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PARTICIPANT GUIDE

Critical Thinking for Problem Solving

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Critical Thinking for Problem Solving Course #4060 Version: 21-03-09

CRITICAL THINKING FOR PROBLEM SOLVING

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Syllabus .............................................................................................................................. 8

Course Overview ............................................................................................................... 8

Who Takes This Course ................................................................................................. 8

Learning Objectives ........................................................................................................ 8

Prerequisites .................................................................................................................. 8

Course Expectations .......................................................................................................... 8

Required Texts ............................................................................................................... 8

Course Schedule ............................................................................................................ 9

Requirements for Successful Completion ..................................................................... 10

Professional Benefits ....................................................................................................... 10

Opening Exercise ............................................................................................................. 12

Exercise: Virtual Team-Building ....................................................................................... 12

Module 1: The Critical Thinker ...................................................................................... 14

Elements of Critical Thinking ............................................................................... 15 Lesson 1:

1.1 Defining Critical Thinking ....................................................................................... 15

1.1.1 Exercise: Exploring Critical Thinking ................................................................ 17

1.2 Components of Critical Thinking ............................................................................ 19

1.3 Critical Thinking Applications ................................................................................. 19

Traits of Effective Critical Thinkers ...................................................................... 21 Lesson 2:

2.1 Exercise: Examining Critical Thinking Qualities ..................................................... 22

2.2 Characteristics of Critical Thinkers ........................................................................ 24

2.3 Critical Thinking Practices ..................................................................................... 24

2.4 Exercise: Critical Thinking Self-Assessment .......................................................... 25

Module 2: Overcoming Critical Thinking Barriers ....................................................... 28

Understanding Our Thinking ................................................................................ 29 Lesson 1:

1.1 Attention Systems .................................................................................................. 29

1.1.1 Promoting Thoughtful Attention ........................................................................ 31

1.2 The Role of Emotions ............................................................................................ 32

1.3 Metacognition ........................................................................................................ 32

1.3.1 Metacognitive Strategies .................................................................................. 33

1.4 Exercise: The Problem with Fireplaces .................................................................. 34

Obstacles to Critical Thinking .............................................................................. 37 Lesson 2:

2.1 Blocks to Critical Thinking ...................................................................................... 37

2.1.1 Using Metacognition ........................................................................................ 38

TABLE OF CONTENTS

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2.2 Groupthink ............................................................................................................. 38

2.2.1 Exercise: A Case Study of Groupthink ............................................................. 40

2.3 Ladder of Inference ............................................................................................... 43

2.4 Logical Fallacies .................................................................................................... 43

2.4.1 Exercise: Overcoming Logical Fallacies ........................................................... 45

Module 3: A Model for Problem Solving ....................................................................... 48

Framing the Problem ........................................................................................... 49 Lesson 1:

1.1 Problem-Solving Model.......................................................................................... 49

1.1.1 Benefits of the Model ....................................................................................... 50

1.2 Defining the Problem ............................................................................................. 50

1.2.1 Gap Analysis .................................................................................................... 50

1.2.2 Problem Statements ........................................................................................ 51

1.2.3 Exercise: Writing a Problem Statement ............................................................ 52

1.3 Determining the Root Cause ................................................................................. 53

1.3.1 Five Whys ........................................................................................................ 54

1.3.2 Exercise: Identifying the Root Cause ............................................................... 55

Developing and Implementing Solutions .............................................................. 57 Lesson 2:

2.1 Developing Possible Solutions............................................................................... 57

2.2 Choosing the Best Solution ................................................................................... 58

2.3 Implementing the Solution ..................................................................................... 58

2.3.1 Course Correction ............................................................................................ 58

2.4 Evaluating the Results ........................................................................................... 59

2.5 Exercise: Finding and Evaluating Solutions ........................................................... 61

Module 4: Problem Solving Strategies ......................................................................... 64

Strategies for Creative Thinking and Innovation .................................................. 65 Lesson 1:

1.1 Defining Creative Thinking ..................................................................................... 65

1.1.1 A Model for Creativity ....................................................................................... 65

1.1.2 Research in Creative Cognition ........................................................................ 66

1.2 Divergent and Convergent Thinking....................................................................... 67

1.3 Ideation Techniques .............................................................................................. 68

1.3.1 Brainstorming ................................................................................................... 68

1.3.2 6-3-5 Method ................................................................................................... 69

1.3.3 Mind Mapping .................................................................................................. 69

1.3.4 Storyboarding .................................................................................................. 70

1.4 Supporting Innovation ............................................................................................ 70

1.4.1 Values of Innovative Leadership ...................................................................... 71

1.5 Exercise: Generating Creative Solutions ............................................................... 73

CRITICAL THINKING FOR PROBLEM SOLVING

Tools for Solving Problems .................................................................................. 75 Lesson 2:

2.1 SWOT Analysis ..................................................................................................... 75

2.2 Journalistic Six ...................................................................................................... 76

2.3 Fishbone Diagram ................................................................................................. 76

2.4 Six Thinking Hats ................................................................................................... 77

2.5 Agreement and Certainty Matrix ............................................................................ 78

2.6 Exercise: Using Problem-Solving Tools ................................................................. 79

Module 5: Leading through Problem Solving .............................................................. 82

Cultivating Buy-in ................................................................................................ 83 Lesson 1:

1.1 Managing Change ................................................................................................. 83

1.1.1 Barriers to Problem Solving.............................................................................. 83

1.2 The Power of Socializing ....................................................................................... 84

1.2.1 Identifying Stakeholders ................................................................................... 85

1.2.2 Proactively Facilitating Change ........................................................................ 85

1.2.3 Building Cultural Affiliation ............................................................................... 86

1.3 Exercise: Creating a Commitment to Problem Solving ........................................... 88

Selling the Decision ............................................................................................. 89 Lesson 2:

2.1 Political Considerations ......................................................................................... 89

2.1.1 Managing Up ................................................................................................... 89

2.2 Engaging in Change Conversations....................................................................... 90

2.2.1 What's in It for Me? (WIIFM) ............................................................................ 90

2.2.2 Communicating the Big Picture ........................................................................ 91

2.3 Exercise: Communicating the Decision .................................................................. 92

Module 6: Problem Solving Workshop ......................................................................... 95

Collaborative Problem Solving ............................................................................. 96 Lesson 1:

1.1 Exercise: Problem Solving Through Conversation ................................................. 97

Action Plan .............................................................................................. 100 Resource A:

Overview ........................................................................................................................ 100

Part I: Key Learning Points ............................................................................................ 100

Part II: On the Job .......................................................................................................... 102

Presentation Slides ................................................................................ 105 Resource B:

Bibliography ................................................................................................................... 145

TABLE OF CONTENTS

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Syllabus

SYLLABUS

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SYLLABUS

COURSE OVERVIEW

When workplace problems arise, individuals and teams need to think critically and develop

solutions. Organizations that promote critical thinking are better equipped to solve problems,

identify opportunities, and effectively manage change. Explore characteristics of critical thinkers and

identify strategies for overcoming common thinking patterns. Use tools and strategies to apply to

your current workplace situations.

