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CULTIVATING SELF-SUSTAINING RURAL COMMUNITIES
A DESIGN EXPLORATION FOR DEVELOPMENT IN PUNA, HAWAI`I
A DARCH PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE DIVISION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF HAWAI`I AT MĀNOA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT
OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
DOCTOR OF ARCHITECTURE
MAY 2016
By
Ryan J. Kam
DArch Committee:
Martin Despang, Chairperson Davianna Pōmaika`i McGregor
Luciano Minerbi Mark Kāwika McKeague
Keywords: Architecture, Planning, Land-use, Community Development, Sustainability, Culture
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10295892
2016
ii
ABSTRACT
This design-research project investigates architectural and planning strategies for
developing self-sustaining rural communities. With the Hawaiian Islands being the most
isolated land masses in the world, indigenous settlers were not afforded the luxury of
imported food or goods. These Hawaiian settlers exercised careful land-use practices, and
formed close relationships with their natural environment, which they understood to be
imperative for their existence.
However, in the modern globalizing economy, architecture and planning in Hawai`i has
become increasingly indiscriminate to its land and natural resources. Development has
largely been driven by private economic gain, and has, in many ways, disregarded critical
social, cultural, and ecological needs, which are vital to achieving sustainable communities.
Community backlash in many recent highly politicized building projects has become
progressively noted, and reveals the need for Hawai`i to reconsider its architecture,
planning, and land-use practices.
Although such tensions are most apparent in Hawai`i’s urban cores, which have developed
in the matter of decades, pressures have quietly shifted to Hawai`i’s remaining rural regions.
This project focuses its research investigation on Puna, a rural district on the Island of
Hawai`i, which currently outpaces the growth rate of Honolulu threefold. Punaʻs historic
changes in land-use are analyzed, as well as the subsequent impacts to the sustainability of
its communities. From the findings of this analysis, architecture and planning principles are
formulated with the intent of enabling self-sustaining rural communities. A conceptual
design intervention demonstrates the applicability of these principles in the final section of
this project. The theoretical design principles presented herein aim to serve as a precedent,
which can be translated by other rural Hawai`i communities to formulate and meet their own
sustainability goals.
Ultimately, this project intends to contribute to a sustainable future for the people of
Hawai`i. It alludes to the idea that an existence on an islands, with limited resources,
requires a unique approach that critically responds to its natural environment, an mindset
which formed the roots of Hawaiian culture and allowed them to flourish in isolation for
centuries.
iii
AKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Mahalo to my committee members Martin, Davianna, Luciano, and Kāwika…
I feel truly privileged to have worked under your guidance. Thank you for generously sharing your time and mana`o.
I can’t express enough appreciation for your contributions to this project.
In honor of my mentor Professor Spencer Leineweber…
You have been a constant source of inspiration, and I feel blessed for the
insights you have shared with me. I will always remember you for the care and understanding you endlessly showed. Your support has been invaluable.
Dedicated to my mother…
Thank you for everything you have done to help me get to this point in my life.
The hard work and dedication that you exemplify has been my source of motivation. This project is dedicated to you and was not possible without your
encouragement and enduring faith in me.
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................ ii
AKNOWLEDGEMENTS .......................................................................................... iii
LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................. vii
PREFACE .............................................................................................................. ix
PROJECT FOCUS .................................................................................................... 1
Project Statement ........................................................................................... 1
Research Objectives ........................................................................................ 2
Design Outcome .............................................................................................. 3
Methodology .................................................................................................. 4
SECTION I : INTRODUCTION
HAWAII 2016 ........................................................................................................ 8
A Changing Landscape ..................................................................................... 8
Introduction to Puna ..................................................................................... 10
SECTION II : SUSTAINABILITY SEMANTICS
DEFINING SUSTAINABILITY ................................................................................. 13
Rationalizing Sustainability ........................................................................... 13
Sufficiency ..................................................................................................... 14
Carrying Capacity .......................................................................................... 15
Ecological Footprint ...................................................................................... 16
Triple Bottom Line ......................................................................................... 17
Green Building Certification Programs ........................................................... 18
Avoiding Sprawl ............................................................................................ 19
Discussion ..................................................................................................... 20
v
SECTION III : RESEARCH FINDINGS
A SUSTAINABLE HAWAIIAN MINDSET ................................................................. 22
Lōkahi ........................................................................................................... 22
Transfering Knowledge ................................................................................. 25
TRADITIONAL HAWAIIAN LAND-USE ................................................................... 28
Land Divisions ............................................................................................... 28
Social Hierarchy ............................................................................................ 30
Sufficiency Systems ....................................................................................... 35
CHANGES IN LAND TENURE ................................................................................ 37
Colonization of Hawai`i ................................................................................. 37
Agriculture .................................................................................................... 40
POLITICAL REFORMS ........................................................................................... 45
Repression of the Hawaiian Kingdom ............................................................ 45
Economic Development ................................................................................ 48
SOCIO-CULTURAL DYNAMICS ............................................................................. 51
Cultural Kīpuka .............................................................................................. 51
Changing Populations .................................................................................... 55
HAWAI`I’S UNIQUE ECOLOGIES ........................................................................... 59
Native Species ............................................................................................... 59
Pele’s Presence ............................................................................................. 60
Threats to Native Biota ................................................................................. 63
FUTURE PLANS FOR PUNA .................................................................................. 70
Hawai`i 2050 Sustainability Plan .................................................................... 70
Puna Community Development Plan ............................................................. 71
Shipman Development Plan .......................................................................... 75
The Department of Hawaiian Home Lands .................................................... 77
Existing DHHL Plan in Puna ............................................................................ 78
Existing DHHL Land Designations ................................................................... 80
vi
SECTION IV : RESEARCH DISCUSSION
RESEARCH CONCLUSIONS ................................................................................... 84
Effects to Sustainability ................................................................................. 85
Achieving Sustainability in the Future ........................................................... 87
SECTION V : DESIGN EXPLORATION
DESIGN INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................... 91
Maku`u Mauka ............................................................................................... 91
Conceptual Design Goals ................................................................................. 92
CONCEPTUAL COMMUNITY DESIGN ................................................................... 98
Land Re-Adjustment ......................................................................................... 98
Community Center ........................................................................................... 98
Natural Growth Corridor ................................................................................ 100
Suggested Planning Steps ............................................................................... 102
RESIDENTIAL CLUSTERS .................................................................................... 105
Kauhale Distribution ...................................................................................... 105
Residential Types ........................................................................................... 106
SINGLE FAMILY HOMES .................................................................................... 108
Overall Design Intent .................................................................................... 108
Intermodal Steel Building Units .................................................................... 111
Architectural Strategy ................................................................................... 112
GLOSSARY OF TERMS ....................................................................................... 119
SOURCES .......................................................................................................... 121
vii
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE PAGE Figure 1 : Roadblocks in rural Hawai`i ........................................................................................ 11
Figure 2 : Hawai`i Prep Academy Energy Lab1 .......................................................................... 18
Figure 3 : Lōkahi and the Triple Bottom Line ............................................................................. 23
Figure 4 : Social Structure of Land Management ....................................................................... 31
Figure 5 : Typical Ahupua`a ........................................................................................................ 32
Figure 6 : Moku O Hawai`i .......................................................................................................... 33
Figure 7 : Ahupua`a O Puna ........................................................................................................ 33
Figure 8 : Land Divisions ............................................................................................................ 34
Figure 9 : Agricultural Products in Puna ..................................................................................... 43
Figure 10 : 1906 Coulter Map ..................................................................................................... 44
Figure 11 : 1930 Couter Map ...................................................................................................... 44
Figure 12 : Changing Population in Puna ................................................................................... 53
Figure 13 : Puna Subdivisions .................................................................................................... 54
Figure 14 : Subdivided Lots ........................................................................................................ 54
Figure 15 : Lava Threat Zones .................................................................................................... 62
Figure 15 : Fallen Albezia Branch ............................................................................................... 66
Figure 17 : Fragmentation in Puna ............................................................................................. 67
Figure 18 Threatened and Endangered Plant Zones ................................................................. 68
Figure 19 : Conservation Zones .................................................................................................. 69
Figure 20 : Hawai`i 2050 ............................................................................................................. 71
Figure 21 : Biosphere Reserve Buffer zone ................................................................................ 73
Figure 22 : Village Centers .......................................................................................................... 73
Figure 23 : Transporation Networks ........................................................................................... 74
Figure 24 : Existing DHHL Plan, Puna ........................................................................................ 79
Figure 25 : Maku`u Location Map ............................................................................................... 89
Figure 25 : Area of Study ............................................................................................................ 90
Figure 27 : Conceptual Community Plan .................................................................................... 96
Figure 28 : Protracted Kuleana Areas ......................................................................................... 97
viii
Figure 29 : Former Popoki Target Area ...................................................................................... 97
Figure 30 : Distance to Agricultural Plots ................................................................................... 97
Figure 31 : Residential Cluster .................................................................................................. 104
Figure 32 ................................................................................................................................... 108
Figure 33 : Floor Plan ................................................................................................................ 109
Figure 34 : Roof Construction .................................................................................................. 110
Figure 35 ................................................................................................................................... 115
Figure 36 ................................................................................................................................... 115
Figure 37 : Atrium ..................................................................................................................... 115
Figure 38 : Exterior Living Spaces ............................................................................................ 116
Figure 39 : Exterior Views ......................................................................................................... 117
ix
PREFACE
Sustainability is an ideology which has come to define the major architectural
movement today. The sustainability movement, just as the many
architectural movements preceding it, is a direct response to the pitfalls
seen in previous architectural periods, and the negative effects that society
perceived as a result. In this case, it was the stark realization that the built
environment and all its functions, as created by the architects and planners,
has become overbearing on its natural surroundings and threatens the
overall human standard of living.1 Essentially, the concept of sustainability is
a basic human instinct. It can primitively refer to basic human needs, such
as food, water, and shelter, but for architects and planners, it is important to
display a sensitivity to time and place when thinking about sustainability in
the communities they design. This includes the qualitative factors which can
create a healthy lifestyle, provide an adequate quality of life, and satisfy the
needs of human psyche. Although sustainability as a concept reaches
across many disciplines, architects and planners realize that they have a
particularly significant opportunity and role to play in this widespread social
movement.
Architecture at its roots is also an art, and is allegorical of culture and place.
It is possibly the greatest physical manifestation of how a society functions
and interacts with the environment and each other.2 The precedent set forth
by indigenous Hawaiians shows a society that was intrinsically and
intimately tied to sustainability. They demonstrated a precise approach to
managing land and its resources, with building and planning methods that
were totally responsive of, and equally as unique as, their natural
1 Ian L. McHarg, Design with Nature (Garden City, New York: Published for the American Museum
of Natural History [by] the Natural History Press, 1969). 2 Francis S Oda, “Architects, Keeper of the Culture Designing Within the Cultural Landscape,”
D.Arch thesis, University of Hawai`i at Mānoa, 2000.
x
environment. Their island lifestyle was completely self-sustaining, allowing
them to flourish on the most remote land masses in the world.
However, with modern society becoming integrally entwined in the
globalizing economy, capitalism has become the sole means of human
survival. With the top-down approach of the world economy, social, cultural,
ecological, and other seemingly “intangible” needs of average citizens seem
to be often sacrificed in order to maximize economic returns to private
investors. Any other method of making a living is often considered an
ʻalternative lifestyle’, including those which indigenous Hawaiians relied upon
for two millennia. The shift to capitalism in Hawai`i came quickly after its
relatively recent introduction to the ʻcivilized’ world. Subsequently,
architecture, planning, and development has become increasingly non-
conforming of its land, resources, and people. In response to Hawai`i’s
rapidly changing landscape, cost of living, and social dynamics, its residents
have recently started to proactively voice concerns regarding development
which they see as valuing economic gains above the needs of the people.
Architects and planners in Hawai`i today may find themselves at the center
of controversy of any highly politicized project, unless they adapt to truly
reflect the true needs and concerns of the communities they design in. They
must rise up and look past just sustainability, to the next yet to come
architectural movement. In Hawai`i, this may mean looking to the past…
1
PROJECT FOCUS
PROJECT STATEMENT
At the will of the global economy, Hawai`i’s natural landscapes have seen an
increasing trend towards top-down modernization. Planning and
development decisions in Hawai`i have been based primarily on short-term
advancement in world trade, leaving Hawai`i’s economy to become
dependent upon models of expansion and growth. As a result, Hawai`i cities
have made the transformation from rural to urbanized in a matter of decades
with no comprehensive or long-term planning. The same short-sighted
development patterns are now being seen in Hawai`i’s remaining rural areas,
which are now growing at much higher rates than its urban counterparts.3
This reveals the need for research which can help to develop alternative
architectural design strategies and be applied specifically to Hawai`i’s rural
regions.
This design-research project will address this gap in research and
investigate design practices which can enable self-sustaining communities in
rural Hawai`i. At the heart of this issue, drastic land changes have
subjugated Native Hawaiian cultural rights and identity, which are integrally
tied to the natural environment. However, this issue also affects residents of
Hawai`i in general, as indiscriminate development has consequently
escalated the cost of living, and affected the ability for the greater population
to maintain a sustainable lifestyle. This project aims to promote cultural
practices, both as an ethical move, and as a solution to help Hawai`i achieve
its long-term sustainability goals.
3 “State of Hawai`i, Department of Business, Economic Development and Tourism, Research and Economic Analysis Division, Population and Economic Projections for the State of Hawaii to 2040, (DBEDT 2040 Series, 2012) 2-4.
2
RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
Define Sustainability The term sustainability can be highly biased, and varies according to person
and place. Mainstream theories of sustainability will be examined in order to
extract the most relevant concepts and models. A list of terms will be
established to explain how sustainability will be defined and measured in this
project. This definition will be important in analyzing the research findings
and directing the design outcome of the project. These measurements can
also be used by communities to establish their own specific development
goals in the future.
Analyze Evolution of Land Use From the time of western contact, long-established native landscapes have
drastically changed, and continue to do so. Historic changes in land use will
be investigated, focusing primarily on the Puna district, but also reflecting
events elsewhere, as relevant. The way that humans historically utilize land
will be analyzed, as well as the physical characteristics of the land itself,
such as rates of changing conditions and qualities of ecological functions.
Factors that influenced such land changes will also be investigated. This
research objective is important in establishing cause and effect factors of
sustainability, and will help to inform future design decisions. This objective
will be investigated in Section III : Research Findings.
Assess Effects of Changing Land Use This project will assess the effects of the drastic changes in land, in regards
to its population’s well-being, and ability their ability to achieve sustainable
lifestyles. This will build upon the previous objective by drawing connections
3
between land use and it’s importance to human welfare. Socio-cultural
considerations will also be investigated, and parallels between cultural
mindsets, land use, and sustainability will be specifically identified. This
objective will be investigated in Section III : Research Findings.
Identify Implementation Indigenous Hawaiians utilized all opportunities that the land presented to
them. Through creative thinking, they were able to refine their daily
practices to the reflect the most efficient and ecologically sensitive means of
living. As previously mentioned, the careful approaches that Hawaiians
developed over time will be a major precedent for this project. In the
modern context, however, populations, environments, and standards of
living have changed, and a total reversion to a pre-contact lifestyle would be
impractical. This project will identify the opportunities and constraints of
implementing cultural practices as a future planning approach. It will also
investigate other sustainable methods which are culturally sensitive.
DESIGN OUTCOME
In order to demonstrate the application of the aforementioned research
objectives, a conceptual design intervention will be explored. The Maku`u
Mauka tracts in Lower Puna will be used as a hypothetical design site, and
its owner, the Department of Hawaiian Home Lands, will be used as a
hypothetical client. The design strategies explored in the design phase will
respond directly to the conclusions drawn at the end of the research
investigation. It will build upon the project focus of cultivating self-sustaining
communities.
The design portion aims to present theoretical methodologies, rather than
definitive solutions or details. Maku`u Mauka will be used as a model to
exhibit conceptual architecture, land use, and planning principles. These
design principles are intended to also translate to other similar rural
4
communities. Some specific design strategies will be suggested, where
relevant, and will be appropriately stated.
METHODOLOGY
Primary Data Sources Census data will be analyzed from sources such as U.S. Census Bureau and
the Hawai`i Department of Business & Economic Development. Data will be
used to find trends in land-use, development patterns, and demographic
information.
The Geographic Information System (GIS) database will be used to overlay
spatial information. This will enable spatial comparisons of factors such as
land-use patterns, demographic considerations, and ecological qualities.
Historic information from reliable scholarly research will be used to compile a
timeline of major social, cultural, and ecological changes, as discussed in
the research outcomes.
It is important to note that all references to traditional/pre-contact Hawai`i
within this investigation refer to the time period just before western contact
in 1778, unless otherwise noted. The ancient Hawaiian civilization is often
classified into 5 time periods between the first century AD, and western
contact in 17784, and it is the latest period where Hawaiian culture was
arguable at its peak of sophistication and ability sustain itself.
4 McGregor, Davianna Pōmaika`i. "An Introduction to the Hoa`āina and Their Rights." The Hawaiian Journal of History 30 (1996): 3-8.
