the process is not noticeable and another in which it is noticeable.

3 As,

however, the causes, effects, and accessory feelings of an emotion are not

themselves the aesthetic emotion [rasa], but are the conditions which bring that aesthetic emotion into being, there does exist a sequence in the process of their suggestion also; but this sequence is not perceivable. The emotion, its basic and accessory feelings, their semblance, the gradual fall, rise, and

admixture of these, which are all imperceivably suggested, form the very "soul" of poetic expression; as such they are to be distinguished from the

state in which they are subordinated to the charm of expression and func-

tion as embellishments thereof. . . .

Sage Bharata has said: "Emotion is manifested by the interplay of the

causes, effects, and the accessory moods." This is expounded thus:

The causes of emotions are (a) the human substratum, and (b) the ex-

citing conditions of environment, etc.; e.g., in love the woman is the human substratum and the garden, etc., form the exciting conditions.

The permanent emotional state called love is engendered by this twofold

cause. The effects or ensuants which render the emotion cognizable com-

prise, for instance in love, the sidelong glances, the disporting of the

3 The hero and villain respectively of the epic Ramdyana. *Thc former is the case of the emotions, rasas.

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arms, etc. The attendant accessory moods which nourish the permanent emotional state, in the case of love, are despondency, langor, etc. The emotion [so nourished] is primarily in the character presented, e.g., Rama; it is also seen in the actor by virtue o our contemplating Rama's character in him. Such is the nature of emotion as Bhatta Lollata and

other ancient writers expounded it. ...

Bhatta Nayaka said: This aesthetic relish [rasa] is not apprehended as existing either independently or in oneself; also, it is neither originated nor revealed; but in poetry and drama, there is, beyond the primary sig- nificance of the expression, a function [called "that which makes for

imaginative enjoyment"], which universalizes the particular causes, en-

suants, and accessories [belonging to a given context] ; by this universaliz-

ing power the permanent emotional mood [like love] is called forth; there is then a state of repose of the consciousness, a blissfulness, engendered by the upsurge of the sublime mental quality; in that state the emotional

mood is relished. The blessed teacher Abhinavagupta observed: In the world one makes

out the permanent mood [like love] from causes like woman; in poetry and drama, the same give up their [prosaic] character, of causes, etc., and by reason of their artistic evocative nature come to be called by non-

worldly designations vibhavas* etc. They are not apprehended as one's

own, the enemy's or the middle man's, nor as not being one's own, the

enemy's, or the middle man's; they are apprehended in their universal as-

pect, there being no mental resolve either to take or to discard a particular relation to oneself as friend, foe, or neutral. The permanent emotional state such as love is embedded as impression in the hearts of spectators and is

manifested by these causes \yibhavas\, etc., and apprehended in their uni-

versalized aspect. Through the strength of the same universalization, this

permanent emotional state, though appearing only in a particular

cognizer, is yet apprehended as if by a cognizer who has awakened into an unbounded state, because, for the time being, his limited cognizership

drops and he becomes rid of the touch of any other object of cognition. In this unlimited state, on account of the universalization enabling one

to be in unison with all hearts, the permanent emotional mood, though, like one's Self, not really different, is yet brought within the range of

apprehension. This apprehension or realization is essentially of the form

* "Cause," in dramaturgy.

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of a relish and strictly confined to the duration o the evoking artistic

conditions, causes, etc.; its relish is unitary like that of a composite drink

in which the ingredients do not taste separately; this unique relish is such

that it seems to quiver in front of one, it seems to throw everything else

into oblivion, it seems to make one experience the ineffable beatitude of the Supreme Being; it produces a supramundane delectation; such is the

nature of the experience of aesthetic emotion, love and the like. . . . The

means of its cognition are not indeterminate, because the knowledge of

causes, etc., is essential to it; nor is it determinate, for it is relished as a

supramundane bliss, certified by one's own Self-experience. Being of nei- ther form or of both forms, it shows only, as already stated, its non-worldly

character, and no contradiction whatsoever. [Ch. 4]

The Bearer of the Ganges of Emotion *

[From Jagannatha, Rasagahgadhara, Chapter i]

THE DEFINITION OF POETRY

Words which convey an idea endowed with beauty constitute poetry.

Beauty is that whose contemplation gives rise to a non-worldly delight. . * . The means of realizing this is repeated contemplation, an activity of

imagination, directed toward the thing characterized by that non-worldly

delectation. "A son has been born to you/' and "I shall give you money" these are also sentences whose meaning produces delight but that de-

light is not non-worldly; therefore there can be no question of poetry ia those sentences. Thus poetry is words conveying an idea whose

imaginative contemplation is productive of a supramundane delectation.

[Ch. i]

MUSIC

From a Brahmana [From Taittinya Brdhmana, 3.9.14]

Two brahman lutists are singing to the lute; this thing, the lute, is verily the embodiment of beauty and prosperity; and these musicians of the

lute do verily endow him [the patron] with prosperity. x This refers to Shiva as the Bearer of the Ganges (gangadhara).

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From an Upanishad [From Chdndogya Upamsad 1.7.6]

These that sing to the lute indeed sing of Him [the Supreme Brahman] only; hence it is that they attain riches.