Who Takes This Course

This course is intended for professionals who want to change thinking patterns to solve workplace

problems.

Learning Objectives

 Analyze qualities and habits of effective critical thinkers

 Evaluate strategies for overcoming common barriers to critical thinking

 Incorporate a formal model into workplace problem-solving efforts

 Use various tools and strategies to generate ideas for workplace problems

 Demonstrate leadership techniques to support problem-solving efforts

 Use collaboration to effectively solve workplace problems

Prerequisites

There are no prerequisites for this course.

COURSE EXPECTATIONS

Required Texts

The following required materials will be issued to each participant and will be used throughout the

course.

Management Concepts®, Critical Thinking for Problem Solving © Includes text, appendices, and

handouts.

Access electronic course materials on Student Central at

https://managementconcepts.csod.com.

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CRITICAL THINKING FOR PROBLEM SOLVING

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Course Schedule

Day One

Morning Welcome and Introductory Exercise

Module 1: The Critical Thinker

Lunch

Afternoon Module 2: Overcoming Critical Thinking Barriers

Day Two

Morning Module 3: A Model for Problem Solving

Lunch

SYLLABUS

10 © Management Concepts. See inside front cover for additional details.

Day Two

Afternoon Module 4: Problem Solving Strategies

Day Three

Morning Module 5: Leading Through Problem Solving

Lunch

Afternoon Module 6: Problem Solving Workshop

Requirements for Successful Completion

Attendance and Participation

Full (100%) attendance is expected and required. Successful completion of the course depends on

full class attendance and active participation in individual and group exercises.

PROFESSIONAL BENEFITS

Many Management Concepts courses are designed to meet the standards and requirements of

leading industry organizations. Participants seeking information regarding earned credentials or

recognition, such as college and continuing education credit and professional certification, should

refer to the certificate of completion issued at the end of the course.

Refer to Website For additional information about credits and certifications available for Management Concepts courses, please visit: https://www.managementconcepts.com/Certifications/Professional- Certifications-Training/Certifications-Training

https://www.managementconcepts.com/Certifications/Professional-Certifications-Training/Certifications-Training

Opening Exercise

OPENING EXERCISE

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OPENING EXERCISE

EXERCISE: VIRTUAL TEAM-BUILDING Directions

Introduce yourselves to your teammates, sharing your: 1.

— Name

— Job title and agency

— Years of experience

Review the scenario. As a group: 2.

— Identify the problem

— Identify five strategies or processes to suggest to senior management to address the

problem

Be prepared to discuss your perspective with the class. 3.

Scenario For years, the work of your organization took place in one central building. If there was someone you needed to talk to, you could simply walk over to their cubicle or office. However, this workplace environment has dramatically changed within the last couple of years, as the pandemic forced many people to work from home. Additionally, your organization has hired a number of new employees and contractors from around the country to meet the needs of mission-critical projects.

Though many people have thrived working in virtual teams, it has also had some negative consequences. A recent organizational survey found that employees felt less connected to their teammates and supervisors. Similarly, communication has been more challenging, and many people believe work is being accomplished less efficiently. As a result of these findings, senior management has gathered a cross-functional team to evaluate ways to promote team-building in an increasingly virtual environment.

The Critical Thinker

MODULE 1 | THE CRITICAL THINKER

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THE CRITICAL THINKER

Module Objective

 Analyze the role of critical thinking as an essential leadership skill

In an increasingly complex world, the ability to think rationally is more important than ever. In our

professional lives, we are often confronted with complex legal and ethical issues that demand keen

judgment. We need the ability to evaluate and synthesize facts, make coherent arguments, and

persuade others of our point of view. Critical thinking is at the core of all of these skills. Improving

your critical thinking skills will help you navigate difficult workplace situations and effectively solve

problems.

Lessons

1. Elements of Critical Thinking

2. Traits of Effective Critical Thinkers

MODULE 1 | THE CRITICAL THINKER

LESSON 1

ELEMENTS OF CRITICAL THINKING

Lesson Objective

After completing this lesson, you will be able to: 1.1.1 Describe the applications of critical thinking in the workplace

The word critical comes from the Greek word kritikos meaning to discern, choose, or judge. This is

an apt origin for the modern concept of critical thinking, as we analytically filter information in our

environments to make sound decisions. Critical thinking is at the heart of a number of important

workplace skills, including analyzing data, communicating effectively, and aligning our actions to

long-term goals. In this lesson, we delve into the concept of critical thinking and consider its benefits

in our personal and professional lives.

1.1 DEFINING CRITICAL THINKING

Though there is no single accepted definition for critical thinking, a number of prominent scholars

have laid the foundation for better understanding of the term.

In speaking for the National Council for Excellence in Critical Thinking Instruction, Michael Scriven

and Richard Paul defined the term in this way:1

"Critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully

conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information

gathered from or generated by: observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or

communication, as a guide to belief and action."

Paul also teamed up with educational psychologist Linda Elder to write books on critical thinking.

This pair defines the term as:2

"That mode of thinking—about any subject, content, or problem—in which the thinker

improves the quality of his or her thinking by skillfully taking charge of the structures

inherent in thinking and imposing intellectual standards upon them."