5
I n v e s t i g a t i v e P r o c e s s
SECTION I : INTRODUCTION
Section I will discuss the current context of architecture, land-use, and
planning in Hawai`i. It will elucidate both the initial rationale, and the
intended significance for conducting the research in this project. It will
also give a brief introduction to the district of Puna, on the Big Island of
Hawai`i, where this project will focus its research on.
SECTION II : SUSTAINABILITY SEMANTICS
Section II will explore literature regarding sustainable design and
development. The aim of this section is to formulate a definition of
sustainability which can be used by this project to analyze land-use and
planning. It can also be used by communities to establish specific
development goals in the future, which will be demonstrated in Section V
of this project.
SECTION III : RESEARCH INVESTIGATION
Section III presents the Research Findings. The investigation will
compile a comprehensive timeline of land-use in Puna. Major historical
changes in land-use will be investigated, as well as the events which led
to these changes. The measurements of sustainability, as defined in
Section II, will be used to direct research and draw conclusions which
address the discussed project objectives.
SECTION IV : RESEARCH DISCUSSION
Section IV will draw conclusions on the research investigation and
discuss how research objectives were reached. This section will outline
the major findings of the research investigation which will be used to
inform the design in Section V of this project. Specific opportunities and
difficulties for design implementation will be also be discussed.
6
SECTION V : DESIGN EXPLORATION
Section V will address the conclusions discussed in Section IV and
provide a specific example of how major issues can be resolved through
design. Suggested design principles which were not included in the
conceptual plan will be discussed. Site specific data will also be
collected, as necessary.
7
SECTION I INTRODUCTION
8
HAWAII 2016
“It was an accident that Hawai`i was the last important pacific island group to be discovered by voyagers from the outer world; but it was no accident that Hawaii,
because of its strategic position, was the first to achieve modernity. Only through a study of the past can we hope to image what the future may be and it is believed
that a reading of Hawaii’s eventful history will give many clues to the future of America’s role in the pacific era.”
-Ralph S. Kuykendall & A. Grove Day5, 1948
A CHANGING LANDSCAPE
Since Hawai`i’s introduction to the ‘civilized’ world, its has become iconic on
a global level, and romanticized as an idealized paradise. The beauty of this
natural landscape continues to be one of it’s most ironic features, as it also
has created huge demands in housing, tourism, and development. As more
subdivisions, resorts, and highways are created to accommodate the
economic sectors which Hawai`i relies on, more of this natural beauty is
compromised.
While developers attempt to capitalize on the huge demands, much of the
western modernization favors wealthy out of state stakeholders. Between
the years 2008-2014, mainland and foreign buyers spent $152,201(31.8%)
and $307,415 (64.3%) more on average than local buyers, respectively.6
Not surprisingly, this has caused housing prices statewide to spike.
5 Ralph Simpson Kuykendall and Arthur Grove. Day, Hawaii: A History from Polynesian Kingdom to
American State, Revised Edition (Englewood Cliffs: N.J., 1962) v. 6 State of Hawai�i, Department of Business, Economic Development and Tourism, Research and
Economic Analysis Division, Residential Home Sales in Hawaii, 2015.
9
Populations continue to rise with as out-of state developers overlook the
increasingly complex social issues fueled by continuous development
pressures. In 2014, median sales prices reached a record high of $730,000,
while median rental prices topped the nation at $1,448.7 With a lucrative
housing market, attention from the state overshadows other important social
issues of traffic, homelessness, and overall cost of living. With a quickly
inflating cost of living and changing social dynamics, many Hawai`i families
have recently chosen to leave for the mainland.8
This is of meaningful concern to the Native Hawaiian population, whose
cultural identity is tied to place and natural environments. As a civilization
which flourished on a remote archipelago, many things can be distilled by
examining the way of life that Hawaiians formulated. Traditional practices
can provide a relevant backbone for development decisions. It has potential
to enhance community identity and sense of place, as a time tested method
of sustainable living. However, the perpetual cost inflation and economic
driven land development has endangered their cultural rights and practices.
Projects such as the Kaka`ako revitalization and West O`ahu development
projects, including Ho`opili, have at times become the topic of large debate
for the apparent threats they pose to sustainability and cultural interests.
This has recently begun to strengthen the public’s awareness to the fact that
there is a need to re-evaluate the general development paradigm which
Hawai`i now follows. This creates difficult planning paradigm, where
designers must balance social, cultural, economic needs, which have
already been severely affected, while also creating economic income
through sustainable methods. However,
7 Mary Vorsino, "No End in Sight to Rising Housing Prices, Experts Say," Hawaii News Now, November 3, 2015. Accessed October 1, 2015. http://www.hawaiinewsnow.com/story/30429011/no-end- in-sight-to-rising-housing-prices-experts-say.
8 Mileka Lincoln, "Priced out of Paradise: When the Cost of Living Gets Too High, Some Hawaii Families Call It Quits," Hawaii News Now, November 12, 2015. Accessed December 5, 2015. http://www.hawaiinewsnow.com/story/30507152/priced-out-of-paradise-many-local-families-move-to-us- mainland-for-more-affordable-living.
10
INTRODUCTION TO PUNA
Rural Hawaiʻi regions show enormous potential to achieve sustainable
objectives. But this can only if proactive measures in architecture and
planning are made now. Despite a worldwide trend toward urbanization, 9
Hawai`i’s rural areas are developing quicker than Honolulu, leaving rural
counties on the precipice of impending urbanization.
The rural Puna District, on Hawai`i island has steadily been growing at a rate
of 15% every 5 years, and is expected to reach 58,246 people by 2020,
making it the most populated district on Big Island. 10 These growth rates
outpace Honolulu’s threefold, and have caused a retrospective approach to
planning.
Complicated social issues, such as high poverty rates, high crime rates, and
sparsely distributed homes make planning in Puna a unique challenge.
Much of Puna’s population is also put at risk to being isolated from the rest
of the island, as the lower Puna region is connected by only one traffic
corridor. This makes self-sufficiency in this region especially important, as
utilities and resources currently rely on the limited access to the rest of the
island.
The 500 square miles Puna’s landscape is naturally covered with lush native
rainforests, and hosts many endemic species found no where else on earth.
This includes Wao Kele O Puna, a nature reserve, and the last remaining
lowland rainforest in the United States. Wao Kele O Puna also serves as an
9 Karen C. Seto , Roberto Sanchez-Rodriguez, and Michail Fragkias, "The New Geography of
Contemporary Urbanization and the Environment," ed. A. Gadgil and DM Liverman, Annual Review of Environment and Resources 35 (2010): 167-94, accessed April 2015. 10 “Projection of Resident Population by District, Hawai`i County : 2000 to 2020” (Hawai`i County Census Data Base, 2006).
11
important ecological and cultural resource. If properly respected and cared
for, such natural resources could provide the means of sustainable living in
rural communities.
The unique challenges and landscape in rural Hawai`i regions, such as those
seen in Puna, requires an equally unique planning approach. Future
planning must carefully use the resources provided to them to achieve an
equitable and sustainable future.
Figure 1 : Roadblocks in rural Hawai`i
Fallen Albezia trees and branches block the route near Lava Tree Park. Source: Author
12
SECTION II SUSTAINABILITY SEMANTICS
13
DEFINING SUSTAINABILITY
Sustainability, and all its related aspects, encompass many interpretations,
and have taken on very preconceived and loaded concepts. Sustainability
has become an all-encompassing catchword, largely utilized as a public-
relations strategy and marketing tool. There are many buzzwords that can
be associated with it, but these terms may also need to be examined for
their true meaning. Many associate it with climate change issues and
alternative energies, but what does it mean in today’s society? According to
the Merriam-Webster dictionary, sustainability is defined as something that is
“able to be used without being completely used up or destroyed”. This may
seem like a generally agreeable statement to apply to land-use issues, but it
still leaves much room for interpretation. Even when narrowed to the
disciplines of architecture and planning, it is a multifaceted and subjective
concept.
RATIONALIZING SUSTAINABILITY
In 1987, Gro Harlem Brundtland, the Norwegian Prime Minister at the time,
made the first known attempt at defining the term sustainability, as it applies
to humans, and society. In that year, In her research report titled Our
Common Future, she defines sustainable development as “development that
meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs.”11 The document, which has since
then has also largely been referred to as The Brundtland Report, discusses
conserving environmental resources to be an important factor in economic
growth, relieving poverty, and overall healthy human progression. The report
does not act to point blame in any direction, nor does it go into possible
solutions for the observed environmental degradation. Rather, it serves to
11 Gro Harlem Brundtland, “Our Common Future” (report by the World Commission on Environment and Development, Oslo, Norway, March 20, 1987).
14
commence an open-ended conversation, and call for action for what has
become a very widely publicized topic since its release. The definition given
by The Brundtland Report is also a very general one, leaving the task of
interpretation to localized planning officials.
The movement leading to environmentalism and sustainability largely
stemmed from the theories of prominent landscape architect Ian McHarg, in
his book Design With Nature. McHarg observed that the field of planning
was totally separate with the fields of geology, and physical sciences, and
that the interplay between humans activities and the natural environment
were completely overlooked.12
Sustainable communities must first realize what sustainability means to
them, their own sustainable needs, and how to achieve them. The goal of
this literature review is to clearly define sustainability. This will be achieved
by researching theories regarding sustainability and extracting the concepts
which define how to measure sustainability. These concepts and terms will
be used as an assessment tool for architecture and planning in the
subsequent sections of this investigation. In order to classify sustainability in
Hawai`i context, the term itself may need to be replaced.
SUFFICIENCY
One of the most basic ways to understanding sustainability is to refer to the
term sufficiency. Sufficiency, sometimes also referenced as self-sufficiency,
is the most basic and understood function of sustainability. According to the
Merriam-Webster dictionary, the definition of sufficiency is “to meet one’s
needs” or “a modest but adequate scale of living”. This usually refers to the
ability to acquire necessary goods for humans to survive, as provided by the
earth. According to Thomas Princen, Ph.D and Professor of Natural
12 Ian L. McHarg, Design with Nature (Garden City, New York: Published for the American Museum of Natural History [by] the Natural History Press, 1969).
15
Resources and Environment, sufficiency underscores the understanding that
avoiding over-consumption is a necessary variable in being self-sufficient.13
However, sufficiency can be seen as a subjective definition, as the standard
of living and idea of overconsumption can vary greatly from person to
person, even amongst those within the same community.
CARRYING CAPACITY
Carrying capacity is a crucial concept to consider in measuring sustainability,
and is one way to quantify the concept of sufficiency. It adds to the
definition of sufficiency, defining the variables what goods are being
acquired, and who is acquire the goods. Carrying capacity is defined as the
maximum population of a species which a given area of land can support
indefinitely.14 The understanding that the resources used by the given
population does not cause major changes to the ecological functions is
therefore inherent to the term. Traditionally, carrying capacity applied to
animals in studies of natural sciences. However, it is a term that has
become increasingly discussed in planning, as most developed regions are
seen to be living beyond their carrying capacity.15
Joel E. Cohen states that measuring carrying capacity in a given areas is a
complex idea, and a single absolute number can never be concluded on.
Similar to the concept of sustainability, people have many different ideas of
what carrying capacity is, and calculating carrying capacity is both dynamic
13 Thomas Princen, The Logic of Sufficiency (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2005), 1-14.
14 Ann Dale, At the Edge: Sustainable Development in the 21st Century (Vancouver: The UBC Press, 2001), 176.
15 Mathis Wackernagel, Niels B. Schulz, Diana Deumling, Alejandro Callejas Linares, Martin Jenkins, Valerie Kapos, Chad Monfreda et al, "Tracking the ecological overshoot of the human economy," Proceedings of the national Academy of Sciences 99, no. 14 (2002): 9266-9271.
16
and depends on different cultural standards of living.16 While Cohen
suggests that carrying capacity should be quantified by many
considerations, others argue that there is a single determining factor, such
as Russell Hopfenberg, who argues that the population is dependent on the
availability of food.17 However Hopfenberg also alludes to the fact that the
availability of food is also dependent on a number of other variables such as
available water resources, soil composition, and type of crop being grown.
Because human needs also incorporate qualitative factors as standards of
living, a theoretical approach can also be taken to examining carrying
capacity. It can be expanded to include factors such as cultural, political,
and other sociological needs.18 In order to formulate an appropriate
carrying capacity for a community, these variables must also be considered.
ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT
Sufficiency can be further expanded upon by the term ecological footprint.
An ecological footprint is also directly related to carrying capacity. It is the
measure of land that is required in order to sufficiently provide all necessary
resources for a person to live. Paul and Anne Ehrlich describe that an
ecological footprint, referred to here as impact (I), is a function of the
population (P) multiplied by sufficiency, referred to here as per capita
consumption (F). However, it should be noted that per capita consumption
today exceeds the bounds of sufficiency. This means that an increase in
either population or per capita consumption, or both, will result in a higher
16 Cohen, Joel E, "Population Growth and Earth's Human Carrying Capacity," Science 269, no. 5222 (1995): 341-46. Accessed April 17, 2015, http://www.econ.yale.edu/~nordhaus/homepage/documents/CohenScience_carrying_cap_001.pdf.
17 Hopfenberg, Russell, "Human Carrying Capacity Is Determined By Food Availability," Population and Environment 25, no. 2 (2003): 109-17.
18 Ann Dale, At the Edge: Sustainable Development in the 21st Century (Vancouver: The UBC Press, 2001), 180.
17
impact on the environment.19 While this concept may seem relatively
straightforward, it is still largely ignored. This means that in order to lower
our impact, we must either lower our population, or our per capita
consumption. Ehrlich also discusses the idea of technology as a way to
decrease the effect of per capita consumption. In theory, this seems like a
logical idea. However, L.M. Rees argues that technology and trade has
actually proven to increase our consumption rates. The convenience
provided through technological efficiency and global trade, have caused
false notions of surplus, leading humans to become unaware of their actual
impact on the environment. The ability to obtain foreign goods at low costs
no longer requires environmental consideration at the local level, and a
mindset that our and carrying capacity can be endlessly increased has been
adopted.20 Increasing the population of an area must not make it exceed its
carrying capacity. If this happens, one of two things must take place; either
the per capita impact must decrease, or the population must decrease.
TRIPLE BOTTOM LINE
Kenny and Meadowcroft discuss a paradigm shift in the complex term
sustainability, arguing it does not only “consider everything in relation to
nature”21, as widely viewed by the public. Today, sustainability takes on a
much more holistic approach, which also considers balancing ecological
concerns with social and economic aspects. This idea is widely known as
the triple-bottom line approach. The triple bottom-line was first explored by
renown economist John Elkington, who realized that the social bottom-line is
dependent on the financial bottom-line, and that likewise, the financial
19 Paul R. Ehrlich and Anne H. Ehrlich, Population Resources Environment: Issues in Human Ecology (San Francisco, CA.: W.H. Freeman, 1970), 259.
20 William E. Rees, "Revisiting Carrying Capacity: Area-based Indicators Of Sustainability," Population and Environment 17, no. 3 (1996): 195-215.
21 Michael Kenny and James Meadowcroft, eds, Planning Sustainability (London: Routledge, 1999), 4.
18
bottom-line is dependent greatly on the environmental bottom-line.22 Saha
and Paterson, who refer to this approach as ‘the three E’s,23 also examine
multiple case studies on how governments have attempted to classify
development issues in relation to the three E’s. The ‘triple bottom line’, or
‘three E’s’ approach is a holistic and multi-disciplinary way of measuring
sustainability. These three factors have become the bottom line of human
survival, and new measure of carrying capacity
GREEN BUILDING CERTIFICATION PROGRAMS
Green have been It may be influential in gaining awareness and recognition.
L.E.E.D and the Living Community Challenge initiatives claim that their
certification programs constitute the “greenest” building standards. They
provide good benchmark indicators and provide a platform to promote,
share and progress sustainable mindsets. Such certification programs, by
no means, automatically render buildings sustainable, and there are many
criticisms. However, a unique approach to these certification programs, as
made possible by Hawai`i’s unique conditions, could bring unforeseen
recognition worldwide.
22 John Elkington, Cannibals with Forks, The Triple Bottom Line of 21st Century Business (Gabriola Island, Canada: New Society Publishers, 1998), 69-96.
23 Saha, Devashree, and Robert Paterson. "Local Government Efforts to Promote the "Three Es" of Sustainable Development: Survey in Medium to Large Cities in the United States." Journal of Planning Education and Research 28, no. 21 (2008): 21-37. Accessed January 14, 2015. http://jpe.sagepub.com/.
Figure 2 : Hawai`i Prep Academy Energy Lab1
"Hawai`i Prep Academy Energy Lab" Living Building Challenge, last modified 2015, http://living-future.org/case-study/hpaenergylab.
19
AVOIDING SPRAWL
Sprawl is the embodiment of the American culture of consumerism and
excess, and is often perceived to be the ultimate adversary to sustainable
land-use. It is one of the most widely recognized land-use problems, most
certainly by those in the planning and architecture fields, but also amongst
some members of the general public. As defined by Delores Hayden, sprawl
is unplanned, unregulated, careless development which takes over land and
resources. According to Hayden, sprawl is not only “environmentally
unsustainable and fiscally shortsighted”, but it also is “socially destructive”.24
It is primarily driven by construction, banking, real estate industries seeking
quick economic gains and completely negates social and environmental
concerns.