From a LawbooJ^ (c. fourth century A.D.) [From Yajnavalfya Smrb, 3.4.112-15]

One attains the Supreme Being by practicing continuously the chanting of the sdmans [the sacred Vedic mantras set to music] in the prescribed manner and with mental concentration. The singing of the songs

Apardnta, Ullopya, [etc.] ... the songs composed by Daksha and

Brahman, constitutes indeed liberation. One who knows the correct play- ing of the lute, has mastered the subtle semitones, and understands the

rhythms, attains the path of liberation without any strain.

From the Puranas (early medieval)

[From Visnu Purdna, 1.22*84] Whatever poetic utterances there are, and the songs in all their entirety, are aspects of Lord Vishnu in his sonant form.

[From S\anda Purdna, Suta Samhttd, 4.2.3.114-16] The knowledge of music becomes an effective means of attaining one-

ness with Lord Shiva; for by the knowledge of music, one attains to a

state of absorption and it is by attaining such a state that oneness with

Shiva could be obtained. . . One ought not to indulge, out of delusion, in worldly songs. . . *

From a Tantra (medieval) [From Vijfidnabhairava Tantra]

To the yogin whose spirit attains a unified state in the uniform bliss en-

gendered by the delectation of objects like music, there occurs an ab-

sorption and anchoring of the mind in that bliss. Where there is a con-

tinuous and long flow of sounds from stringed instruments, one be-

comes freed o other objects of cognition and becomes merged in that

ultimate and verily of the form of that Supreme Ether [the Brahman].

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From a Standard Music Treatise (thirteenth century A.D.) [From Sharngadeva, Sangltaratnd\arat 1.3.1-2]

We adore that Supreme Being of the form of sound [Nada-Brahman] which is the one bliss without a second, and the light of consciousness in

all beings that has manifested itself in the form of the universe. By the adoration of sound \ndda\ are also adored Gods Brahma [the Creator], Vishnu [the Preserver], and Makesvara [Shiva, the Destroyer], for they are the embodiments of sound.

From the Songs of Tyagaraja

Tyagaraja (1767-1847) was the famous saint-musician of South India. The

songs are translated from the Telugu.

SANGITAJNANAMU * (MELODY: Sdlagobhairavi)

O Mind! The knowledge of the science and art of music bestows on a person the bliss of oneness with the Supreme Being. Music such as is accompanied by the blissful oceanlike stories of the

Lord which are the essence of love and all the other sentiments blesses a

person with oneness with the Lord.

Music such as that cultivated by the discerning Tyagaraja bestows on a

person affection [for fellow beings], devotion [to God], attachment to

good men, the Lord's Grace, austere life, mental concentration, fame, and

wealth.

RAGASUDHARASA (MELODY: Andoli\o)

O Mind! drink and revel in the ambrosia of melody; it gives one the fruit of sacrifices and contemplation, renunciation as well as enjoyment;

Tyagaraja knows that they who are proficient in sound, the mystic syllable Om, and the music notes 2 which are all of the form of the Lord Him- self are liberated souls.3

1 Indian songs arc usually identified, as here, by their beginning words. *From abstract sound, the mystic syllable Om appears and from it the seven notes of

music. Om is uttered at the beginning, and sometimes also at the end, of a Vedic recitation, prayer, or chant. In the Upanishads (especially the Chdndogya) Om came to be regarded as the essence of the Vcdas, indeed of the whole world.

* That is jtvanmuktas,. those who arc released from bondage while yet in an embodied state.

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CHAPTER XIII

MOKSHA, THE FOURTH END OF MAN

The fourth and final aim of man, moksha, is the culmination of the other

three, but especially of the religious ideal originally associated with

dharma. In the earliest phase of Indian thought the observance of the cos-

mic and moral law (rita) and the performance of dharma in the form

of sacrifice were believed in as means of propitiating the gods and gain-

ing heavenly enjoyment in the afterlife. From this idea that an act of dharma achieved some merit or benefit which might be enjoyed on death

developed the karma theory and its corollary, the doctrine of rebirth.

At this point, however, the thought that one thus passed from life to

life and that there was no end to this series led to deeper reflection. An act being finite cannot produce a result different from it or more lasting; a thing that does not last is imperfect and cannot be the ultimate truth;

what has been conditioned by acts, namely, this life, is therefore perish- able and hence not capable of producing real happiness. To one perplexed with this problem, Death itself, as in the Kafka Upanisad, revealed the

secret. As one passed from birth to birth and death to death, what was it

that endured and continued as the substratum of conditioned experi-

ence, of the happy and unhappy results of acts? What was it in man that formed the basis of all this transmigratory drama? If there was some-

thing which endured such changes, it might yield the secret of restfulness,

infinite peace, and lasting happiness. To attain it, one would naturally have to turn away from the so-called limited good or happiness and the

equally circumscribed means to it. To one intent on the supreme good or

everlasting bliss, even the pleasures of life were no different from its

miseries, as both lead to an endless cycle of experience and have to be

transcended. As anything done within the sphere of cause and effect was

caught up in the same chain, action was no remedy; knowledge of the

truth alone could help one to rise above the transmigratory cycle or the

world of cause and effect.

This line of thought serves as the common background for later sys- tems which expounded the goal or the reality or the path in different