Educator Diane F. Halpern offers a slightly different definition in her book, Thought and Knowledge:

An Introduction to Critical Thinking:3

"Critical thinking is the use of those cognitive skills or strategies that increase the

probability of a positive outcome. It is used to describe thinking that is purposeful,

reasoned, and goal directed - the kind of thinking involved in problem solving,

formulating inferences, calculating likelihoods, and making decisions when the

1 Scriven and Paul 2003

2 Paul and Elder 2010

3 Halpern 1996

LESSON 1 | ELEMENTS OF CRITICAL THINKING

16 © Management Concepts. See inside front cover for additional details.

thinker is using skills that are thoughtful and effective for the particular context and

type of thinking task."

Inherent to these definitions is the idea of using critical thinking to enact positive change. We

generally think critically for two reasons: to solve problems or maximize opportunities. In this way,

critical thinking serves as a tool to make our lives easier. It is also important to recognize that critical

thinking is not an innate ability; rather, it is a learned skill that can be improved with intentional

practice.

MODULE 1 | THE CRITICAL THINKER

1.1.1 EXERCISE: EXPLORING CRITICAL THINKING Directions

Review each statement related to critical thinking. 1.

Indicate whether each statement is true or false. 2.

Statements

1. Critical thinking is the same as disagreement.

2. Critical thinking is primarily about picking apart the arguments of others.

3. Critical thinking requires imagination and creativity.

4. Critical thinking can be applied only to the beliefs and positions that you hold yourself.

5. Subjecting creative ideas to critical thinking usually improves the outcome.

6. The best critical thinkers possess both skepticism as well as optimism.

7. Critical thinking allows you to dominate others.

8. Effective critical thinkers learn from the criticism of others.

9. A part of critical thinking is finding flaws in, and correcting, one’s own fundamental beliefs.

10. Critical thinkers consider a number of alternative views.

11. Effective critical thinkers possess both knowledge about the topic, as well as the ability to

suspend their preconceived notions.

LESSON 1 | ELEMENTS OF CRITICAL THINKING

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12. Successful critical thinkers understand that they need to balance their thinking skills (cognition)

with problem solving (application).

MODULE 1 | THE CRITICAL THINKER

1.2 COMPONENTS OF CRITICAL THINKING The Paul-Elder Critical Thinking framework is one of the most widely used and accepted models in the academic community. This model outlines three essential components of critical thought:4

Intellectual Standards. These universal standards help society evaluate the soundness and 1.

quality of critical thinking. Think of these standards as the tools you would use to analyze the

thinking of a friend or colleague.

Elements of Reasoning. These elements form the bedrock of thought. When expressing a 2.

thought or making an argument, these are the component pieces that combine to form a

coherent perspective.

Intellectual Traits. Consistently applying intellectual standards and elements of reasoning 3.

leads to the development of productive personal traits. These are the critical thinking qualities

we admire in others and strive to achieve for ourselves.

These components seamlessly interact on a daily basis,

allowing us to make sense of the world. Consider a

work meeting in which your manager proposes a

significant process change for your functional team. As

a critical thinker, you listen intently to the elements of

reasoning put forward by your manager justifying the

change. Internally, you evaluate these ideas based on

accepted intellectual standards, considering whether the rationale makes coherent sense. If your

manager's ideas make rational sense, you may conclude that he or she has positive intellectual

traits that are conducive to critical thinking in the future.

1.3 CRITICAL THINKING APPLICATIONS Critical thinking has many useful applications. At work, critical thinking allows us to:

 Identify purposes, assumptions, and consequences

 Recognize biases and contradictions

 See clarity in contrast to confusion

 Distinguish:

— Central from peripheral concerns

— Relevant from irrelevant statements

— Accurate from inaccurate accounts

— Good reasons from bad reasons

 Recognize different perspectives

 Draw reasonable inferences

 Provide evidence to back up conclusions

4 Paul and Elder 2010

Intellectual standards, elements of reasoning, and intellectual traits allow us to think critically and evaluate

the thinking of others

Critical thinking helps us process and make sense of complex stimuli in our environment

LESSON 1 | ELEMENTS OF CRITICAL THINKING

20 © Management Concepts. See inside front cover for additional details.

Discussion

 How would developing your personal critical thinking skills improve your current role?

 How would developing the critical thinking skills on your team help your entire organization?

MODULE 1 | THE CRITICAL THINKER

LESSON 2

TRAITS OF EFFECTIVE CRITICAL

THINKERS

Lesson Objective

After completing this lesson, you will be able to: 1.2.1 Analyze the traits and characteristics of effective critical thinkers

What makes someone an effective critical thinker? There is no singular trait or quality that makes

someone more skilled at thinking critically. Rather, there are many associated traits, skills, and

behaviors that contribute to more analytical thought patterns. Evaluating our own strengths and

weaknesses allows us to take a targeted approach to incorporating critical thinking into our

leadership toolbox.

LESSON 2 | TRAITS OF EFFECTIVE CRITICAL THINKERS

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2.1 EXERCISE: EXAMINING CRITICAL THINKING QUALITIES

Directions

Review the case study on Stanislav Petrov. 1.

Working in groups, identify examples of critical thinking used by Petrov. 2.

Be prepared to share with the class. 3.

MODULE 1 | THE CRITICAL THINKER

Case Study: Stanislav Petrov1

On September 26, 1983, tensions were high in the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union. Earlier in the month, a Soviet jet had accidentally shot down a passenger plane, killing all 269 people on board including 62 Americans (one of whom was U.S. congressman Larry McDonald). Both nations were on high alert and had nuclear missiles ready to launch at the first sign of provocation.

On this fateful night, Soviet Air Defense Forcers Lieutenant Colonel Stanislav Petrov sat in the command center of the secret underground bunker of Serpukhov-15. The bunker monitored American nuclear missile activity allowing Soviet leaders to quickly respond to a preemptive attack. Sirens echoed throughout the bunker as Soviet satellites detected that the U.S. had launched five intercontinental ballistic missiles at the Soviet Union. This was not a test. The programming of the Soviet system used multiple failsafes to prevent false alarms. Petrov's job was clear: he was to immediately report this information to his superiors so the Soviet military could retaliate against the United States before catastrophic damage was done.