4 Causes of Sprawl According to Delores Hayden, the government actually helps to encourage
sprawl through housing and development subsidies. There are four
government programs which are widely seen to naturally advancing sprawl.
These government issued subsidies are aimed at boosting construction jobs
and developing raw land.25
1. The first is Federal Housing Administration (FHA) insurance for mortgages 2. The second is Federal income tax deductions for home mortgage interest,
points, and property taxes 3. Third is federal corporate tax deductions called accelerated depreciation for
Greenfield commercial real estate 4. Fourth is federal funding for highways
While sprawl suggests an indiscriminate and unplanned explosion of growth,
there have been several distinct planning models that recognize the
importance of creating limits and bounds for development.
24 Dolores Hayden, A Field Guide to Sprawl (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2004), 7-10.
25 Ibid, 7-10.
20
DISCUSSION
With the continually expanding concept of sustainability, new policies and
approaches are being explored by designers and policy makers. The
literature review conducted shows that there is no single definition of
sustainability. It is also not a single fixed goal or target achievement.
Rather, sustainability is a measurement of multiple varying concepts, whose
standards can be highly subjective, and therefore should be further defined
by communities to formulate specific development goals. The concepts
reviewed in the literature review have accomplished the objective of defining
what factors make up sustainability. Each community will need to further
define what these factors mean to them. There will undoubtedly be
differences in opinions, and trade-offs will be unavoidable. The complex
task in achieving sustainability expands the traditional role of architect and
planner, who must now consider many more layers of how their work
impacts society and how architecture takes on a larger role in its
surroundings.
21
SECTION III RESEARCH FINDINGS
22
A SUSTAINABLE HAWAIIAN MINDSET
“To be a state of pono is to invoke the path of ancestral understanding, which is achieved only by being willing to
be open to the source of ancestral knowledge. An individual must place their trust in the guide of ancestral
knowledge for it will reveal understanding never comprehended in sole intellectual pursuits.”
-Mark Kāwika McKeague,26 2005
The Hawaiian Islands, collectively, are the most isolated land masses in the
world. A total awareness of this isolation allowed Native Hawaiian settlers to
flourish for centuries. As the Hawaiian civilization progressed over time, they
were guided by an absolute awareness that a continued existence on remote
islands with limited resources was dependent on their respect and
stewardship of the land that supported them. The Native Hawaiian
inhabitants developed a unique lifestyle where daily practices symbiotically
responded to their natural surroundings. Examining these mindsets reveal
an intrinsic culture of sustainability and the ability to thrive within their own
microcosm.
LŌKAHI
The concept of lōkahi shows the intimate connection that Hawaiians felt with
the land and natural surroundings, and the role they believed they played
within everything of the known universe, physical and spiritual. In order for
the world to be in a state of lōkahi, all things in existence must be
26 McKeague, Mark Kāwika, “I Loko o Nā Kipona o Ke Kuli: The Accession Beyond Legal Boundaries” (Department of Urban and Regional Planning Area of Concentration Paper, University of Hawai`i at Mānoa, 2005), 2-6.
23
harmoniously balanced, with kanaka (man), akua (natural gods), and `āina
(land/nature) forming the cornerstones of the universe.27
To Hawaiians, a continual existence on the islands could only be achieved
through an equitable and intertwined connection of kanaka, akua, and `āina.
This frame of mind gives similar understanding to that of the triple bottom line approach. Both
viewpoints realize that man is not separate of earth or its functions, but integrally connected, and plays a vital role in the cycling of energy. It is also understood that man must strive to
play a balanced part in this universal continuum. (See Figure 3 : Lōkahi and the Triple Bottom Line
Source: Author)
27 George S. Kanahele, Kū Kanaka, Stand Tall: A Search for Hawaiian Values (Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press, 1986), 152-55.
Figure 3 : Lōkahi and the Triple Bottom Line
Source: Author
24
Akua Existential values of Hawaiian culture were manifested through the extensive
ancestral beliefs that were developed through time. Hawaiian beliefs and
rituals reflected their brilliance in understanding the environment and allowed
them to make climatic and ecological connections that transcend many
modern-day scientific studies. Natural elements, from physical plant and
animals, to climatic behaviors including wind and rains, were believed to be
embodiments of ancestral gods. When gods were manifested in these
physical forms, they were referred to as kinolau,28 and were viewed as
spiritual guides that were provided to kanaka for subsistence in everyday
life. Not only was this a way to comprehend the precise observations of the
environment, but it was also a way to instill the information for future
generations. Professor of ethnic studies and historian of Hawai`i and the
Pacific, Davianna Pōmaika`i McGregor, describes the intimate connection of
Hawaiians to the life forces of nature. Ancestral akua were cherished
through mythologies and their important values were thereby eternalized for
future generations.29 The continued presence of akua allowed Hawaiians to
be guided by ancestral knowledge encoded within their stories.
`Āina Today, `āina is usually roughly translated as land, but this is a simplified
meaning which undermines the relationship that Hawaiians had to the land
and its resources. Hawaiians were a resource based economy. They did
not have any monetary or capitalist system, and relied on the `āina to provide
means of living. When the term `āina is broken down, its true significance is
28 E. S. Craighill Handy, Elizabeth Green Handy, and Mary Kawena Pukui, Native Planters in Old Hawaii: Their Life, Lore, and Environment (Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1972), 23.
29 Davianna Pōmaika`I McGregor, Nā Kua'āina Living Hawaiian Culture, (Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 2007), 12-14.
25
revealed. ` Āi meaning to feed, with the nominalizing suffix na,30 reveals the
translation as that which feeds. Practices of mālama`āina (care for the land),
and aloha `āina (love, respect, for the land) are close translations to interpret
the traditional understanding that Hawaiians viewed of `āina as their source
of sustenance and survival. As understood by Hawaiians, the land is, in
itself, an entity, and was not owned but communal.31 The disconnection
Hawaiians to their ancestral lands can also cause a disconnect of cultural
identity, and therefore, a loss of ancestral knowledge. Edward L.K. Kanahele
explains the important relationship that Native Hawaiians feel toward their
land. He describes a ‘spiritual wisdom’ that gives an innate sense of identity
to Native Hawaiians, but can only be felt with a close relationship of land and
place.32
TRANSFERING KNOWLEDGE
Mana Mana, or spiritual energy, is what bounded the intimate connection between
akua, kanaka, and `āina. It was believed that everything possessed and
emanated mana , a common belief throughout many Polynesian cultures.
When Hawaiians chose a term to translate religion into the context of
western understanding, they chose the word ho`omana (which literally
translates to possessing mana,) 33 showing the understanding that their akua
(the gods which formed their religion) transferred energy and ancestral
knowledge to them. Mark Kāwika McKeague discusses the importance of
30 E. S. Craighill Handy, Elizabeth Green Handy, and Mary Kawena Pukui, Native Planters in Old Hawaii: Their Life, Lore, and Environment (Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1972), 18.
31 Marion Kelly, “Land Tenure in Hawai`i,” Amerasia 7, no. 2 (1980) : 57-73.
32 Edward Kanahele, “Foreword” in Ancient Sites of O`ahu : A Guide to Hawaiian Archaeological Places of Interest., Marion Kelly (Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1991).
33 George S. Kanahele, Kū Kanaka, Stand Tall: A Search for Hawaiian Values (Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press, 1986), 155-9.
26
the continuation of mana and the cycling of ancestral knowledge carried by
it. The proper burial of `iwi underscores the concept of ultimate cycling of
energy. Although the body may return back to the earth, the ` iwi will remain
and the mana it possess will stay forever as a guide for ancestral direction
for future generations.34 The same is true for all aspects of the `āina and
akua. A disconnection of Hawaiians from their land also means a
disconnection from the mana of their akua, and the ancestral knowledge
therein possessed.35
Oral traditions Because Hawaiians were an oral based culture, place names and terms were
given for important characteristics, and revealed a significance in their use
and meaning. However, many important place names are no longer used,
and many Hawaiian terms now translate to cater to American ideals. One
significant example is the understanding of the importance of wai, or fresh
water to their society’s survival. Traditionally, to express fortune, they used
the term waiwai. Settlements with the most access to fresh water were
considered waiwai, the closest translation wealth possessed by Hawaiians.36
However, today, it is often translated as capital and economic wealth. The
value of water fresh water that waiwai implies no longer are considered
significant. Such changes in language are symbolic of the changes seen in
the Hawaiian Islands today, from a society which carefully intertwined within
the natural world to ensure a self-sustaining existence, to one based on
34 McKeague, Mark Kāwika, “I Loko o Nā Kipona o Ke Kuli: The Accession Beyond Legal Boundaries” (Department of Urban and Regional Planning Area of Concentration Paper, University of Hawai`i at Mānoa, 2005), 2-9.
35 Edward Kanahele, “Foreword” in Ancient Sites of O`ahu : A Guide to Hawaiian Archaeological Places of Interest., Marion Kelly (Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1991).
36 Handy, E. S. Craighill. The Hawaiian Planter Volume I: His Plants, Methods and Areas of Cultivation. (Millwood, NY: Kraus Reprint, 1985), 128.
Reprinted with permission of the original Publisher. Originally published: Honolulu, Hawaii : Bernice P Bishop Museum, 1940. (Bernice P. Bishop Museum bulletin ; 161)
27
capitalism, expansion, and an indiscriminate approach to living within the
land.
Mo`olelo Hawaiians developed as an oral based civilization.37 Similar to other oral
based cultures, histories, knowledge, and conventional wisdom were passed
through generations by mythologies and divine beliefs, referred to by
Hawaiians as mo`olelo. Most mo`olelo were specifically place-based. Within
them, lessons, values, and traditions were encoded and perpetuated the
importance of maintaining cultural practices and traditions. Through
mo`olelo, the values of Hawaiian culture were passed on to future
generations. As George Hu`eu Sanford Kanahele so elegantly states:
“The language of myth is wrapped in metaphors, poetic images, similies, allegories, word play, or kaona--symbolism
that can convey the mystical experience through what we might call its ‘subliminal reach,’ that is, its ability to tap the
subconscious faculty of understanding.” 38
37 David Malo, Hawaiian Antiquities (Moolelo Hawaii), 2d ed. Honolulu, Hawaii: Bishop
Museum Press, 1951, 1-4. 38 Edward Kanahele, “Foreword” in Ancient Sites of O`ahu : A Guide to Hawaiian Archaeological Places of Interest., Marion Kelly (Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1991).
28
TRADITIONAL HAWAIIAN LAND-USE
LAND DIVISIONS
Ahupua`a and Carrying Capacity The ahupua`a is commonly referred to as the most important land division
within the Hawaiian land settlement patterns.39 The ahupua`a divisions were
the significant measurements to allocate resources and political oversight.
Taxes were also collected at the ahupua`a level. The ahupua`a land
divisions, and the social hierarchy which developed from it, was a way to
ensure that the populations were living within their carrying capacity. It was
intended that within each ahupua`a the population had the ability to
independently function and survive off the resources within it.
Within a defined ahupua`a, it was essential that there was an adequate water
source for drinking and cultivating food, as well as the basic living needs for
the population of the area to manage a reasonable living, such cultivars for
crafts, clothing, structures, and utilities.40 (See Figure 5 : Typical Ahupua`a)
There is some evidence of trade for items including vegetables, tapa, and
other various needs not available within Puna.41
39 E. S. Craighill Handy, Elizabeth Green Handy, and Mary Kawena Pukui, Native Planters in Old Hawaii: Their Life, Lore, and Environment (Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1972), 46-50.
Kepā Maly, “He Mo`olelo `Āina: A Cultural Study of the Pu`u Maka`ala Natural Area Reserve Districts of Hilo and Puna, Island of Hawai`i” (Cultural Assessment Study, Hilo Hawai`i, 2004), 6.
40 Samuel Manaiakalani Kamakau, The Works of the People of Old : Na Hana a Ka Po'e Kahiko (Honolulu, Hawaii: Bishop Museum Press, 1976), 6-7. E. S. Craighill Handy, Elizabeth Green Handy, and Mary Kawena Pukui, Native Planters in Old Hawaii: Their Life, Lore, and Environment (Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1972), 48-9.
Davianna Pōmaika`I McGregor, "An Introduction to the Hoa`āina and Their Rights," The Hawaiian
Journal of History 30 (1996): 6.
29
Although water was an important characteristic to contain within a typical
ahupua`a, not all had running streams of water features. The ahupua`a found
within Puna were such an example. The only ahupua`a with a significant
stream was the Kea`au ahupua`a. However, the ample rainfall throughout
the rest of Puna allowed for sufficient cultivation nevertheless.
It is also interesting that early records show that āina was sometimes used
interchangeably with the term ahupua`a.42 In this context, the true meaning
of `āina ,as that which feeds and devours43, takes on a very specific
meaning, and not one that is generalized with the entire understanding of
land itself. Each ahupua`a, when transplanted with the term `āina, was
understood to have a very place-based meaning of providing and giving
back.
42 Robert J. Hommon, The Ancient Hawaiian State (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2013), 13. 43 McKeague, Mark Kāwika, “I Loko o Nā Kipona o Ke Kuli: The Accession Beyond Legal Boundaries” (Department of Urban and Regional Planning Area of Concentration Paper, University of Hawai`i at Mānoa, 2005), 2-2.
30
SOCIAL HIERARCHY
The Hawaiian method of land divisions and settlement patterns were
fundamental in managing the resources within the land, allowing ruling chiefs
to carefully distribute the. The Hawaiian land division system and ahupua`a
were able to function only in conjunction with the social hierarchy that
accompanied it. Working in conjunction, the land divisions and political
oversight ensured that all populations within Hawaiian society were
sufficiently appropriated resources, and living within their carrying capacity.
Although political power was distributed through a pyramidal-like structure,
the approach was not one that was considered top-down. Instead,
members at the “top” of the hierarchy also relied upon a careful monitoring
of those who were at the “bottom”. (See Figure 4 : Social Structure of Land
Management)
Mō`ī and Ali`i Each major land division, usually mokupuni, or major Hawaiian island, was
managed by a single and absolute king, or Mō`ī. The Mō`ī was to carry out
the will of the akua, and was believed be a descendant of akua himself. He
was responsible for making all major decisions that affected the well-being
of his mokupuni, including food production, warfare, taxes, and religious
duties.44 He also appointed ali`i or chiefs, allocating management through
the subsequent levels of the land division system to ensure proper oversight.
Konohiki and Maka`āinana The konohiki were the class of ali`i who were responsible for overseeing work
and resources at the ahupua`a level. They worked directly with the
maka`āinana, or commoners, who did the physical labor of cultivating the
44 David Malo, Hawaiian Antiquities (Moolelo Hawaii). 2d edition, (Honolulu, Hawaii: Bishop Museum Press, 1951), 52-54.
31
land. Konohiki were not necessarily from the ahupua`a to which they
appointed by the Mō`ī, and were expected to be fair and equitable in the
overseeing maka`āinana45 Maka`āinana were afforded the peace of mind
that they would be provided all necessary resources to live, including food,
animals and clothing, as long as they contributed to the work of the land. 46
Figure 4 : Social Structure of Land Management
45 Donald D. Kilolani Mitchell, Resource Units in Hawaiian Culture, (Honolulu, HI: Kamehameha
Schools Press, 1992) 250-260. 46 David Malo, Hawaiian Antiquities (Moolelo Hawaii). 2d ed. (Honolulu, Hawaii: Bishop Museum
Press, 1951), 63.
Lilikalā Kame'eleihiwa, Native Land and Foreign Desires: Ko Hawaiʻi ʻāina a Me Nā Koi Pu�umake a Ka Po�e Haole (Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1992).
32
Figure 5 : Typical Ahupua`a
Luciano Minerbi, "Indigenous Management Models and Protection of the Ahupua`a," Social Process in Hawai`i 39 (199): 208-25.
33
Figure 6 : Moku O Hawai`i
Figure 7 : Ahupua`a O Puna
34
Summary of Major Land Divisions
Sources: David Malo, Hawaiian Antiquities (Moolelo Hawaii). 2d ed. (Honolulu, Hawaii: Bishop Museum Press, 1951). Samuel Manaiakalani Kamakau, The Works of the People of Old : Na Hana a Ka Po'e Kahiko (Honolulu,
Hawaii: Bishop Museum Press, 1976), 6-8. Jon M. Dyke, Who Owns the Crown Lands of Hawaii? (Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press, 2008), 13.
Robert J. Hommon, The Ancient Hawaiian State (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2013), 13-22.. Davianna Pōmaika`I McGregor, Nā Kua'āina Living Hawaiian Culture, (Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press,
2007), 15-28.
Figure 8 : Land Divisions
35
SUFFICIENCY SYSTEMS
Applying Mindsets to Sufficiency The first ancient settlers to Hawai`i arrived at around the first century A.D.,
and were supplied only with what they could carry on double hulled canoes,
which sustained them for month-long voyages from Tahiti.