Despite clear warning signs from satellites, Petrov questioned what he was seeing. Instead of immediately triggering a response, Petrov took a few moments to reflect on the facts. Though the computerized warning system used state-of-the-art technology, it still had previously malfunctioned. Additionally, during his military training, Petrov was taught that any preemptive attack by the U.S. was likely to be an overwhelming show of force to fully destroy Soviet capabilities. If the U.S. government wanted to start World War III, why would it only shoot five missiles rather than the hundreds it had stockpiled? Petrov's suspicion grew when ground radar could not confirm the presence of U.S. missiles after several minutes.

Pressed for time and facing opposition from others in the bunker, Petrov determined that the warnings were a false alarm. His instincts were confirmed when no U.S. missiles arrived. After months of interrogation and investigation, the Soviets determined that the system was incorrectly triggered by the improbable alignment of sunlight reflecting off high-altitude clouds. Petrov's quick analytical thinking likely saved millions, if not billions, of lives. Years later, he reflected on his decision stating Petrov's decision likely saved millions, if not billions, of lives.

1 Shuster 2017

LESSON 2 | TRAITS OF EFFECTIVE CRITICAL THINKERS

24 © Management Concepts. See inside front cover for additional details.

2.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF CRITICAL THINKERS Character traits are the recurring behaviors, attitudes, and emotions that comprise our personality. A great deal of cognitive research has been devoted to searching for common character traits shared by our most analytical thinkers. These traits include:

 Ability to think metacognitively (thinking about your

thinking)

 Intellectual curiosity

 Empathy toward others

 Courage to express ideas outside the mainstream

 Resilience in working through challenges and problems

 Confidence in one's own thinking abilities

 Frequent questioning and inquiry

 Open mind to new ways of thinking

 Ability to think independently from a group

 Willingness to change and explore new possibilities

 Logical thinking

 Self-discipline in approaching problems

2.3 CRITICAL THINKING PRACTICES Leaders who want to expand their critical thinking abilities can explore these practices:

 Reflect on individual thinking patterns, biases, and tendencies

 Ask others to challenge your thinking and assumptions

 Research professional journals, blogs, and white papers to expand your knowledge base

 Ask questions for clarity and to communicate interest

 Practice active listening

 Analyze facts, figures, and data to inform your opinion

 Evaluate the evidence behind your beliefs and arguments

 Suspend immediate judgment

Critical thinkers have many different qualities beyond the ability to think rationally

MODULE 1 | THE CRITICAL THINKER

2.4 EXERCISE: CRITICAL THINKING SELF-ASSESSMENT

Directions

Individually, read the list of skill statements related to critical thinking 1.

Assess your agreement with each statement on a 1–5 scale and record your rating in the 2.

"Rating" column of the table.

Tally your overall score by adding all of the numbers in the "Rating" column of the table. Then, 3.

use the Overall Rating Scale to determine your results.

Be prepared to discuss with the class. 4.

Rating Competency Levels:

 5 = Strongly Agree

 4 = Agree

 3 = Undecided

 2 = Disagree

 1 = Strongly Disagree

TABLE: CRITICAL THINKING SKILL STATEMENTS

Skill Rating

In a disagreement with someone else, I make an attempt to listen as much as I speak.

I regularly seek out points of view other than my own.

I spend significant time specifically defining a problem before attempting to solve it.

I appreciate differences in how others think.

I regularly take time to review decisions I have made.

I am aware of my own emotional state when there is a difference of opinion.

I regularly question the data used to support points of view.

I regularly differentiate between data or facts versus opinions.

Overall rating

Overall Rating Scale:

 40–35. You exhibit virtually all the main tendencies used by critical thinkers.

 34–30. You exhibit most of the main tendencies used by critical thinkers.

 29–25. You exhibit some of the main tendencies used by critical thinkers.

 24 or less. You exhibit few of the main tendencies used by critical thinkers.

MODULE 1 | THE CRITICAL THINKER

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Action Planning

Refer to the Action Plan and record ideas to implement from this module.

Overcoming Critical Thinking Barriers

MODULE 2 | OVERCOMING CRITICAL THINKING BARRIERS

28 © Management Concepts. See inside front cover for additional details.

OVERCOMING CRITICAL THINKING

BARRIERS

Module Objective

 Evaluate strategies for overcoming common barriers to critical thinking

Despite our best efforts, humans are not perfectly rational creatures. Our past experiences,

emotions, and group dynamics influence our ability to think critically. When defective arguments

and biased reasoning affects our thinking, we struggle to make sound decisions. The most

successful leaders are able to understand how the brain processes information and reflect on their

own thinking to avoid critical thinking breakdowns.

Lessons

1. Understanding Our Thinking

2. Obstacles to Critical Thinking

MODULE 2 | OVERCOMING CRITICAL THINKING BARRIERS

LESSON 1

UNDERSTANDING OUR THINKING

Lesson Objective

After completing this lesson, you will be able to: 2.1.1 Use metacognition to support critical thinking efforts

Imagine this scenario: you are sitting in a meeting with your team and someone is delivering a

status update. As you are listening, your mind begins to wander to other work-related tasks, such

as whether a client has responded to your email or mentally rehearsing a presentation you have to

deliver later in the day. Suddenly, your name is mentioned in the meeting and your attention snaps

back into focus. Though you heard everything said in the meeting, you were not fully present.

Struggling to remain present and focused is a common occurrence, particularly in today's fast-

paced work environments. If you pay close enough attention, you will notice that your brain is

pulling you in many different directions at the same time. If our brains could only complete one task

at a time, it would be very difficult to achieve strategic goals or navigate a complex world. However,

it is also possible to become lost in thought and not fully engaged in the present moment.

Successful leaders are able to take a reflective approach to their thinking and redirect attention to

beneficial thinking patterns.

Discussion

 Listen to the prompt from the instructor. Pay close attention to the process and experience of how your thoughts develop.

1.1 ATTENTION SYSTEMS According to Nobel Prize winner Daniel Kahneman, the brain contains two information processing systems:1

Automatic system. An involuntary system that rapidly responds to stimuli. 1.

Reflective system. A voluntary, conscious part of the brain that chooses where to focus 2.

attention.

1 Kahneman 2011

LESSON 1 | UNDERSTANDING OUR THINKING

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TABLE: KAHNEMAN TWO-SYSTEM MODEL

System Characteristics

Automatic System This system is:

 Involuntary

 Always on

 Subconscious

 Reactive

 Fast

Reflective System This system is:

 Deductive

 Self-aware

 Effortful

 Rational

 Self-control

Subjectively, it may seem that the reflective system governs most decisions in our lives. However,

Kahneman's research suggests that most decisions actually come from the automatic system

simply responding to environmental stimuli. The reflective system is responsible for the willful

concentration and attention we choose to place on a specific subject. This system is bombarded

with sensory and emotional inputs from the automatic system. Thus, it takes real mental effort and

practice to focus our attention to think critically. We must recognize our tendency to respond

impulsively and succumb to distraction.

Discussion

 What distracts you?

 When you realize you are distracted, how do you regain focus?

MODULE 2 | OVERCOMING CRITICAL THINKING BARRIERS

1.1.1 Promoting Thoughtful Attention

Because all thoughts originate in the brain, taking care of it is essential to critical thinking. Practice and reinforce these behaviors in your daily life to promote critical thinking:

 Exercise. Exercise, even for short intervals of time, has been found to have a number of

positive effects on the brain. Exercise boosts brain function through the creation of new blood

vessels used to carry oxygen and nutrients to the brain. Exercise has also been shown to

increase the production of various chemicals that promote the growth and repair of brain cells

and neurons. Finally, exercise increases the presence of neurotransmitters like dopamine and

serotonin that are instrumental in our mood and wakefulness.2

 Sleep. There is a wealth of research available documenting the effects of sleep on cognitive

processes. David Dinges found that a lack of sleep results in slower reaction times and loss of

attention when performing certain tasks.3 Other studies have shown that sleep deprivation has a

profound negative impact on mood, working memory, higher-level cognitive processes, and

motor function. Getting restful sleep each night ensures that the brain is able to flush out toxins,

repair neurons, and build new connections.

 Meditation. Meditation can come in a number of forms, but a growing amount of research has

shown that focused-attention (commonly known as "mindfulness") mediation has a number of

effects on the functions of the brain. By conducting brain scans during meditation, researchers

have found physical changes taking place in the frontal lobe, thalamus, and parietal lobe. These

neurophysiological changes have been found to result in:4

— Less anxiety

— Increased focus

— Increased creativity

— Increased compassion and empathy

— Less stress

— Better working memory

Tips for Practicing Mindfulness

To incorporate mindful reflection into your daily routine, consider these practices:

 Focus first on your breathing

 Use wait times—at the elevator, turning on the computer, on hold—to your advantage

 Repeat a motivating or inspiring phrase

 Recognize your thoughts, then let them go

 Build in 5 minutes to your morning routine for reflection

 Allow your mind to wander and daydream

2 McDowell-Larsen 2015

3 Lambert 2005

4 Cooper 2013

LESSON 1 | UNDERSTANDING OUR THINKING

32 © Management Concepts. See inside front cover for additional details.

1.2 THE ROLE OF EMOTIONS

Our emotions also play a significant role in how we think. There is a good biological reason for this;

our brains are hardwired to keep us alive and safe from imminent threats. When we perceive a

threat to our physical or emotional well-being, our brains instantly trigger a negative emotional

reaction. One specific part of the brain, the amygdala, serves as an emotional memory bank. When

you are in an emotional situation, this part of the brain tests the current situation against what you

have experienced in the past and quickly instigates a response. In essence, the amygdala serves

as the crisis center for your emotional self.

While threats push us to adopt a fight or flight response, our brains are reinforced by rewards in the

environment. We remember situations that triggered positive emotional response and seek to

replicate these moments. Part of developing emotional intelligence is the acceptance that we have

very little control of our instinctive reactions or the neurochemistry of our brains. However,

understanding the mechanics of our internal processes gives us the power to better manage our

emotional responses and behavior.

Responding to threats results in:

 Limited critical thinking

 Avoidance behaviors

 Narrow perspectives

 A lack of communication with others

Responding to possible rewards results in:

 More rational and critical thinking

 Willingness to tackle difficult problems

 Greater perspective

 Improved communication with others

1.3 METACOGNITION

After suffering from a lapse in judgment, you might ask,

"What was I thinking?" This self-reflection is the

foundation of metacognition. Metacognition refers to the

process of critically thinking about one’s own thinking.

This requires honest reflection on how thoughts

develop, the tendencies in our thinking, and how the

environment may be influencing our attention. Using

metacognition is a crucial tool for learning and

improving critical thinking skills. While it is useful for

analyzing past decisions, it can also be used to stay in

touch with how our brains are processing information in

the present moment.

To practice metacognition, ask yourself:

 What am I feeling right now?

 What specifically is causing me to feel this way?

 When have I felt this way before? What is similar or different about this situation?

 What story am I telling myself right now?

Metacognition is the intentional practice of examining what is behind the curtain in how thoughts develop

MODULE 2 | OVERCOMING CRITICAL THINKING BARRIERS

 How might I be contributing to the problem or conflict?

 What am I noticing? What am I pretending not to notice?

 What is my gut telling me?

 What am I doing automatically without special attention?

1.3.1 Metacognitive Strategies

Consider these strategies when trying to encourage metacognitive thinking:

 Mindfulness. Mindfulness is an intentional process of focusing on our awareness of the present

moment. This practice involves noticing the thoughts, feelings, and sensations taking place at

any given moment. Building in brief check-ins throughout the day allows us to more consciously

examine the mental processes driving our beliefs and actions.

 Knowledge evaluations. These types of assessments can be done formally or informally as a

means of identifying preexisting knowledge and knowledge gained over a period of time. Before

attempting to solve a problem or explore an issue, we should consider what we already know

and what needs to be discovered. Similarly, after using critical thinking strategies, we can reflect

upon our learning experiences and consider how to use this information in the future.

 Journaling. Journaling allows us to articulate and monitor our thoughts over time. When

considering an issue or problem, writing down our thoughts allows us to reflect upon what

worked well and what can be improved upon in the future.

 Self-questioning. At its core, metacognition is a process of self-reflection and inquiry. By

asking pointed questions, we can better monitor our own thinking and actions.

LESSON 1 | UNDERSTANDING OUR THINKING

34 © Management Concepts. See inside front cover for additional details.