As they began to inhabit the Hawaiian Islands, they applied their
understanding of their universe, planting the seeds of their knowledge on
cosmology, climatology, and ecology, the roots of their culture and beliefs.
By the time the first European sailors arrived, the complex yet efficient use of
land was noted. Captain Cook himself praised the Hawaiians for their
sophistication and ingenuity shown in agricultural practices, even in
comparison to other indigenous island nations he had previously witnessed
and closely observed.47 It is also noteworthy that Puna was once thought to
have been, at one time, “Hawai`i’s richest agricultural region”.48
Canoe Plants For Hawaiians, life revolved around food cultivation, subsistence practices
gave way to a masterful approach to sufficiently supply the populations. The
early settlers who voyaged to Hawai`i did not come unplanned. Since there
were very little natural food sources, they began to carry with them on their
voyages plants and animals. These resources were picked for the ability to
provide subsistence, with the intention to cultivate once at their destinations,
but it was also used as a supply on their long voyages. They brought pigs,
47 Andrew W Lind, An Island Community; Ecological Succession in Hawaii (Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press, 1938) 24-6.
48 Handy, E. S. Craighill. The Hawaiian Planter Volume I: His Plants, Methods and Areas of Cultivation. (Millwood, NY: Kraus Reprint, 1985), 128.
Reprinted with permission of the original Publisher. Originally published: Honolulu, Hawaii : Bernice P Bishop Museum, 1940. (Bernice P. Bishop Museum bulletin ; 161)
36
dogs and chickens which they could breed, as well as important staple
foods including taro, sweet potato, banana shoots, breadfruit, yams, kawa
and ipu. These plants are commonly referred to “canoe plants”.49 Many of
these plants continued to be extensively cultivated throughout the 19th and
20th centuries, although undoubtedly diminishing over time.
49 Alan C. Ziegler, Hawaiian Natural History, Ecology, and Evolution (Honolulu, Hawaii: University of Hawai'i Press, 2002), 322.
37
CHANGES IN LAND TENURE
“What is not so clear is whether or not Hawai`i will
continue to be able to sustain future population growth and the kinds of economic development that have
occurred in the past few decades, and still remain, in essential ways, Hawai`i. Change can no longer be
measured in the course of what happens in one generation. The rapid rate of Hawai`i’s economic
ʻprogress’ seems to have compressed several lifetimes of change into the forty-year period since Hawai`i became a
state in 1959.”
Dana Naone Hall50, 2004
After Hawai`i’s introduction to the western world, the Hawaiian civilization
underwent drastic changes occurring in rapid fashion. The interaction with
sailors coming from all corners of the world brought many diseases, which
Hawaiians had never been exposed to. Populations across the islands were
decimated, a crisis which early Christian missionaries used to convert many
Hawaiians away from their traditional religions. The traditional ahupua`a
systems were largely abandoned, and Hawaiian ways of life were forever
changed.
COLONIZATION OF HAWAI`I
Immediately after the discovery of Hawai`i to the western world, it became a
stop for trade, mostly fur traders between the Pacific Northwest and China.
The sandalwood trade proved to weaken the subsistence economy in
Hawai`i as the workforce, controlled by the ali`i, shifted manpower away from
50 Dana Naone Hall, “Preserving Hawai`i as a Hawaiian Place,” in Islands In Captivity: The Record of
the International Tribunal on the Rights of Indigenous Hawaiians, ed. Ward Churchill et al. (Cambridge: South End Press, 2004), 256.
38
cultivating food, and into harvesting sandalwood. Many natives were forced
to forgo their traditional lifestyle of cultivation to support the sandalwood
trade, and new economic system. It was evident to early European sailors
that Hawaiians were unfamiliar with normal trade and export processes and
values. Often times, sandalwood, which sailors turned over for huge profits
in China, was unfairly traded in turn for items of virtually no value. The
culminating result of the sandalwood trade was a Hawaiian society that was
indebted to the foreign capitalism system, and faced with famine.51
During the early 1800’s, whaling was one of the biggest industries in the
world, as oil was the main source of lighting at the time. Honolulu was the
best port for whalers en route, and Hawai`i saw increasing numbers of
foreigners stopping on its coasts to stock up on supplies during trips over
the Pacific. This not only changed the function of the society, but also the
patterns of development, as port cities grew, and influxes of foreign
populations arrived. Honolulu grew quickly, doubling in size between 1820
and 1840, causing economic activity to increase. Many businesses, houses,
public buildings, schools, churches were established. Many westerners
realized the potential investment opportunities in Hawai`i, and incessantly
fought to alienate its land.
1848 Māhele The Māhele introduced concepts that were likely incomprehensible to native
Hawaiians in 1848. It served to be one of the definitive signs which showed
the ahupua`a systems, as systems for managing land, were replaced by
individual management of privately owned land. All Native Hawaiians were
provided the opportunity to own their own land, which was a completely
foreign concept, but in order to obtain this right, Native Hawaiians had to
travel to more inhabited towns, and go through a complicated legal process.
51 Noel J. Kent, Hawaii, Islands under the Influence (Honolulu, Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press,
1993) 17-20.
39
By the deadline given to undergo this process, many tracts remained
unclaimed by Hawaiians. Puna saw the lowest amount of land awards given
during the māhele, 311,754 acres of Crownlands were awarded to chiefs
who were not from the Puna moku, and only 3 Kuleana claims were given to
commoners. Davianna Pōmaika`i discusses four possible reasons for the
extreme low amount of land claims:52
1. Puna’s extreme isolation may have caused a delay, or possibly even
complete lack, in the passing of information. With most of Puna’s population living in on the isolated southeast coast, travel was limited to the port city of Hilo.
2. Puna’s Hawaiian residents did not earn enough money to afford the necessary provisions required to make a claim. Subsistence practices endured longer in Puna than in most Hawai`i regions. Economic activity at the time very was limited, and any existing commerce was largely unprofitable.
3. Volcanic activity, physically unfit lands, or spiritual reverence for pelehonuamea caused Hawaiians to purposefully reject their offered claims.
4. Claims were submitted were done so after the deadline set. This also may be due to the isolation of Puna, and the long distance that Hawaiians in this area would have to travel. After the 1848 deadline, 526 claims were submitted, and in 1951, a petition was filed to consider late claims.
Additionally, the very concept of land ownership was an unfamiliar concept
for Hawaiians, and the complex process for making a claim may have
deterred many commoners. At the time, the consequences of not filing
claims may not have been perceived as a huge threat, although in hindsight,
the true implications that panned out since would be unfathomable to
Hawaiians living in that era.
52 Davianna Pōmaika`I McGregor, Nā Kua'āina Living Hawaiian Culture, (Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 2007), 158-166.
40
The unclaimed land proved to be a vital asset in the development of Hawai`i
down the line, as these lands were later made available for ownership to
future foreign investors. With 260,878 acres of land unclaimed, and
available to foreigners, traditional practices of subsistence living were unable
to be upheld after 1848. This marked the final dissolution of the traditional
way of life, as there were no konohiki to oversee production, leaving the
ahupua`a abandoned.
AGRICULTURE
The Reciprocity Treaty of 1875 In 1874, King Kālakaua became the first elected Hawaiian monarch. He was
quickly faced with mounting political pressures from foreigners wanting to
acquire land. Less than a year into his rein, he signed the Reciprocity
Treaty, which made Hawai`i a major player in the global economy, and
proved to be one of the major factors in Hawai`i’s transformation. It was
enacted on September 9, 1876, and established exclusive free trade
agreements with the United States, which Hawai`i’s economy was now
bound to. The economic infrastructure created through the Reciprocity
treaty enabled Hawai`i-produced sugar to dominate the world market, after
decades of relatively small-scale production.53 However, as Noel J. Kent
describes, it caused Hawai`i to focus its full attention on the production of
sugar, and “precluded Hawaii’s ability to develop into an autonomous, self-
directed, somewhat self-sustaining economic entity.”54
53 Ralph Simpson Kuykendall and Arthur Grove. Day, Hawaii: A History from Polynesian Kingdom to
American State, Revised Edition, Englewood Cliffs: N.J., 1962. 54 Noel J. Kent, Hawaii, Islands under the Influence (Honolulu, Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press,
1993) 47.
41
The notorious “Big 5”, who had been producing sugar on the islands for
decades before, were elevated to a level of economic supremacy. They
began to establish banks, insurance companies, and railways, monopolizing
many sectors of Hawai`i’s economy. With the isolation from banking entities
that oversaw the economy of the mainland U.S., the Big 5 dominated control
over much of Hawai`i’s land and development, an attainment that is still
evident in the 21st century.
Immigrant Workers As the sugar industry in Hawai`i exponentially grew, huge immigrant
populations were brought as laborers to tend the fields. After the signing of
the Reciprocity Treaty, the total population in Hawai`i grew from 55,000
people in 1876 to 154,000 people in 1900. In 1876, approximately 90% of
Hawai`i’s population were full or part Native Hawaiian, but by 1900, the
Hawaiian population only accounted for approximately 26% of the
population.55
Although considerable later than the statewide immigration movement, a
huge jump in population can be seen in Puna immediately after the
establishment of the Puna Sugar Company in 1900. The Puna Sugar
Company and sugar growers on Hawai`i Island brought immigrants from
Japan, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines. Throughout the islands, many
towns started to develop around sugar plantations, including Kea`au and
Pāhoa. Small business were established to support the immigrant
settlements.56
55 Jon M. Van Dyke, Who Owns the Crown Lands of Hawaii? (Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press, 2008), 131-144.
56 Davianna Pōmaika`I McGregor, Nā Kua'āina Living Hawaiian Culture, (Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 2007), 167-169.
42
The masses of immigrants not only changed the social dynamics at the
ground level, but also at the constitutional level, as immigrants who became
naturalized citizens were allowed to vote on affairs in the Kingdom of
Hawai`i.
43
Agricultural Activity in Puna
Figure 9 : Agricultural Products in Puna
Sources: E. S. Craighill Handy, The Hawaiian Planter Volume I: His Plants, Methods and Areas of Cultivation. (Millwood, NY: Kraus Reprint, 1985).
Davianna Pōmaika`I McGregor, Nā Kua'āina Living Hawaiian Culture, (Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 2007), 167-169.
44
Source: Coulter, John W. “Land Utilization in the Hawaiian Islands,” University of Hawai`i Research Publication, no. 8 (1933): 29.
Source: Coulter, John W. “Land Utilization in the Hawaiian Islands,” University of Hawai`i Research Publication, no. 8 (1933): 28.
Figure 10 : 1906 Coulter Map
Figure 11 : 1930 Couter Map
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ç
45
POLITICAL REFORMS
“The booming financial and real estate activity has left little time to reflect on the current growth-led model for Hawai`i, its appropriateness, present affordability, and
long-term sustainability. An examination must be made to see whether basic needs are met and whether the island
ecology is protected in the quest for suitable jobs and affordable housing for local people.”
Luciano Minerbi57, 1994
REPRESSION OF THE HAWAIIAN KINGDOM
The overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom came at a particularly interesting
time of changing American values. Distinguished professor of Modern
History, Gary Cross, explains that by the turn of the twentieth century, the
American Landscape had been thoroughly vanquished. The exploitation of
the American landscape caused America to be the “richest country in human
history”, and standards of living were greatly lifted.58 There was nothing
unattainable, as long as you could produce the money. A focus of wants
took over the focus of needs. The consumer culture was rising, and Hawai`i
had great potential to invest in.
1887 Bayonet Constitution The success seen after the Reciprocity treaty proved to increase foreign
interest in permanent control of Hawai`i’s land. The 1887 Constitution
greatly infringed upon the power of the Hawaiian monarchy, and paved the
57 Luciano Minerbi, “Sustainability Versus Growth in Hawai`i,” Social Process in Hawai`i
35, (1994) : 148. 58 Gary S. Cross, An All-consuming Century Why Commercialism Won in Modern America (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 2000), 17.
46
way to eventual American control of Hawai`i.59 The “Hawaiian League”, a
group consisting of westerners and plantation owners, was led by Lorrin A.
Thurston. They opposed Hawaiian Nationalism with the interest of
expanding their own economic interests. With hundreds of supporters, as
well as the backing of the “Hawaiian Rifles”, who were deployed around
Honolulu, the Hawaiian League imposed the 1887 Constitution, which was
reluctantly signed by King Kālakaua in order to avoid any violent conflict. 60
This was later referred to as the “Bayonet Constitution”, and drastically
reduced the executive power of the monarchy.
Under the Bayonet Constitution, the king no longer had the ability to appoint
his executive cabinet, the House of Nobles. Instead, they were elected into
office by voters who were required to either own a minimum of $3,000
taxable property, or have an annual income of at least $600, among other
still requirements. Under these requirements, the ability of the Hawaiian
population to vote for their own representatives in the House of Nobles was
cut in half. Only non-native voters of American or European descent could
vote, and Asian citizens were not able to vote, although under previously
established constitutions they could.61
After the Bayonet Constitution, the Reciprocity Treaty was also renewed and
amended to give the U.S. outright control of Pearl Harbor. This had been a
goal of Hawaiian League supporters for some time, as it allowed them
further military backing. Hawaiians clearly recognized this as a threat to their
sovereignty, and previous to the Bayonet Constitution, was something that
59 Jon M. Van Dyke, Who Owns the Crown Lands of Hawaii? (Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press, 2008), 145-149.
60 Ralph Simpson Kuykendall and Arthur Grove. Day, Hawaii: A History from Polynesian Kingdom to American State, Revised Edition, (Englewood Cliffs: N.J., 1962), 169-173. 61 Jon M. Van Dyke, Who Owns the Crown Lands of Hawaii? (Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press, 2008), 145-149.
47
King Kālakaua, firmly denounced.62 Kālakaua enduringly pursued an
overturn of the 1887 Bayonet Constitution, exercising all powers that he
retained, and uniting all Hawaiians who still supported him. He continued to
make progress against the imperious reform party until his abrupt passing
on January 20, 1891 while in San Francisco. 63
1893 Overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom Queen Lili`uokalani, was the first female Hawaiian ruler, and successor to
Kālakaua. She was also his sister. Along with the Hawaiian crown, she also
inherited the same unrelenting pressures seeking annexation of Hawai`i to
the United States. Like her predecessor, she carried on the efforts to restore
autonomy to the Hawaiian people amid revolutionist opposition, proposing
constitution to give back the ability to appoint cabinet members. However,
annexation parties gained momentous support of the U.S. House of
Representatives. In 1889, U.S Minister John L. Stevens arrived in Hawai`i
with the intent to aggressively carry out the annexation goals supported by
the U.S. With 160 armed U.S. troops surrounding `Iolani Palace, the Queen
forfeited all executive powers to a U.S. Provisional Government. She did so
with the belief that she would be presented the opportunity to regain control,
and like Kālakaua, Lili`uokalani endlessly fought to regain Hawaiian rights
with little effect. Even the support of President Grover Cleveland did little to
reverse the illegal overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom, as Hawai`i
progressively transformed under control of the U.S. The Provisional
Government eventually gave way to the Republic of Hawai`i, annexation,
territory status, and eventual U.S. state. 64
62 Noel J. Kent, Hawaii, Islands under the Influence (Honolulu, Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press,
1993) 53-55. 63 Ralph Simpson Kuykendall and Arthur Grove. Day, Hawaii: A History from Polynesian Kingdom to
American State, Revised Edition, (Englewood Cliffs: N.J., 1962), 169-173. 64 Jon M. Van Dyke, Who Owns the Crown Lands of Hawaii? (Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press, 2008), 151-171.
48
The Māhele, Reciprocity Treaty, Bayonet Constitution, and overthrow of the
Hawaiian Kingdom was aimed to eventually allowed foreigners to buy, sell,
and develop land in Hawai`i. With the formation of Republic of Hawai`i in
1894, all previous land agreements were super-ceded, including the 1865
Statute, which recognized the Crown Lands as inalienable. Land that
remained unclaimed after the Māhele was eventually made available to be
exploited for capital ventures, mostly agricultural purposes, which changed
the landscape and the way land was thought of.
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
Post war America saw a huge bump in consumer sales, an increase of 20%
in just one year after WWII.65 The economy was now driven by consumer
spending. At the time of statehood in 1959, and into the 1960, the sugar
industry in Hawai`i gradually declined. Pineapple industries were also
starting to see a significant decline as companies were beginning to look
outside of Hawai`i for cheaper labor.66 New methods of capital income were
needed. At this point, there was a shift in views about land use in Hawai`i
away from agricultural, and more toward serving the growing consumer
market.
Legislative Land Reform A series of legislative bills in the 1960’s raised taxes on large land owners,
who were still using land primarily for large scale agricultural purposes.
Taxes were raised on large landowners, who then began to phase out
agriculture activities and develop their lands into subdivisions where land
was either sold or leased. Newly subdivided lands were reclassified, and
65 Gary S. Cross, An All-consuming Century Why Commercialism Won in Modern America (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 2000), 75-92.
66 Noel J. Kent, Hawaii, Islands under the Influence (Honolulu, Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press, 1993) 144-6.