1.4 EXERCISE: THE PROBLEM WITH FIREPLACES

Directions

Listen closely as the facilitator reads the prompt. 1.

As you listen, pay close attention to: 2.

— Your thought processes

— Your emotional responses

Be prepared to discuss with the class. 3.

MODULE 2 | OVERCOMING CRITICAL THINKING BARRIERS

Scenario For many Americans, few things are more enjoyable than sitting around a living room fireplace with your loved ones on a frigid winter evening. Fire provides warmth and smells that are both pleasant and relaxing. However, these feelings of comfort mask a dangerous truth: Burning wood fires is bad for you, your family, and the environment.

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has implemented a voluntary "Burn Wise" program aimed at educating the public on the issues surrounding burning wood.5 Burning wood releases microscopic particles that contain gases known to be harmful to humans, including carbon monoxide, benzene, formaldehyde, and acrolein. Short-term exposure to these particles has been linked to dry eye, asthma, and bronchitis, while long-term exposure has been linked to the development of cancer and chronic lung problems as well as negative developmental and reproductive effects.

EPA identifies these groups as particularly vulnerable to the effects of smoke inhalation:

 Adults suffering from lung or heart disease

 The elderly

 Children

This means that the seemingly innocuous act of burning a wooden fire in your living room exposes you and your family to hazardous, potentially deadly materials. Furthermore, these particles are not contained within your home. Smoke travels out your chimney and contributes significantly to pollution in your neighborhood. According to the EPA website, fireplace smoke contributes to pollution and can magnify the effects of smog, particularly in urban and suburban areas. Thus, even a small wooden fire burning safely in your house can have a negative impact on your neighbors and the environment around your house.

For many Americans, wood burning is a purely recreational activity and is not used for home heating. For the minority of people who use fireplaces for warmth in the winter out of necessity, EPA has offered a number of "Change Out" campaigns, providing financial subsidies to families willing to exchange older wooden stoves for EPA-certified stoves. In addition to significantly reduce pollution and health risks, these stoves are more energy-efficient, reducing the long-term costs of heating. EPA also identifies alternatives to wood, such as natural gas and hydronic heaters, that are more efficient sources of heat.

5 EPA 2016

LESSON 1 | UNDERSTANDING OUR THINKING

36 © Management Concepts. See inside front cover for additional details.

The scientific evidence is clear: Your neighbors, children, and society as a whole are indisputably harmed when you choose to build a fire in your fireplace. There are many sources of pollution in the world that are unavoidable, but with so many cleaner heating options readily available in the developed world, there is no justification for burning wood.

Refer to Website To learn more about EPA's programs, visit: https://www.epa.gov/burnwise

https://www.epa.gov/burnwise

MODULE 2 | OVERCOMING CRITICAL THINKING BARRIERS

LESSON 2

OBSTACLES TO CRITICAL THINKING

Lesson Objective

After completing this lesson, you will be able to: 2.2.1 Identify common obstacles to thinking critically

Even the most effective and experienced critical thinkers can struggle with unhelpful thought

patterns. Though we sometimes view ourselves as unbiased observers of the world, we are all

susceptible to cultural and group influences, logical fallacies, and self-deception. The key to re-

establishing productive critical thinking is to recognize these tendencies before they influence our

actions and decisions.

Discussion

 Consider a time when you made a decision without fully thinking through its consequences. What stopped you from practicing critical thinking during this situation?

2.1 BLOCKS TO CRITICAL THINKING Humans struggle with many of the same critical thinking obstacles. Common obstacles to critical thinking include:

 Egocentricity. A tendency to view everything in relation to oneself. Most of us not only avoid

views contrary to our own, but we systematically expel them from our experience. We often

resist change because we perceive it to be a threat to our natural status quo. Because of this

feeling, people are inclined to favor and defend the positions, values, traditions, and groups with

which they identify.

 Frame of reference. People have a tendency to view the world (and themselves) through a

specific lens of understanding. This belief structure undergoes constant change and revision

with incoming information. Large portions of our belief structure normally function unexamined

and below the threshold of awareness, which makes it more likely that it contains mistaken

beliefs.

— Monological thinking is one-dimensional thinking that is conducted exclusively within one

frame of reference

— Multilogical thinking sympathetically considers multiple points of view

 Self-deception. Persisting in believing what we want to believe in spite of overwhelming

evidence to the contrary. This sometimes takes the form of denial—simply refusing to believe

that a painful situation exists.

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 Ethnocentricity. A tendency to view one’s own race or culture as central, based on the deep-

seated belief that one's own group is superior to all others.

 Cultural conditioning. Humans are naturally social beings, and our welfare as individuals is

largely determined by how well we do within our groups and how well our groups do. There is a

natural tendency in any group toward conformity and orthodoxy. Although this cultural

conditioning helps the individual and group survive, it also contributes greatly to our human

fallibility—nothing guarantees that the orthodox views within a given group will always be the

correct ones or even the most advantageous ones for the group or its individual members. Both

orthodoxy and conformity are blocks to critical thinking.

2.1.1 Using Metacognition

Metacognition is a powerful tool for combatting these critical thinking obstacles. Often, errors in

judgment come from making quick decisions without proper reflection. Taking the time to stop and

consider our thinking process allows us to navigate through cognitive and emotional pitfalls.

Beneficial metacognitive strategies for critical thinking include:

 Practicing nonjudgmental awareness. This process involves using selective attention to gain

awareness of your surrounding environment without immediately passing judgment or reaching

conclusions. The goal is simply to notice what is going on around you without ascribing labels or

making normative evaluations.

 Reflecting upon our own knowledge. In this process, you consider what you know, what you

don't know, and what you need to know to make a proper decision. It is also worth reflecting on

possible "unknown unknowns"—gaps in your information that you have not consciously

considered. Sometimes, simply admitting that there is much to be learned is a sufficient

reminder to avoid jumping to early conclusions.

 Practicing self-questioning. Metacognition involves exploring the underlying origins of our

thinking. This can be spurred by asking reflective questions that uncover insights about our

cognitive processes and thinking strategies.

 Regulating emotional responses. Instead of letting emotions impulsively drive our decision

making, take time to ask yourself:

— What emotions am I experiencing?