49
prices were determined according to their “highest and best use” for
economic gains to the state. Development of these lands would be focused
around capitalize on the growing tourism industry.67
The advancement of Hawai`i’s economic development agenda was largely
intensified under the candidacy of three-term Governor John Burns, an
active member of the democratic reform party. He campaigned with the
vision of turning Hawai`i into the trade and economic focal point of the
Pacific, and the connection between U.S. and Asia. Under Burns’ term,
Hawai`i saw many public development projects on all islands, which adhered
to the political momentum regarding development practices first initiated
with the democratic land reforms and statehood.68
Economic Maladies Luciano Minerbi argues that pointless economic growth does not inhibit an
equitable or sustainable future in Hawai`i. Conversely, it only “mechanically
responds” to needs of developers and does not address such social issues
of local jobs, affordable housing, cultural and environmental degradation, or
quality of life for residents.69 This was made clear as Governor John Burns’
push for Hawai`i industrialization was short lived, and by the mid-1970’s,
economic growth had nearly stagnated at under 1%, causing huge
unemployment and welfare rates. State spending and debt became of
prominent concern, and the cost of living was up to 25% higher than the
67 George Cooper and Gavan Daws, Land and Power in Hawaii: The Democratic Years (Honolulu: Benchmark Books, 1985), 35-85. 68 Noel J. Kent, Hawaii, Islands under the Influence (Honolulu, Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press, 1993) 140-63.
69 Luciano Minerbi, “Sustainability Versus Growth in Hawai`i,” Social Process in Hawai`i 35, (1994) : 145-160.
50
U.S.70 Industrial innovations also displaced many plantation workers, such
as those in the Puna Sugar company, who went out of business in the 1982.
Tourism A large part of the development after the 1960’s land reforms was focused
on capitalizing on the growing tourism in Hawai`i. On the Big Island,
Governor Burns focused tourism development in Kona. Today Kona still
remains a dominant target for Big Island tourism, with ever developing golf
courses, timeshares, and resorts. Puna also sees a steady stream of
tourists, who visit natural attractions such as hiking trails in the unique
rainforests and the lava flows in Kalapana. There is also a large market for
vacation rentals, many of which are concentrated near the Kapoho area.
However, many of advertised vacation rentals function without proper
licenses, so exact figures can’t currently be determined.
70 Noel J. Kent, Hawaii, Islands under the Influence (Honolulu, Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press, 1993) 140-63.
51
SOCIO-CULTURAL DYNAMICS
“The beauty of these natural kīpuka is not only their ability to resist and withstand destructive forces of change, but also their ability to regenerate life on the barren lava that
surrounds them.”
Davianna Pōmaika`i McGregor,71 2007
CULTURAL KĪPUKA
Throughout the changes that many places in Hawai`i experienced
throughout the mid 1900’s, Puna’s vast and isolated landscape allowed it to
be relatively low on the priority of developers. The Hawaiians in Puna, and
other similar isolated rural areas throughout Hawai`i, were able to maintain
the close relationship with the land they live on. Cultural identity was
maintained through continued traditional practices, including subsistence
food production and cultural gathering in the Natural Landscapes.
These few cultural strongholds of Hawaiian practices and lifestyle are
referred to as a ‘cultural kīpuka’72 by Native Hawaiian practitioner and
professor of ethnic studies at the University of Hawai‘i, Davianna McGregor
who conducted extensive ethnographic surveys in such regions. Within
these cultural kīpuka, distinct populations choose to live practicing the
traditional models of subsistence living.
The significance of this term is derived from natural kīpuka, which are
patches or “islands” of forest that is left intact as the surrounding landscape
is covered by lava. These resilient kīpuka are responsible for regenerating
71 Davianna Pōmaika�i McGregor, Nā Kua ‘āina: Living Hawaiian Culture (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2007), 12-19.
72 Ibid.
52
entire tracts of native forests and their ecologies. The remaining Puna
forests, including Wao Kele O Puna, are part of a natural kīpuka, making this
region particularly important asset. The provisions of the natural and cultural
kīpuka in Puna have enabled Hawaiians, a way of life and sustenance that
resisted the dependence of capitalism.
However, pervasive and non-conforming development within Puna have
endangered the cultural rights and needs of those who continue to chose
the subsistence lifestyle. As development in Puna indiscriminately expands,
the constant destruction of natural and cultural resources threatens the
existence and functions of these important kīpuka.
Land Speculation in Puna In the Post-war era, a new age of consumerism was flourishing in mainland
America, and the notion of excess and luxury had fully taken over American
society.73 American citizens started to inhabit vast sub-divisions which
adhered to this culture the American car culture. In 1958, Puna also became
a victim to the “American Dream”. Two Denver businessmen partnered with
locally-based politicians and businessmen to purchase huge tracts of
undeveloped land which had little economic value to the state. These lands
were then subdivided into individual properties, usually 1-3 acres in size.
With incredibly low prices and a strategic marketing plan to mainland
buyers, many of these plots were quickly bought up, even though many
were without basic infrastructure. Approximately 80,000 lots were eventually
speculated by 1975, mostly in the Puna, Ka`u, and South Kona districts,
setting the population growth and development trends seen in these regions
today. 74
73 Gary S. Cross, An All-consuming Century Why Commercialism Won in Modern America (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 2000), 103-112.
74 George Cooper and Gavan Daws, Land and Power in Hawaii: The Democratic Years, (Honolulu, Hawaii: Benchmark Books, 1985), 259-277.
53
Figure 12 : Changing Population in Puna
Sources: Davianna Pōmaika`I McGregor, Nā Kua'āina Living Hawaiian Culture, (Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 2007), 167-169.
“Projection of Resident Population by District, Hawai`i County : 2000 to 2020” (Hawai`i County Census Data Base, 2006).
54
Figure 13 : Puna Subdivisions Figure 14 : Subdivided Lots
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55
CHANGING POPULATIONS
The availability of very cheap subdivided lots after land speculation have
caused a steady increase in population since, and individual lots continue to
be purchased ala carte. Notably, very few of the properties bought initially
went to Big Island residents. According to geographical surveys, an
approximate 57,200 properties of the 80,000 subdivided lots created in the
land speculation movement in Puna were purchased by outside residents
before 1975. This caused a drastically expanding population which quickly
outgrew the available resources and public provisions available.
Population Growth This trend continues on today, as rural areas across Hawai`i, are still seeing
many houses going to out of state residents. In Hawai`i county,
approximately 43.1% of the houses purchased between 2008 and 2015
were bought by out-of state residents. Kaua`i County and Maui County
experienced similar trends, where 45.4% and 52% of households were
purchased by out of state buyers, respectively.75
Puna is one of the most rapidly growing districts in the state and has seen a
steady 17% population increase every 5 years since 2000. If this trend
continues, the population 5 years from now, in the year 2020, the population
is estimated to grow to 58,246, an additional 8,445 people from today’s
population total of 49,801.76 (SeeFigure 12 : Changing Population in Puna)
Many district improvements have been undertaken to alleviate the affects of
rapid growth. With growing traffic concerns in Puna, there has been a major
focus on highway improvements to Kea`au-Pāhoa Road, the only byway
connecting the Lower Puna area to the rest of the island. Additional Road
networks have also been proposed. However, more proactive approaches
75 State of Hawai�i, Department of Business, Economic Development and Tourism, Research and Economic Analysis Division, Residential Home Sales in Hawaii, 2015.
76 “Projection of Resident Population by District, Hawai`i County : 2000 to 2020” (Hawai`i County
56
are needed, as retrospective actions have many times been forced to
tradeoff one unfavorable complication for another.
Cost of Living Out of state homebuyers have also aided in Hawai`i’s perpetual cost
inflation. According to Luciano Minerbi, speculative economic projections in
industries such as tourism, real estate development, military, and
agribusiness, have allowed simultaneous population and job growth. This
has created an economic system which must be maintained by continual
growth. However, while the economy in Hawai`i grew between the 1960’s
and 1990’s, the wages did not, and current dollars heavily outweighed
constant dollar projections.77 The wealth distribution gap has been
expanding since, and is sustained by a constant in-migration of workers with
higher skill sets and incomes who are better suited to take advantage of, and
invest in, economic trends.
Between the years 2008-2014, the average residential sales price was
$478,189. Out of state buyers paid a considerable amount more on
average. During the same period, mainland buyers, on average, spent
$630,390, an increase of $152,201(31.8%), while foreign buyers, on average,
spent $785,604, an increase of $307,415 (64.3%) compared to local home
buyers.78
Poverty Rates According to Hawai`i’s Department of Business, Economic Development &
Tourism (DBEDT), 5-year estimates taken from US census data show that
77 Luciano Minerbi, “Sustainability Versus Growth in Hawai`I,” Social Process in Hawai`i 35, (1994)
: 145-160. 78 State of Hawai�i, Department of Business, Economic Development and Tourism, Research and
Economic Analysis Division, Residential Home Sales in Hawaii, 2015.
57
the median household income in the Pahoa census tract is $29,821, with
33.6% of the population living in poverty. Comparatively, the median
household income in the state of Hawai`i and Hawai`i county is $67,402 and
$51,250 respectively, while the poverty rates of these areas are 11.4% and
19.5% respectively.
Homeless Hawai`i also has a severe homeless problem. As of February 2016, Hawai`i
had the largest homeless population per capita. In October 2015, Governor
David Ige declared an emergency declaration to address the homeless
situation.79 The efforts have primarily been in urban Honolulu, where effects
are clearly visible, and considered harmful to Hawai`i’s business and tourism
industries. Puna also has a large population of homeless, but the situation is
far less conspicuous, as many homeless individuals find refuge in the natural
forest, or squat in the many unoccupied plots.
Food With an approximate 360,000 acres of prime agricultural land in Puna, and a
climate which allows cultivation year-round, it is theoretically possible that
the population could be fully sustained by local agricultural activities.80
However, it is approximated that 85% of food consumed in Hawai`i is
shipped. The added transportation measures account for food prices that
are 25% higher on average than prices on the mainland U.S.81 There are 4
grocery stores in the Puna district; Foodland in Kea`au; Sure Save
Supermarket in the Orchidland Estates Subdivision; Malama Market in
79 Cathy Bussewitz, "Hawaii Extends Emergency Declaration to Fight Homelessness," Hawaii News
Now, February 23, 2016, Accessed February 23, 2016. http://www.hawaiinewsnow.com/story/31296585/hawaii-extends-emergency-declaration-to-fight- homelessness.
80 Ryan Kam, Estimating Carrying Capacity in Puna: The Importance in Rural Hawai`I, University of Hawai`i at Mānoa Department of Urban & Regional Planning, April 30, 2015.
81 Christina Page, Lionel Bony, and Laura Schewel, Island of Hawaii Whole System Project Phase I Report, Rocky Mountain Institute, 2007.
58
Pāhoa town center; and Island Naturals, also in Pāhoa. These four grocery
stores are the primary source for Puna’s estimated 50,000 residents to
acquire fresh foods. As populations grow in Puna, more land is at-risk, with
some lands classified for prime agricultural uses already being re-zoned to
build houses.82
Crime The district of Puna has one of the highest crime rates, not only on Big
Island or the state of Hawai`i, but also in the entirety of the United States.
When compared to other districts of similar size, violent crimes and property
crimes were exceptionally high.83 The Hawai`i Tribune Herald reported that
2013 showed record highs for both violent crimes and household crimes in
Hawai`i County, the later of which accounted for 90.6% of total crimes.
Citing the official report released by the state Attorney Generalʻs Research
and Statistics Branch, and Paul Perrone, the attorney general’s chief of
research and statistics, the article states that the high household numbers
could in part be due to the dispersed households and thick surrounding
vegetation.84
82 County of Hawai`i. Planning Department. "Public Notice: Workshops for Proposed Amendment
to the County of Hawai`i General Plan Land Use Pattern Allocation Guide (LUPAG) Map." News release. Accessed February 1, 2016. http://www.cohplanningdept.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/Keaau-GP- Amend-2015-Information-Packet.pdf.
83 "Crime Rates for Pahoa, HI." Neighborhood Scout. 2000-2016. Accessed February 30, 2016. http://www.neighborhoodscout.com/hi/pahoa/crime/.
Compiled from FBI and the U.S. Justice Department data and statistics 84 John Burnett, "Violent Crimes Hit New High," Hawaii Tribune Herald, August 2, 2015, Accessed
January 23, 2016. http://hawaiitribune-herald.com/news/local-news/violent-crimes-hit-new-high.
59
HAWAI`I’S UNIQUE ECOLOGIES
NATIVE SPECIES
It cannot be overstated how much the Hawaiian culture was integrally tied.
Before the widespread colonization to introducted species, many early to
mid 20th century studies conducted on Hawaiian plants concluded that
approximatedly 66-80% of plants in Hawaii were endemic, and found no
where else in the world. The large majority of the rest were indigenous.
The plants and animals are one of the main draws to Hawai`i.
Biomes The large number of native species found in Hawai`i is due both to the
isolation of the the Hawaiian archipelago, and to the unique terrain.
Part of the unique characteristics of the landscape in Hawai`i is that it posses
such a wide range of terrestrial zones, or biomes. Hawai`i posses a range of
biomes, from mesic forest, tropical forest, tundra.85 These zones are found
within a relatively small amount of space, whereas continental regions may
include only one biome classification for hundreds of miles.
Wao This means that an extensive and diverse range of natural material goods
were available to the Hawaiians, who delineated these zones accordingly.
The precise observation of varying zones was also integrally tied with the
functions of the ahupua`a system, as they understood the resources that
85 Alan C. Ziegler, Hawaiian Natural History, Ecology, and Evolution (Honolulu, Hawaii: University of Hawai'i Press, 2002), 105-6.
60
were afforded to them.86 Puna consists of mostly rainforest and mesic
forest. However, these zones are not typically highly productive for
cultivation using traditional methods, so in the old days, settlement occurred
primarily nearer to the coast. 87
PELE’S PRESENCE
Pelehonuamea, or Pele, goddess of fire, was traditionally held with particular
regard throughout the Hawaiian Islands. Her active presence in Kīlauea
volcano, one of the most active volcanoes in the world, meant that she was
particularly respected and revered Puna. The constant volcanic activity had
a considerable role in shaping the culture of Hawaiians, similar to many other
civilizations which lived in the vicinity of such eruptive power. They
recognized the dualistic ability of Pele to both create land, and destroy it.88
Pelehonuamea In traditional times, Pele was so respected, that many feared improper
worship and offerings to her might result in destructive consequence.89 Early
19th century explorer of the islands and missionary, William Ellis wrote in his
journal about the deep embedded deference of Natives toward Pele. Ellis
wrote of the unwillingness of Natives in the Puna area to trek too close to
certain areas of Kilauea, and freely eat ohelo berries. He described the
86 Kepā Maly, Mālama Pono I Ka `Āina: An Overview of the Hawaiian Cultural Landscape, Report,
2001.
87 Davianna Pōmaika�i McGregor, Nā Kua ‘āina: Living Hawaiian Culture (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2007), 12-19.
88 Jelle Boer and Donald Theodore Sanders, Volcanoes in Human History: The Far-reaching Effects of Major Eruptions, (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2002), 22-46.
89 David Malo, Hawaiian Antiquities (Moolelo Hawaii). 2d ed. (Honolulu, Hawaii: Bishop Museum Press, 1951), 116.
61
uneasiness displayed when he and his crew began to consume them without
first offering a tribute to Pele.90
Like many other aspects of Hawaiian culture that were deems mythological
beliefs, Pele actually revealed a distinct understanding of volcanic behavior
and knowledge of tectonic patterns. The story of Pele travelling across the
pacific to evade her sister, goddess of the sea, while stopping, forming
volcanic craters, and eventually creating the Hawaiian islands, actually
precisely reflected how the islands geologically formed over time.91
Absolute respect for Pele also meant respect for the land and animals.
Historic Lava Flows Pele is regarded as perhaps the only deity that has survived and worshiped
even after centuries of western contact.92 Kilāuea volcano is one of the most
active volcanoes in the world, and Pu`u O`o crater has repeatedly caused
unpredictable disruptions which, at times, have directly affected residents
and nearby communities.
90 William Ellis, Journal of William Ellis: Narrative of a Tour of Hawaii, or Owhyhee : With Remarks
on the History, Traditions, Manners, Customs, and Language of the Inhabitants of the Sandwich Islands. Rutland, Vt.: Tuttle, 1979.
91 Jelle Boer and Donald Theodore Sanders, Volcanoes in Human History: The Far-reaching Effects of Major Eruptions, (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2002), 22-46.
92 Davianna Pōmaika`i McGregor and Noa Emmett Aluli, “Wao Kele O Puna and the Pele Defense Fund,” in A Nation Rising, ed. Noelani Goodyear-Ka`ōpua et al. (Duke University Press, 2014), 180-198.