— How are these emotions affecting my thinking?

2.2 GROUPTHINK

Group dynamics can also disrupt individual critical thinking. Groupthink is a proclivity among

members of moderately or highly cohesive groups to preserve the harmony of the group and avoid

creating any discordant arguments or schisms. When this tendency is dominant, members go along

uncritically with the emerging consensus.

MODULE 2 | OVERCOMING CRITICAL THINKING BARRIERS

When social psychologist Irving Janis first began researching the phenomenon in the 1970s and 1980s, he noticed that groupthink tends to occur more frequently under certain conditions:1

 The group is led by a powerful or charismatic leader

 There is high cohesion among group members

 There is external pressure to make a decision

Tips for combatting groupthink:

 Promote a culture of openness without fear of repercussion with disagreement

 Include outside vendors or experts to sit in on meetings for important decisions

 Limit the size of team meetings to ensure all voices are heard

 Avoid stating opinions at the beginning of a discussion

 Assign a team member to play the role of devil's advocate to ensure all ideas have been considered

1 Janis 1982

Creating a safe space for teammates to share dissenting opinions can help reduce the negative

effects of groupthink

LESSON 2 | OBSTACLES TO CRITICAL THINKING

40 © Management Concepts. See inside front cover for additional details.

2.2.1 EXERCISE: A CASE STUDY OF GROUPTHINK Directions

Read the case study on the Salem Witch Trials. 1.

Identify conditions that contributed to groupthink within the Salem community. 2.

Be prepared to discuss with the class. 3.

MODULE 2 | OVERCOMING CRITICAL THINKING BARRIERS

Case Study: The Salem Witch Trials2 In the late seventeenth century, Salem Village, Massachusetts was the site of one of the most infamous political, religious, and social controversies in American history. Colonies in New England were heavily populated by religious groups escaping persecution from England. One such group, the Puritans, had a significant population in the surrounding Salem area. Puritans had many conservative views about religion, including the belief that Satan was actively working through "witches" to destroy communities. The population of the town was highly cohesive and convinced of its moral rightness. Outsiders and non- believers were shunned from the community.

The winter of 1692 was a particularly harsh time for the colony. King William's War (between England and France) had depleted much of the area of food and other natural resources. Villages faced brutal weather conditions, famine, and outbreaks of smallpox. Tensions in the community were further heightened by the controversial appointment of Reverend Samuel Parris to the position of ordained minister for Salem. Parris was seen by many as a strong and antagonistic, frequently ascribing town disputes to the influence of the Devil. As the leader of the church, he had a powerful influence over the community.

In January 1692, Parris' daughter, Elizabeth (age 9), and his niece, Abigail (age 11) began suffering from unexplained tantrums. They would fall to the ground screaming, contorting their bodies, and complaining of being pricked by needles. A few days later, another child began suffering from similar episodes. Absent a clear diagnosis, many in the community believed that witches had infiltrated the community. Local magistrates pressured the girls to provide an explanation. They eventually relented, blaming three local women, including a Caribbean servant named Tituba working in the Parris house.

After days of interrogation and facing penalty of death, Tituba confessed to being influenced by the Devil. She suggested that other witches might still be present in the community. This led to accusations throughout the community, as social and political strife turned into mass hysteria. In May of 1692, the problem had escalated to such a degree that a Special Court had been summoned by the governor to hear witchcraft cases.

In court, those who confessed or placed blame on others were given lighter sentences. Meanwhile, many of those who proclaimed their innocence were hanged. After months of rampant accusations, including of the governor's own wife, Governor Phipps dissolved the Special Court. In May 1693,

2 History.com Editors 2011

LESSON 2 | OBSTACLES TO CRITICAL THINKING

42 © Management Concepts. See inside front cover for additional details.

Phipps pardoned all imprisoned "witches". By that time, nineteen people were hanged, an elderly man was stoned to death, and over two-hundred people had been imprisoned.

Questions

1. Conditions that contributed to groupthink:

MODULE 2 | OVERCOMING CRITICAL THINKING BARRIERS

2.3 LADDER OF INFERENCE

In a perfectly rational world, we would make observations of the external world and develop

sensible beliefs and actions. In practice, our brains sometimes shortcut this process, leading to

beliefs and actions that escape critical analysis. First developed by organizational psychologist

Chris Argyris, the Ladder of Inference is a conceptual tool used across cognitive domains for

showing the process of how observable data is turned into beliefs and actions.

LADDER OF INFERENCE MODEL

Our beliefs can sometimes filter the information we receive from others or the environment. For

example, if you have had an unpleasant experience with a coworker in the past, you may be less

likely to view their ideas with a critical mind. Our minds construct schemas for understanding the

world. While this process can be useful when time is in short supply, it can also lead us to incorrect

assumptions and conclusions.

2.4 LOGICAL FALLACIES

Blocks to critical thinking can lead to fallacies of logic. Fallacies are flaws in reasoning or

weaknesses in an argument that can cause us to reach incorrect conclusions. These fallacies come

from our natural intuitions, shaped by our past experiences, which allow us to quickly process new

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44 © Management Concepts. See inside front cover for additional details.

information and make split-second decisions. However, when these logical fallacies are employed,

our initial intuitions cloud our better judgment.

EXAMPLES OF LOGICAL FALLACIES

Refer to Resource Handout: Examples of Logical Fallacies

MODULE 2 | OVERCOMING CRITICAL THINKING BARRIERS

2.4.1 EXERCISE: OVERCOMING LOGICAL FALLACIES Directions

Working in groups, review the information on your assigned logical fallacies. 1.

You will be responsible for teaching your assigned fallacies to the class. Your presentation 2.

should outline:

— A workplace example explaining each fallacy

— How to recognize when you are using it instead of critical thinking skills

— A strategy for avoiding each fallacy in the future

Be prepared to share with the class. 3.

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46 © Management Concepts. See inside front cover for additional details.

Action Planning

Refer to the Action Plan and record ideas to implement from this module.

A Model for Problem Solving

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48 © Management Concepts. See inside front cover for additional details.