62
Figure 15 : Lava Threat Zones
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63
THREATS TO NATIVE BIOTA
Habitat Destruction Because of the fragile state of Hawai`i’s native species, humans can make a
huge difference in conserving or threatening them. Human population
increase has, and always will, pose a huge threat to the existence of tropical
rainforests. Important native species in Puna are threatened by continual
growth and developmentand proper management of human impacts is
dependent on a thorough understanding of its ecological systems.93
Although Hawaiins undoubdedly also changed the native environments, the
they maintained the ability to sustain themselves with the resources,
regenerative, gave back, established kapu. Admitedly, they were also
responsible for some and habitat changes species extinction94, which may
be understood of many animal species., but on a lareg scale, the island
ecosystems were maintained, and species not directly affected were given
the opportunity to adapt.
Charles P. Stone and J. Michael Scott suggest 8 reasons to preserve Native
ecosystems, all of which have the ability to enhance sustainability in rural
Hawai`i regions.95
1. Aesthetic and recreational values which may help generate revenue
from tourism activityes
93 J. P. Kimmins, Forest Ecology: A Foundation for Sustainable Forest Management and Environmental Ethics in Forestry. 3rd ed. (Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2004), 3-13.
94 Patrick V. Kirch, “The Impact of the Prehistoric Polynesians on the Hawaiian Ecosystem," in A Natural History of the Hawaiian Islands, ed. by E. Alison Kay, 425-38. (Honolulu: University of Hawai`i Press, 1994) 434-435.
95 Charles P Stone., and J. Michael Scott, "Hawai`i's Native Ecosystems: Importance, Conflicts, and
Suggestions for the Future," in A Natural History of the Hawaiian Islands: Selected Readings II, ed. by E. Alison Kay, 473-89 (Honolulu: University of Hawai`i Press, 1994) 473.
64
2. Hawaiian cultural values
3. Genetic diversity for Utilitarian purposes
4. Preserve natural processes and gene pools
5. Provide environmental baselines for research and educational
activities to inform land-use decisions
6. Watershed and climateic values
7. Ethincal considerations
8. Constitutional, statutory and planning mandates
Fragmentation The careless use of land in Puna is perhaps most apparent when displayed
in relationship to its natural climatic zones. Puna subdivisions clearly sever
and isolate large portions of forest zones, creating a threat to biodiversity
known as fragmentation. Fragmented rainforests cause limited accessibility
of plants and animals naturally occurring within certain climatic habitats.
When combined with global warming effects, overharvesting, in this case to
make way for housing and development, and fragmentation of important
habitats has profound effects on species and stressors can largely effect the
resilience of native plants and animals.96
Heterogeneous gene pools increase the ability of native systems for both
short and long-term adaptability in with changing climates97. However,
fragmentation isolates portions of habitats, leading to higher rates of species
inbreeding, and therefore, more homogenous gene pools. These confined
populations of species have higher likelihood of genetic mutations, and are
more vulnerable to climate change.
96 C. Mora, R. Metzger, A. Rollo, and R. A Myers, "Experimental Simulations about the Effects of Overexploitation and Habitat Fragmentation on Populations Facing Environmental Warming," Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 2007, 1023-028.
97 Martin Dieterich, “Reflections on the Intelligenece of Natural Systems,” in Cultural Landscapes and Land Use: The Nature Conservation-society Interface, ed. Martin Dieterich and Jan Van Der. Straaten, (Dordrecht Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2004), 26-29.
65
Invasive Species Human activity and environmental manipulation has caused an increased
threat of invasive species. In addition to the implications to biodiversity and
cultural needs, invasive species have caused severe economic loss to the
U.S.98
Because Hawai`i’s native plants and animals evolved over time in such a
unique niche, and in such isolation from newly introduced species, alien
invasive species that have become naturalized in Hawai`i today have been a
major threat to native species. Today, Hawai`i contains the highest rates, by
far, of endangered species of plants and animals in the country.99 Forest
habitats studied on Hawai`i island show nearly no recolonization of native
species once invasive plants have become the dominant species.100 Albezia
trees are one of the most pervasive threats to forest ecosystems on Big
Island. Albezia trees grow extremely fast and tall. However, they are also
extremely brittle, and have a very shallow root system. It is common for
large branches to fall, or even entire trees to topple during during strong
winds. (See Figure 16 : Fallen Albezia Branch)
98 David Pimentel et al., Environmental and Economic Costs Associated with Non-indigenous Species in the United States, (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, 1999).
99 David S Wilcove, David Rothstein, Jason Dubow, Ali Phillips, and Elizabeth Losos, “Quantifying Threats to Imperiled Species in the United States,” Bioscience 48 (2008), [American Institute of Biological Sciences, Oxford University Press]: 607–15, doi:10.2307/1313420.
100 Joseph Mascaro, Kristen K. Becklund, R. Flint Hughes, and Stefan A. Schnitzer, "Limited Native Plant Regeneration in Novel, Exotic-dominated Forests on Hawai’I," Forest Ecology and Management 256, no. 4 (2008): 593-606, accessed March 02, 2015, doi: 10.1016/j.foreco.2008.04.053.
66
Figure 16 : Fallen Albezia Branch
Source: Author
67
Figure 17 : Fragmentation in Puna
Source: GIS Database
68
Figure 18 Threatened and Endangered Plant Zones
Source: GIS Database
69
Figure 19 : Conservation Zones
Sourece: G.I.S. Database
70
FUTURE PLANS FOR PUNA
“The quest for an environmentally sustainable, economically affordable, and just development will
succeed only by redefining the planning principles of public health, safety, and welfare using quality of life and sustainable economic development indicators, island by
island and community by community.”
Luciano Minerbi1011994
HAWAI`I 2050 SUSTAINABILITY PLAN
Amid growing concerns of residents in a changing Hawai`i, a task force was
created through a legislative bill that was passed in 2005. The Hawai`i 2050
Sustainability Task Force, as it came to be called, set out to provide goals,
indicators, and action steps for Hawai`i’s development through 2050, and
replace the outdated Hawai`i State Plan, which was formulated in the 1970’s.
The Hawai`i 2050 Sustainability Plan was created to address the long-term
needs and concerns of Hawai`i residents, and reflect the preferred future of
the community. Neighborhood outreach events engaged the public on all
islands, which were used to develop general guidelines which contribute to a
sustainable and equitable Hawai`i.
The state defined as sustainable Hawai`i by the following measurement
indicators:
• Respects the culture, character, beauty and history of our state’s
island communities
• Strikes a balance among economic, social and community, and
environmental priorities
• Meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs
101 Luciano Minerbi, “Sustainability Versus Growth in Hawai`i,” Social Process in Hawai`i
35, (1994) : 148.
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The Hawai`i 2050 Sustainability Plan also named 5 main areas to focus
sustainability efforts on:
1. A sustainable “way of life” 2. The economy 3. Environment and Natural Resources 4. Community and Social Well-Being 5. Kanaka Maoli Culture and Island Values
Together, these focus areas formed one overarching vision of the Hawai`i
2050 Sustainability Plan. It also included education as an important
imperative to tie all 5 aspects together. The guidelines formed in the plan
serve as a general framework, which can be further defined at the
community level.102
PUNA
102 State of Hawai`i, Hawai`i 2050 Sustainability Task Force, Hawai`i 2050 Sustainability Plan:
Charting a Course for Hawai`i's Sustainable Future, 2008.
Figure 20 : Hawai`i 2050
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72
COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT PLAN
VISION: “Residents of puna live in harmony with the `āina while promoting a sustainable vibrant local economy,
healthy communities, and a viable transportation system that is accessible, friendly and safe for now and future
generations.”103
Background In 2008, a regional community plan for the Puna district was released,
highlighting overall approaches to future development, major considerations,
and stakeholders. It was also amended several times throughout 2010 and
2011. It acknowledges the fact that Puna is subject to several major
influences of change in the future. The Puna Community Development Plan
(Puna CDP) shows a general understanding of some of the problems that
were also outlined in this research investigation.104
Challenges The Puna CDP lists the following planning considerations as current
development challenges. These are also used as objectives to drive
planning actions.
• Lack of utility infrastructure to residences
• Un-even settlement patterns in subdivisions
• A poor transportation infrastructure
• Mis-use of agricultural soil
• Impacts to native forest
103 County of Hawai`i Planning Department, Puna Development Plan Steering Committee, Puna
Community Development Plan, 2008.
Amended: November 4, 2010 by Ordinance No. 10-104; June 8, 2011 by Ordinance No. 11-51, 11-52, & 11- 53; & December 6, 2011 by Ordinance No. 11-117 & 11-118.
104 Ibid.
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The plan lists three main areas of focus to guide future development in
Puna:
Mālama I Ka `Aina The primary goal of this
section in the Puna
Community Development
Plan is to protect natural
environmental areas. A major
objective listed is to adopt a
Biosphere Reserve Buffer
Zone (BRBZ), which will allow
more space between forest
reserve areas and developed
sub-divisions.
Growth Management The plan intends to build
community centers in existing
communities as a way to
mitigate sprawl. This will
focus activity of the
community around village
centers and provide improved
access to resources and
commerce, decreasing
automobile usage. The plan
also calls for rezoning
Figure 21 : Biosphere Reserve Buffer zone
Figure 22 : Village Centers
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ç
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measures of the existing un-used sub-divisions.
Transportation This section
expands upon the
growth
management
section. Town
centers will need to
have pedestrian
infrastructure, and
bicycle routes for
schools. The plan
also calls for
implementing mass
transit. More major
roadways are
requested to be
implemented.
Figure 23 : Transporation Networks
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SHIPMAN DEVELOPMENT PLAN
W.H. Shipman, Ltd. Is one of the largest private land holders in Puna,
holding approximately 17,000 acres, including some small property in
Oregon.105 The majority of land in Kea`au is owned by W.H. Shipman, who
was responsible for the development of W.H. Shipman Business Park and
Kea`au Village Market, which provides the community with grocery stores,
small businesses, and a newly constructed medical center. W.H. Shipman
has also been closely involved with the continued development of Kea`au
town and its public amenities, such as Kea`au Elementary, Middle, and High
Schools.
The near-future plans include medium density urban development in Kea`au.
In order to do this, W.H. Shipman is currently undergoing the process to
amend the zoning of the County of Hawai`i General plan. Under this
amendment, 475 acres of land that is classified as Low Density Urban, and
112 acres of land that is classified as Important Agricultural Land, will be
reclassified to an Urban Expansion Area. The Urban Expansion area would
allow high density development of residences, industrial, and commercial
uses.106 The zoning change is necessary for W.H. Shipmanʻs vision of a
“walkable town” where “Economic growth will come through the promotion
of diversified agriculture, encouraging tourism, the addition of new
community and education facilities, and the protection of important
environmental and cultural assets.” 107 In W.H. Shipman’s petition to
105 W.H. Shipman Limited. "History." About WHS. 2012. Accessed February 20, 2016.
http://www.whshipman.com/about-whs/history/.
Official website of W.H. Shipman Limited 106 County of Hawai`i. Planning Department. "Public Notice: Workshops for Proposed Amendment
to the County of Hawai`i General Plan Land Use Pattern Allocation Guide (LUPAG) Map." News release. Accessed February 1, 2016. http://www.cohplanningdept.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/Keaau-GP- Amend-2015-Information-Packet.pdf.
76
reclassify these lands, it also states that the action is necessary in order to
adhere to the Puna Community Development Plan’s objective of creating
central town centers.
107 W.H. Shipman Limited. "History." About WHS. 2012. Accessed February 20, 2016.
http://www.whshipman.com/about-whs/history/.
Official website of W.H. Shipman Limited
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THE DEPARTMENT OF HAWAIIAN HOME LANDS
The Department of Hawaiian Home Lands (DHHL) is one of the major land
holders in Puna as well as throughout the Hawaiian Islands. In 1921, Prince
Johah Kūhiō Kalaniana`ole conceptualized the Hawaiian Homes Commission
Act (HHCA), which designated a land trust of over 200,000 acres of land to
put back into the hands of native Hawaiians. Originally, the Hawaiian Homes
Commission (HHC) was also conceived as a way to manage these lands,
but upon statehood in 1959, the responsibilities of the HHC was transferred
to the state, and the DHHL was formed. The DHHL functions to assess,
and organize the lands granted under the HHCA for best-use practices.
These lands are awarded to Native Hawaiians in need, in the form of 99-year
leases for homesteads at the cost of $1 per year. In order to qualify,
applicants must be 50% Native Hawaiian, and must undergo an application
process, declaring the island of choice for award, as well as choice for type
of land lease.108
The Hawaiian Homes Commission Act The intent of Prince Kūhio for the HHCA was to “provide self-sufficiency of
native Hawaiians through the provision of land.”109 Kūhio set aside land
specifically for the benefit of commoner class of Native Hawaiians, who were
unfairly affected following the enactment of the Māhele.110 It was also aimed
as a step toward Hawaiian autonomy and self-governance.
108 State of Hawai`i, "About the Department of Hawaiian Home Lands," Department of Hawaiian
Home Lands, 2016. Accessed February 28, 2016. http://dhhl.hawaii.gov/about/. 109 State of Hawai`i, "Hawaiian Homes Commission Act," Department of Hawaiian Home Lands,
2016. Accessed February 28, 2016. http://dhhl.hawaii.gov/hhc/laws-and-rules/. 110 Jon M. Dyke, Who Owns the Crown Lands of Hawai`i (Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press,
2008) 237-253.
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EXISTING DHHL PLAN IN PUNA
There are four tracts managed by the DHHL in the district of Puna. These 4
tracts are part of the East Hawai`i Island plan, which also includes tracts in
Hilo. Currently, all four tracts within Puna are listed as low-priority in the
Hawai`i Island Plan Final Report, signifying that there is low desire from
awardees to be placed in these tracts, and therefore are not planned to be
developed within the next 20-year phase of DHHL’s General Plan. However,
the DHHL has already conducted surveys of these tracts, and made general
recommendations for future development.111 (See figure 24)
`Ōla`a is the only tract that is in the upper Puna district. The `Ōla`a tract is
recommended for pastoral land, alternatively sustainable forestry, since it is
currently covered with `ōhi`a.
Keonepoko Nui consists of 100 acres recommended for general agricultural
purposes and is currently undeveloped.
Maku`u Makai consists of 500 acres recommended for general agriculture
purposes. It is currently undeveloped, and water and sewage utilities are not
available.
Maku`u Farmlots consists of 868 acres, and is recommended for
supplemental agricultural purposes. It has already been fully subdivided, but
largely remains undeveloped.
Maku`u Mauka consists of 640 acres recommended for mixed use
development including residential, subsistence agriculture, community, and
cultural uses. It is currently partially subdivided, and minimally developed,
111 Department of Hawaiian Home Lands, Hawai`i Island Plan Final Report, by PBR Hawaii
(Honolulu, HI, 2002), 1-8.
79
and DHHL is undergoing the process for a new community center and
further development in the near future.
Maku`u Mauka will be discussed in more detail in Design Introduction of
Section V. Any reference to the Maku`u Mauka tracts herein will also include
reference to the Maku`u Farmlots to form one entity.
Figure 24 : Existing DHHL Plan, Puna
Source: Department of Hawaiian Home Lands, Hawai`i Island Plan Final Report, by PBR Hawaii (Honolulu, HI, 2002).
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80
EXISTING DHHL LAND DESIGNATIONS
Tracts leased to awardees are typically for residential, agricultural, pastoral
purposes. The Big Island has a total of 116,963 Acres of land, with 494
agricultural leases, 277 pastoral leases, and 1,277 residential leases
available. On the Big Island, agricultural leases had the largest waiting list,
with 5,588 applicants as of 2001. Residential and Pastoral waiting lists had
4,864 and 1,353 applicants on the waiting list, respectively..112
Residential According to the DHHL Hawai`i Island Plan, residential land use is defined by
Residential subdivisions with personal plots less than 1 acre, and with
access to potable water, all utilities, and paved roads.113
The Hawaiian Home Lands Strategic Plan for 2012-2017 states that
diversifying homestead leases are desired, as overall, single family
residences were the focus. Alternative residential units are desired, such as
kauhale, kupuna, multi-family, rental, and transitional housing options.114
This means providing more agricultural and pastoral uses, as well as
aquaculture and community agriculture opportunities.
Subsistence Agriculture Subsistence agriculture land use is defined as “lifestyle areas” which allow
beneficiaries land to cultivate agricultural products for personal home
consumption. Aquaculture is also allowed. Lots are less than 5 acres, with
marginal to good soil. Residential occupation is required with access to
water and unpaved roads. The existing Maku`u Development Plan includes
112 Department of Hawaiian Home Lands, Hawai`i Island Plan Final Report, by PBR Hawaii (Honolulu, HI, 2002), 1-8.
113 Ibid. 114 State of Hawai`i, "About the Department of Hawaiian Home Lands," Department of Hawaiian
Home Lands, 2016. Accessed February 28, 2016. http://dhhl.hawaii.gov/about/.
81
50 2-acre subdivided lots for subsistence leases, with plans to increase by
subdividing remaining undeveloped land in the Maku`u Mauka tract.115
Supplemental Agriculture Supplemental agriculture land use is defined as lots for commercial-level
agriculture which supplies supplemental income to the beneficiaries. Lots
are less than 40 acres, with marginal to good lands. Residential occupation
is optional, but requires access to a water source and unpaved road.
Beneficiaries must actively utilize 2/3 of land within one year of occupation,
and have a farm plan. The existing Maku`u Development Plan includes 127
5-acre subdivided lots for supplemental leases, with plans to increase by
subdividing remaining undeveloped land in the Maku`u Mauka tract.116
General Agriculture General agriculture land use is defined as lots for commercial level
agriculture. Land sizes, residential, and infrastructural requirements are not
defined. 117
Keonepoko Nui and Maku`u Makai tracts are both designated for general
agriculture use, but lack of infrastructure currently stop these tracts from
being developed.
Pastoral Pastoral land use is defined as marginal lands used specifically for pastoral
uses. Lots with irrigation are less than 100 acres, while lots without are
more than 100 acres, up to 1,000 acres. A farm plan, fencing, and unpaved
access is required. 708 acres in `Ōla`a are designated for pastoral use, but
are is currently subdivided.118
115 Department of Hawaiian Home Lands, Hawai`i Island Plan Final Report, by PBR Hawaii
(Honolulu, HI, 2002) 7-8, 20-22. 116 Ibid. 117 Ibid. 118 Ibid.
82
Community Community land use includes public amenities such as parks and spaces for
recreation or cultural activities. Land sizes are not defined, and are to be
built to county standards.119
Commercial Commercial land use includes leases for retail and business. Land sizes are
not defined, and are to be built to county standards. The DHHL leases no
more than 1% of its land for traditional commercial or industrial uses as a
way to gain revenue.120 The DHHL General Plan lists the goal of providing
economic opportunities and business guidance for residents within their
communities. Alternative methods of gaining revenue for the DHHL are
therefore desired.121
Additional Land Use Designations Land use designations that are not found within the Puna district include
conservation, industrial and special districts.
119 Department of Hawaiian Home Lands, Hawai`i Island Plan Final Report, by PBR Hawaii
(Honolulu, HI, 2002) 7-8, 20-22. 120 State of Hawai`i, "About the Department of Hawaiian Home Lands," Department of Hawaiian
Home Lands, 2016. Accessed February 28, 2016. http://dhhl.hawaii.gov/about/. 121 State of Hawai`i. Department of Hawaiian Home Lands. General Plan. 2002.
Approved by the Hawaiian Homes Commission
83
SECTION IV RESEARCH DISCUSSION
84
RESEARCH CONCLUSIONS
The research conducted in this project leads to the conclusion that a
complete change in Hawai`i’s land-use paradigms have caused severe
impacts to the sustainability of Hawai`i’s populations. Changes since
western contact have historically occurred extremely rapidly, and were done
without any coordinated long-term vision. Honolulu developed from rural to
urban, in a matter of decades, and now rural areas are facing pressures
which put it on the same track.
This project has identified some of the threats that rapid unplanned
development has posed to rural Hawai`i communities, using Puna as a focus
to find specific examples. It has investigated major land-use changes in
Puna, the factors and motivations behind these changes, and how these
changes have directly affected the sustainability of its communities. In doing
so, it has also elucidated critical design considerations which have been
either been poorly addressed, or ignored altogether. This section will
discuss and summarize the major findings revealed in the research
investigation, and will be the point of departure for the next section, which
explores specific design strategies to address major issues discussed
herein.
HAWAI`I’S CURRENT LAND-USE PARADIGM
From the time of its discovery in 1776, Hawai`i has been subjected to high
pressures of change. Its fertile lands, iconic beauty, and position in the
Pacific instantly put a premium economic value on its land to the outside
world. Foreign pressures have been unrelenting in changing Hawai`i’s land
to capitalize on the economic trends of the time, historically using imposed
political systems to do so. Most recently, Hawai`i has subsequently been a
major player in, and become fully dependent on, the fluctuating and
unreliable global markets of trade, agriculture, tourism, and eventually, real
85
estate. These industries follow a model of continual expansion, and have
caused drastic land changes statewide. Despite Hawai`i’s success in such
markets, economic gains have largely benefitted only a handful of well-
suited private stakeholders who still continue to be major drivers of Hawai`i’s
economy and development today.
Hawai`iʻs rural areas have taken over as the main focus of such development
today, where growth rates are projected to be more than triple the rate seen
in Honolulu. Recent trends also indicate that in these rural areas, about half
of the total residential sales are by out-of-state buyer, who pay significantly
more. In the last few decades, Puna has experienced drastically changing
landscape and social dynamics, and its residents, have had little control in
resisting implications seen from capitalist-driven land-use and development.
With the availability of large cheap lots, growth is expected to continue.
EFFECTS TO SUSTAINABILITY
Section II of this project introduced several important concepts, which
outlined how sustainability was defined throughout this project. The terms
sufficiency, carrying-capacity, ecological footprint, and triple-bottom-line
were discussed, and can be used as measurement tools to assess the
sustainability of a community. It can also be used to help communities
formulate specific sustainability goals in the future. Contradictory to a
society that balances these concerns. It is apparent that the shift to full-
blown capitalism has caused a disregard of the sustainability indicators
listed above. The planning paradigm in Hawai`i has caused increasingly
complex issues to the population in Hawai`i.
The method of import/export economies endangers the general population,
as 85% of food is imported, and not readily available in case of natural
disaster or port shut down. It has proven to continually increase the cost of
living, leaving communities unable to have any significant role in bettering
86
the situation infrastructurally. Because the real estate holds a higher value to
the state than agricultural uses, it often becomes victim to capitalism.
Habitat loss, fragmentation, climate change, and invasive species prove to
threaten the adaptability and existence of native ecologies. Continued
development of the subdivided lots in Puna would further devastate the
landscape and isolate large portions of fragile forest ecosystems.
Similar to many other indigenous civilizations, cultural practices of ancient
Hawaiians reveal an intrinsic connection with nature. Native Hawaiians
developed these practices slowly over the course of two millennia, and
allowed a self-sustaining existence on the Hawaiian Islands. The natural
landscape and culture therefore became one and the same, and it cannot be
overstated enough how such drastic land changes have marginalized the
cultural rights and identity of Native People. Adverse effects seen by
development may soon become irreversible as the natural resources and
ecologies are severely degraded. The devastation to Hawai`i’s native
species have subjugated the rights and identity of the Hawaiian people. Not
only has it caused adverse and possibly permanent damage to ecologies
which are fundamental to perpetuating and preserving Hawaiian values, but
in some cases, it has endangered their ability live their preferred lifestyle and
provide sustenance to their families.
Similar stories of colonization and development have been seen time and
time again to indigenous people all around the world. However, the rapid
pace that this occurred in Hawai`i has caused severe injustices to its culture,
ecologies, and societies. The system of perpetual growth not only
continually shifts power away from those at the bottom of the economic
scale, but it also establishes the fact that such negative implications will be
continue to be a mounting threat to Hawai`i, its people, and its ecologies. At
a certain point, there are only two pathways to break such a system: either a
total collapse, or a profound revolution.
87
ACHIEVING SUSTAINABILITY IN THE FUTURE
Development should be aimed at the community level to bring well-informed
collective interests together and give power to communities built on similar
values. Local development is needed to establish a secure and healthy fresh
food supply. Green jobs and ecotourism can cater to existing market, but
also provide educational opportunities which promote and share the
importance of conserving natural and resources, and sharing an authentic
and rich cultural experience.
Drawing inspiration from traditional mindsets may be influential in supporting
modern Hawai`i residents in living a more sustainable healthy lifestyle, but
translating such ideals into a modern context is a complex task for
designers.
Grassroots movements, as well as official Hawaiian organizations such as
OHA, DHHL, The Queen Emma Foundation, and Bishop Estate are gaining
strength and influence by helping to promote these types of community
values. They have also provided assistance to at-risk populations in attempt
to integrate them into the modern society using traditional ways. Hawaiians
have also been building legislative ground toward self-determination and
control of land to benefit the people of Hawai`i. The 1993 “Apology Bill”,
formation of the Aha Council have not only shown a refined approach, but
also has built interest and awareness of everyday Hawaiians and residents.
This momentum, along with creative collaboration from architects, planners,
developers, governments, and most importantly, communities, may give way
the the type of revolution needed to achieve a sustainable future for all
Hawai`i residents.
88
SECTION V CONCEPTUAL DESIGN: MAKU`U MAUKA
89
Figure 25 : Maku`u Location Map
Replace with 11x15
Location map
90
Figure 26 : Area of Study
91
DESIGN INTRODUCTION
“The Maku`u Farmers Association will work together to create a vibrant recreational, cultural and civic center that
demonstrates their cultural values and way of life to improve the quality of life and diversify the economic base
of the community.”122
-Maku`u Farmers Association
MAKU`U MAUKA
The Maku`u Mauka tracts present a perfect opportunity to demonstrate a
self-sustaining community. Maku`u Mauka is at the gateway of what is
considered lower Puna, which is connected to the rest of the island by only
one major street. This makes these communities vulnerable to isolation, and
the need for self-sufficiency even greater. Natural disasters have shown an
eminent threat of isolating the Lower Puna region from the rest of the island,
leaving residents unable to access goods or services.
Maku`u Farmers Association The vision of the community is led by the Maku`u Farmers Association (MFA).
The MFA is a non-profit organization which was founded in 1986 by
beneficiaries of DHHL’s Maku`u Farmlots. Since its grassroots conception,
the MFA has been the major stakeholder in the long-term development of
the Maku`u tracts. Integrating itself within DHHL’s overarching vision, the
122 Brian T. Nishimura, Final Environmental Assessment and Finding of No Significant Impact,
report, Hilo: State of Hawaii, 2011.
Prepared for: Maku`u Farmer's Association
92
MFA aims to become self-sufficient in its production of food, energy, and
capital, using its shared cultural heritage as a guide.123
Maku`u Mauka Tracts The Maku`u Mauka tract consists of 640 arcres. The final report of Hawai`i
island lists this tract as viable for residential, subsistence agriculture,
community, and cultural uses. The dense `Āinaloa subdivision lies to the
Northwest border of the Maku`u Mauka tracts, and land owned by the State
of Hawai`i border all other sides. The lands owned by the State of Hawai`i
are primarily undeveloped, and no future plans have been released.
Maku`u Farmlots Tracts The Maku`u Farmlots, lies on the Makai side of Kea`au-Pahoa Road from the
Maku`u Mauka plots. It consists of 868 acres, and includes 127 agricultural
tracts, 181 acres leased to the Federal Aviation Agency (FAA), and 38 acres
used by the Maku`u Farmers’ association (MFA). The Maku`u Farmers’
Market, which is held every Sunday. Agricultural awards on this tract are for
supplemental agricultural use. This means that the awardees of these 5-
acre plots must utilize 2/3 of their award for cultivation, develop an
agricultural farming plan, and start agricultural activities within a year.124
The Hawaiian Paradise Park subdivision lies to the Northwest border of the
Maku`u Mauka tracts, and land owned by the State of Hawai`i border all
other sides. The lands owned by the State of Hawai`i are primarily
undeveloped, and no future plans have been released.
CONCEPTUAL DESIGN GOALS
123 Brian T. Nishimura, Final Environmental Assessment and Finding of No Significant Impact, report, Hilo: State of Hawaii, 2011.
Prepared for: Maku`u Farmer's Association 124 Department of Hawaiian Home Lands, Maku`u Regional Plan (Kapolei, HI, 2010), 8.
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The conceptual design presented in this section aims to build upon the work
of the MFA and provide a pathway to fulfilling its vision. It will draw upon the
research findings outlined in the previous sections, and translate theoretical
design principles into a conceptual community design.
The design seeks to enable Maku`u Mauka homesteaders to make a self-
sustaining living. This will be achieved through an organized planning
strategy and a careful use of land which allows the planning strategy to
efficiently be carried out and promoted. The following design objectives will
be fundamental to formulating self-sustaining design strategies:
• Enable cultural practices to be perpetuated and shared
• Demonstrate careful use and respect for the land and its natural
resources
• Build a sense of community identity driven by an agricultural lifestyle
• Assist new farmers and at-risk populations to be integral contributors
• Strengthen the base for local economic development
• Strive toward food and energy independence
As previously stated, this conceptual design aims to present theoretical
methodologies, rather than definitive solutions or details. Maku`u Mauka will
be used as a model to exhibit conceptual architecture, land use, and
planning principles which were alluded to in the research conclusions.
These design principles may also translate to other similar rural
communities, with the overall intent of contributing to a sustainable Hawai`i
in the future.
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CONSTRAINTS
As discussed in the research investigation, many unique social and cultural
issues make planning a complex task. In addition, there are also many
physical constraints which require careful consideration and creative
planning to achieve the community vision of the Maku`u residents.
Specific Demographics Even when compared to other communities in Puna, the residents of Maku`u
have an exceptionally high poverty rate, with 50% of its families living below
the poverty line as of the 2000 census. At the time, Maku`u had 22
households with 59 total residents, earning a median household income of
$23,125. 87.7% of the population had received a high-school diploma or
equivalent, but none had received a higher learning degree.125
Limited Business Opportunities The MFA lists the lack of economic opportunities in the area as a major
limiting factor to expanding operations. This applies both to farmers running
businesses, and to individuals seeking jobs. The Maku`u Regional
Development Plan also states that farmers currently do not have the
entrepreneurial skills required to independently run businesses activities, and
recommends assistance for new farmers.126
Marginal Soils Soil on the Maku`u tracts are currently listed as marginal. This may inhibit
diversification of agricultural products and yields. Marginal soils, as well as
overgrowth and lack of infrastructure, also inhibit development in the
neighboring DHHL tracts Maku`u Makai and Keonopoko, which otherwise
125 Department of Hawaiian Home Lands, Maku`u Regional Plan, Honolulu, HI, 2010.
Compiled from U.S. census data 126 Department of Hawaiian Home Lands, Maku`u Regional Plan, Honolulu, HI, 2010.
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would be useful connections to include in a larger planning design
strategy.127
FUDS During World War II, portions of land within Maku`u were used by the Navy
as practice bomb sites, referred to as formerly used defense sites (FUDS).
The FUDS in Maku`u, which is also known as the Former Popoki Target
Area, covers approximately 640 acres, and includes two specific areas of
concern, a bombing target area, and troop training area.128 FUDS also affect
an estimated 472 land lessees in other Hawai`i Island DHHL tracts including;
Kuhio Village, Puukapu Agricultural and Pastoral Lots, Lalamilo Residents
Lots, and Kawaihae Residents Lots. 129 Remediation and public educational
outreach efforts have been put forth, although many tracts have already
been built upon.
Existing Awards Despite the 127 land awards already given in the Maku`u farmlots, only a
handful have actively moved onto their land. These households are mostly
concentrated along Niaulani and Kaoluwalu Streets. The empty lots are a
serious security concern to those living in Maku`u who feel their security and
safety are compromised, especially considering the high crime rates seen in
the region. Maku`u residents also want these lands to be occupied to
increase the sense of community vitality. In the Maku`u development plan,
they call for an enforcement of land provisions.130
127 Department of Hawaiian Home Lands, Maku`u Regional Plan, Honolulu, HI, 2010. 128 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Former Popoki Target Area Fact Sheet and The 3 Rs for UXO
Safety, Honolulu. 129 State of Hawai`i, "For the Record: Star-Advertiser Unexploded Ordnanace," News release,
March 8, 2015, Department of Hawaiian Home Lands, Accessed February 4, 2016, http://dhhl.hawaii.gov/2015/03/08/for-the-record-star-advertiser-unexploded-ordnance/.
130 Department of Hawaiian Home Lands, Maku`u Regional Plan (Kapolei, HI, 2010), 26.
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Figure 27 : Conceptual Community Plan
Replace with 11x15
Conceptual community design
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Figure 28 : Protracted Kuleana Areas
Figure 29 : Former Popoki Target Area
Replace with 11x15 Diagrams
Figure 30 : Distance to Agricultural Plots
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CONCEPTUAL COMMUNITY DESIGN
LAND RE-ADJUSTMENT
Currently, the Maku`u Farmlots are subdivided into 127 5-acre lots.
However, due to water and infrastructure needs, most plots are vacant. On
the Maku`u Mauka side, only 100 acres of the total 640-acres have been
subdivided, and only 3 of these tracts have been occupied. The vacant lots
are concerns for the existing community, but reveals an opportunity to
exercise more design freedom. All undeveloped land will be re-adjusted into
a more efficient and wise use of land.
Protracted Awards In order to avoid the moral complications of exercising eminent domain, the
re-adjustment will honor the beneficiaries already cultivating their lands in
Maku`u. They will be allowed to carry out the remainder of their land lease,
and will have the option to relocate to conform to the adjusted community
plan at will. (See Figure 28 : Protracted Kuleana Areas
COMMUNITY CENTER
The community center will be vital to carrying out the community vision of
the MFA. The future community center will be the central point, or piko, of
Maku`u and will serve to be the connection between Maku`u residents and
the greater Puna community. A permanent Community Center has been in
planning stages since 2006. It is intended to function as a “cultural learning
center” and community gathering place, not only for Maku`u, but also for the
greater Puna region. The planned Community Center aims to share the
farming lifestyle of the MFA as a way to perpetuate Hawaiian values,
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establish a stronger local food and economic base, and provide assistance
to populations at risk to poverty or homelessness.131
The community center will be situated with direct access to Kea`au-Pāhoa
Road, the only traffic artery leading to lower Puna, and will be the physical
embodiment to make Maku`u the gateway to lower Puna. It will greet traffic
and create a sense of identity for the community.
Since a design has already been in the works, this project will not focus on
specific design details or the physical design of the community center.
However, the following should be considered:
Maku`u Farmers Market The Maku`u farmers market has been hosted by the MFA every Sunday and
has provided business opportunities to farmers and the general public.
Revenue generated by the weekly farmers market has been crucial to
building a new community center. It serves as a place for local commerce
and public engagement, and is now one of the few regular community
events.. The Maku`u Farmers Market is widely referred to on tourism blogs,
and currently has a 4.5 star rating (out of 5) on Yelp.132 A new community
center in the future will undoubtedly add to the momentum gained by the
MFA and expand the operations of the Maku`u farmer’s market.
131 Brian T. Nishimura, Final Environmental Assessment and Finding of No Significant Impact,
report, Hilo: State of Hawaii, 2011.
Prepared for: Maku`u Farmer's Association
132 "Maku`u Farmer's Market," Yelp, Accessed February 3, 2016. http://www.yelp.com/biz/makuu- farmers-market-pahoa.
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Outreach The community center should include community agriculture components.
These can serve to host educational outreach events and programs. It will
also support transitional housing with a way to acquire food and housing in
turn for work. Food produced here can also be used to generate revenue for
community resources.
LEED Certification If economically feasible, the planned community center should be designed
within standards to achieve Living Building Challenge or L.E.E.D.
certification. With Maku`u being a flagship agricultural community, such
recognition has great potential to bring increased awareness to the
community and their vision. Additional grants may need to be pursued, but
the may provide a valuable return on investment to the DHHL and Maku`u
community.
NATURAL GROWTH CORRIDOR
The most prominent design gesture is the natural growth corridors which
embraces the community. It integrates the natural world into the
community, a vital aspect of creating a sense of cultural connection for
Hawaiians, and establishes a balance between akua, kanaka, and `āina.
Conserve Cultural Resources The Natural Growth Corridor will be used as a cultural resource for the
community. It aims to promote the conservation of natural resources for
ecological and cultural resources.
First and foremost, it will stop further fragmentation and better connect the
native species of the bordering areas. It will function as a conservation
areas for native plants, which can be used for native gathering rights. It will
also provide a connection to the bordering areas. The growth corridor may
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also connect to the Maku`u Makai tract, and Wao Kele O Puna tract,
providing the mauka-makai orientation.
Development Buffer The mauka growth corridor was a direct response to the dense `Aīnaloa
Subdivision which borders the northern property line of the Mauka tract.
Rather than continuing with more dense subdivisions, the growth corridor
establishes a physical relief. Similarly, the Eastern corridor is aimed to
establish a buffer in the case of future development which directly borders
the Maku`u property. In this way, it also stops the further fragmentation of
the forest habitats, and allows some migration and dispersal routes for
plants and animals.
Eco-tourism Pedestrian trails will create an opportunity to utilize the Natural growth
corridor as an educational tool, providing the opportunity to share the
importance of its functions with the community. Visitors will be able to learn
about cultural resource utilization, native ecological functions, watershed
management. By doing so, it will also create a supplemental source of
money for the community to use and further promote conservation.
FUDS The most critically affected areas from FUDS activity will be covered by the
natural growth corridor and community center rather than using it for
awarded land. By placing community uses over FUDS, they can be another
educational aspect to share with the public. This will also protect famers,
some who may be using heavy equipment, from exposure to unexploded
ordinances. (See Figure 29 : Former Popoki Target Area)
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SUGGESTED PLANNING STEPS
Community-Owned Agriculture Community-owned agriculture land can be used as a way to generate
additional revenue to benefit the Maku`u community. This type of land
currently does not exist in the DHHL land designations. Community-owned
agriculture will be owned by the DHHL, and agricultural products produced
on these lands can be sold to profit DHHL and the Maku`u community. This
type of agriculture is aimed to help at-risk populations, who can acquire food
in turn for agricultural work, although any member of the public can also do
work for food. It can also be a form of eco tourism, which generates
additional revenue by hosting activities, programs, or events which support
community education for agriculture and cultural practices. There will be a
community owned agriculture component at the community center, and at
each of the residential clusters. Additional research should be done directly
with the community to determine exact agricultural sizes and functions.
Community Leased Agriculture Community-leased agriculture land can also be used to generate revenue for
the DHHL and Maku`u community. This type of land currently does not exist
in the DHHL land designations. Community-leased agriculture will be owned
by the DHHL, and will be available to the general public for small-scale
agricultural production. Small plots can be short-term leased at a cost
determined by the MFA. This type of agriculture aims to expand agricultural
opportunities to neighboring communities, building a bridge between Maku`u
and the greater Puna district. There will be one community leased
agricultural designation. Additional research should be done directly with
the community to determine exact agricultural sizes and prices.
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Aquaponic systems Aquaponic systems are becoming increasingly popular for agricultural
production. Aquaponic yields are believed to be greater and more reliable,
and technological advancements are still making progress. Water usage is
also decreased due to the fact that plants are cycled on a closed system
loop, rather than daily watering of soil. This may be especially beneficial in
the Maku`u area, considering that most of the soils is considered to be
marginal. Aqua culture systems also have the potential to be simultaneously
implemented. Since traditional loko i`a systems are largely impractical along
the Puna coastline, modern aqua culture systems may be a practical
solution. Additional research should be done directly with the community to
determine feasibility and buy in.
Business Development Department The community should create a permanent setup for agricultural products to
be sold. An established department should be created, in order to develop
and manage systems which sell food and goods on a more consistent basis.
A middle-man distributor for Maku`u farmers will allow more agricultural
products to be available to the public, and a steadier stream of income for
producers. Price limits and regulations should be set up to deter price
gauging and exploitation of the system. It is important that farmers should
not be required to sell their agricultural products through such a distributor,
but the option of doing so may help improve efficiency and production, and
farmers will be able to focus on daily agricultural activities while also
generating revenue. Farmers may still participate in the weekly farmers
markets, if desired. Currently, there is no such existing agency or system
within the DHHL, but with increased agricultural and pastoral production by
beneficiaries, it is important that there is also a system to help manage
farming outputs and provide stable business opportunities. Creation of such
a system would take careful coordination to implement, but once put in
place, it may also help with a reliable source of revenue for the DHHL.
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Figure 31 : Residential Cluster
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RESIDENTIAL CLUSTERS
Rather than a dispersed pattern of individual residences and agricultural
plots, the homesteads will be consolidated into designated clusters. Similar
to Kauhale organizations, some resources and spaces will be shared,
creating a sense of community cohesion and interaction while also adding a
sense of security. The the same overarching concepts of the larger Maku`u
community will be translated to the residential clusters, which will blend the
natural environment with the social and living spaces. Similar to the larger
community, natural growth will embrace these smaller clusters, to give a
connection to nature and some defined sense of privacy. Assuming that all
Maku`u beneficiaries choose to build a homestead, there will be a total of
908 residential units, which will be divided amongst 5 equitably spaced
residential clusters.
KAUHALE DISTRIBUTION
Efficiency Clusters will minimize impact on the natural environment, and help to
maximize efficiency by consolidating roads and infrastructure. These
clusters can also function on a micro-grid system, rather than relying on
external electrical lines, although further research must be done to address
precise implementation. This may also be a way to share equipment, as
listed under the needs of the MFA.
Social Spaces An ancillary agricultural office / center will be located at the entrance of each
residential cluster to help manage its community agriculture lands, and open
business opportunities of each residential cluster on a daily basis. This will
also increase connectivity of the separate residential clusters, which each
specialize in a particular agricultural activity.
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A gathering space in the piko of each residential cluster will function as a
small scale community center, and can be used for recreation, meetings,
and events. It will have a park, pavilion, and imu for .
Community Agriculture Each residential cluster will contain some amount of community agriculture.
This agricultural land will be worked by residents living in transitional housing
as a way to trade work to aquire food and goods. Similar to the main
community agriculture plot at the community center, the residential
community plot will be used to generate income for the community. Each
community agriculture tract will grow a single designated “specialization”
plant.
RESIDENTIAL TYPES
A wider variety of residential types will be available. This is aimed at
increasing the annual awards given, as stated by the DHHL.133 Multiple
housing options will also create equitable housing opportunities to more
people of varying household incomes, and provide a way to move up the
economic ladder. Homesteaders will be provided the opportunity to chose
their housing preference, regardless of their award type.
Single Family Residences The majority of homesteads will be single family residences. These plots will
be 20,000 s.f. which is the size that DHHL set for its residential-only
homestead awards. This design will be discussed in further detail in the next
chapter.
133 Department of Hawaiian Home Lands, Maku`u Regional Plan (Kapolei, HI, 2010).
107
Low-Rise Apartments Low-rise units can offer more affordable housing and possibly rentals.
Apartment style units will follow a similar construction of the residential
homesteads, but units will be condensed and physically connected. A
shared utility grid and less personal space will allow apartment homesteads
to be bought or leased at a lower price. An detailed design for low-rise
units will not be presented in this project. Figure xxx displays some possible
conceptual configurations which expand upon single family residences.
Transitional Housing Transitional housing will be included in each residential cluster as a way to
integrate working members into the community. Transitional housing units
may simply be low-rise units which are slightly modified to hold multiple
residents. The MFA and DHHL will need to determine their willingness to
provide transitional housing within their communities. However, it is
intended that these units be integrated within the residential clusters rather
than isolated and disconnected from the community.
108
SINGLE FAMILY HOMES
“Identifying the potential of flipping the meaning from a negative connotation of control to a positive one of
freedom (is) interculturally made possible by the essential simplicity and neutrality of the found object”134
Martin Despang
Figure 32
OVERALL DESIGN INTENT
In all aspects of life, Hawaiians approached their environment with careful approaches
which minimized impact to their environment and served multiple utilitarian functions.
Ingenuity was their sharpest tool. It is important that homes reflect the socio-cultural
values of the community they reside in, and enable the preferred lifestyle of its
residents. The homes in Maku`u will take a simple approach, using construction
techniques that will reduce costs and serve multiple functions. Materials will be
carefully chosen to minimize environmental impacts and aim to create a rengenerative
lifestyle. The design will provide off-the-grid capabilities by incorporating passive
design strategies and utilize the latent value of the natural elements.
134 Martin Despang and UHM SoA Arch 692, Hawaii Country Cargo Cabana, 2015, Treeitecture
Design Booklet, University of Hāwai`i at Mānoa, School of Architecture, Honolulu.
109
Figure 33 : Floor Plan
110
Figure 34 : Roof Construction
111
INTERMODAL STEEL BUILDING UNITS
Intermodal Steel Building Units (ISBU), commonly referred to as shipping
containers, present a huge opportunity to make a statement of embracing a
self-sustaining lifestyle and renouncing the reliance on imports. ISBU’s are
readily available and will function as a second life .
Affordability Used ISBU’s can be bought relatively cheap, typically ranging in Hawai`i
from $3,500 to $4,000 for a 40-foot high cube. Some websites also offer
lower prices when ISBU’s are bought in bulk.135 Minimal construction
processes are needed to make ISBU’s habitable, since it is already
structurally sound. However, modifications are virtually limitless, and can
also be fashioned to higher “luxury” standards, as desired. Further cost
analysis will need to be conducted once a specific design has been
developed in order to determine exact cost estimates.
Structure ISBU’s are made from corten steel, and are available in a variety of lengths.
Homesteads will use the 40-foot high-cubes, which have the dimensions of
40’x8’x9.5’, and weigh approximately 4.5 metric tons. ISBU structures are
also easy to expand upon and remodeled in the future, with possible
stacking options. Unaltered, they can be stacked up to 6 high, although
manipulation of the sides will decrease its strength.136
The rigid frame structure make ISBU’s able to withstand seismic loads, and
the bathroom can be used, in extreme cases, as a hurricane-safe room. In
such a situation, the structure of ISBU’s could prove to be especially useful
to protect against falling tree branches.
135 Makai Container & Equipment Solutions. Accessed February 23, 2016.
http://www.makaicontainer.com/#!container-specials/cl8c. 136 Han Slawik, Container Atlas: A Practical Guide to Container Architecture (Berlin: Gestalten,
2010), 8-26.
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Ability to re-locate In the possible case of lava flow, ISBU’s have the ability to be retain their
structure while being moved. This allows the residents to keep, and move
belongings, and still have a habitable structure for either temporary or
permanent re-location.
Heating Large heat gains of are one of the biggest criticisms in using ISBU’s for
building. Because steel conducts heat quickly, it is important to protect the
ISBU’s from direct sun exposure. This will be addressed through a series of
methods,
ARCHITECTURAL STRATEGY
Openings can be cut out of the ISBU’s to expose up to 60% of its entire
broad side. The steel panels cut out can then be fashioned into sliding panel
doors. This will allow the house to be totally open to the outside, or to be
totally closed for security purposes. Screen doors can also provide an
intermediate option, which allows light and breezes through, but still
physically closes off the interior. The steel doors can also protect the interior
in the case of high winds or hurricanes.
The single story plan includes approximately 1,000 square feet, and can
comfortably accommodate a family of 3, based on the average household
size of the Pāhoa census tract. It will include a full kitchen with bar seating,
living room, laundry room, outdoor dining area, A.D.A. accessible bathroom,
master bedroom, and study which can be configured for additional
bedrooms. The floor plan of the house can easily be modified to
accommodate specific needs, and the ISBU’s allow for future renovations or
add-ons, possibly even second stories.
113
Passive Cooling Design Building orientation should be the first line of defense against solar heat
gains. In order to mitigate heating, individual units will be oriented with the
broad side of the container facing south. This will minimize the low angles of
the western sun exposure, traditionally the most problematic to heat gains in
Hawai`i climates. The ISBU’s are also positioned to catch optimal cross-
breezes, with predominant winds coming from the northeast or southwest all
year round. A stilted foundation, central atrium breezeway, and elongated
envelope will also optimize ventilation throughout the building. A spray-on
insulation is also recommended to be applied to the inside of the ISBU’s. If
required, ceiling fans may also assist with additional cooling, but should be
avoided unless absolutely necessary.
Roof Uses The roof will aid in minimizing the direct sun exposure to the ICBU’s. There
will be 3 distinct components to the roof, which will serve regenerative
functions, aside from a radiant barrier.
The largest component will function as a water catchment. It will span
across both ICBU’s and provide some shelter for the breezeway, laundry
area, and front yard. It will also catch the abundant 157 inches of annual
rainfall, which will be diverted to a 10,000 gallon storage tank in the rear of
the house.
22 standard sized photovoltaic panels will cover the remainder of the front
ICBU, and provide some overhang shading.
An extensive green roof will cover the remaining exposed roof area, and
vegetation will carry down to the sides of the ISBU’s. The vegetation can
function as personal agricultural production, such as herbs or vine growing
plants such as sweet potato. An EPDM or some form of water-resistant
barrier will need to be placed under the vegetative layer.
114
Connecting to the Outside Home lifestyle is the biggest defining factor in the quality of life. The natural
aesthetics and that characterize the identity of the community will also be
brought within the residence itself. Panoramic views to the surrounding
forests, will provide a constant connection to place and identity. Dedicated
exterior spaces, a central atrium, and a flowing open floor plan create a light
indoor-outdoor quality which subdues the architectural structure itself.
Albezia The use of albezia wood has the potential to eradicate the invasive plant and
use a locally sourced material. Unfortunately, it is an abundantly fast
growing plant. Although not structurally sound for building loads, it may be
a cheap source for finished surfaces that helps in the preservation of native
species.
115
Figure 35
Figure 36
Figure 37 : Atrium
116
Figure 38 : Exterior Living Spaces
117
Figure 39 : Exterior Views
118
REFERENCES
119
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
TERM DEFINITION
Ahupua`a Land division which manages natural resources, political oversight, and population sufficiency on a community level
`Āina Land, Earth, Country
Akua Natural Gods, Deities, Spirits
Ali`i Chiefs
Canoe Plants Plants brought by Polynesian Settlers
DHHL The Department of Hawaiian Home Lands
Endemic Native species found no where else in the world
Fragmentation The splitting, severing, disconnection, or isolation of continuous natural habitats
Indigenous Native species also found in other regions of the world
Konohiki Ali`i class who oversaw ahupua`a work and resources
Lōkahi Unity, Agreement, Accord, Unison, Harmony, Connection; traditionally pertaining to that between Man, Gods, and Nature
Maka`āinana Common class workers who labored in cultivation and crafts
Makai In the direction of the Ocean
Mana Spiritual power, energy, or essence
Mauka Toward the Mountains
Mō`ī Absolute King or high ruler of an island
Moku Large land division of an island
120
Mokupuni Island
Sprawl “Unplanned, unregulated, careless development which takes over land and resources” [Delores Hayden]
Waiwai Rich in water, resources, goods, wealth
121
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