A MODEL FOR PROBLEM SOLVING

Module Objective

 Incorporate a formal model into workplace problem solving efforts

Consider a time when you made a professional decision that you later regretted. What led you to

make the wrong decision? Perhaps it was because you did not have enough upfront information to

guide your thinking. It is also possible you felt pressure to choose one option before taking others

into account. There are many reasons why we might choose a suboptimal decision. Using a

structured framework allows us to take a deliberate approach to working through all facets of

workplace problems.

Poll: Common Issues in Problem Solving

Which of these issues do you routinely encounter when trying to address workplace problems?

o Trying to solve problems that are too large or too vague o Jumping to a solution before analyzing the problem o Failing to involve stakeholders in the problem-solving

process o Attempting to solve problems beyond your control o Relying on familiar solutions for all problems rather than

seeking creative solutions o Failing to develop sound decision criteria and weigh them

appropriately o Failing to develop an action plan to implement the chosen

solution o Failing to monitor the implemented solution to ascertain

whether it is succeeding

Lessons

1. Framing the Problem

2. Developing and Implementing Solutions

MODULE 3 | A MODEL FOR PROBLEM SOLVING

LESSON 1

FRAMING THE PROBLEM

Lesson Objective

After completing this lesson, you will be able to: 3.1.1 Frame the context of workplace problems

When faced with complex problems, many people rush to immediately consider solutions.

Unfortunately, this can sometimes result in suboptimal decisions because the true nature of the

problem was not fully understood. Taking time to properly analyze and communicate the problem is

the key to developing effective long-term solutions. Framing the problem sometimes requires

patience, persistence, and leadership, even as others may be pressing ahead to quickly identify

solutions.

1.1 PROBLEM-SOLVING MODEL PROBLEM-SOLVING MODEL

When attempting to solve a problem, it helps to take a rigorous, structured approach. There are many problem-solving process models available in the academic community, and while there is variation between these models, most contain these six basic steps:

Define the problem. Before a problem can be solved, it must be clearly identified and 1.

articulated. This process cannot be completed in isolation; all relevant stakeholders must be

involved to clearly define the problem from an organizational point of view. These stakeholders

LESSON 1 | FRAMING THE PROBLEM

50 © Management Concepts. See inside front cover for additional details.

must come to a general agreement about the current situation and establish a shared vision for

the future.

Determine root cause. After the problem is defined, the team must begin collecting information 2.

about how and why the problem has occurred. This process involves identifying knowns and

unknowns until the underlying cause of the problem is discovered.

Develop possible solutions. During this step, the team will brainstorm as many ideas as 3.

possible that could address the issue. This step requires openness and creativity; it is important

to consider all ideas and not simply gravitate toward a single solution.

Choose best solution. Each possible solution is evaluated according to the strengths and 4.

weaknesses of its implementation. The team chooses the solution that will best address the

problem and achieve the established vision. The team must adopt a solution that considers

organizational constraints such as cost, resource availability, risk, and time.

Implement solution. This step involves putting the chosen solution into practice. Implementing 5.

a solution requires strategic up-front planning and change management. This stage of planning

requires that all stakeholders understand their roles and responsibilities for achieving project

milestones.

Evaluate results. After the solution has been implemented, the team must monitor whether it 6.

has succeeded or failed in addressing the original problem. This process involves getting

feedback from stakeholders and measuring the costs and benefits to the organization. If the

chosen solution does not adequately address the problem, this cycle begins again in order to

develop a better option.

1.1.1 Benefits of the Model

Taking a structured approach to problem solving provides a number of benefits:

 Ensures everyone has a consistent understanding of processes and the nature of the problem

 Ensures all relevant stakeholders are involved early in the change process

 Allows you to build a convincing business case to management

 Ensures solutions are based on data, facts, and experience

 Ensures that the eventual solution is implemented properly and evaluated for its effectiveness

 Ensures that long-term goals—not simply stopgap solutions—are considered

1.2 DEFINING THE PROBLEM The first steps of the problem-solving model involve defining the problem clearly and determining its underlying causes. These steps can be accomplished through the use of a number of critical thinking strategies:

 Gap analysis

 Developing problem statements

 Root-cause analysis

 Five Whys questioning

1.2.1 Gap Analysis

Problems involve situations where a gap exists between the current state and the desired state. A

gap analysis is a formal comparison between how things are now and how they could potentially be

in the future.

MODULE 3 | A MODEL FOR PROBLEM SOLVING

There are many different types of tools and templates that can be used to conduct a gap analysis. However, the three essential components of any gap analysis are:

 The current state. This requires specific feedback and

data from how the organization is currently functioning.

This data may be collected through interviews,

documentation, observation, or brainstorming sessions

with invested stakeholders.

 The desired state. This involves a detailed description of

the organization's vision. The desired state outlines how

the organization will function after the problem has been

addressed and the new opportunities that will be possible.

 Action items to bridge the gap between these states. Using stakeholder input, create a list of

possible action items that will help fix the problems of the current state.

1.2.2 Problem Statements

A problem statement clearly and accurately defines the problem that needs to be resolved and explains why. This statement should be written in about a dozen words and contain two essential components: fact and implication.

 Fact statement: The department saw a 20% increase in turnover this past year.

 Implication: If this trend continues, we will lose institutional knowledge and spend more in

hiring new employees.

 Problem statement: The department saw a 20% increase in turnover this past year. If this

trend continues, we will lose institutional knowledge and spend more in hiring new employees.

Use these questions to assess the effectiveness of the problem statement:

 Is the problem stated objectively and without bias?

 Is the scope of the problem appropriate and achievable?

 Is there a common understanding of the problem from key stakeholders?

 Does the problem statement indicate why the problem is worth addressing?

The problem-solving process helps build a bridge from the current to the desired state

LESSON 1 | FRAMING THE PROBLEM

52 © Management Concepts. See inside front cover for additional details.

1.2.3 EXERCISE: WRITING A PROBLEM STATEMENT Directions

Using the prompts provided, develop a problem statement that clearly articulates a problem you 1.

are experiencing at work.

Be prepared to share with the class. 2.

Questions

1. Setting description (briefly describe the setting in which the problem exists):

2. Fact (provide a statement of fact):

3. Implication (provide an implication—a "so what" statement):

4. Problem statement:

MODULE 3 | A MODEL FOR PROBLEM SOLVING

1.3 DETERMINING THE ROOT CAUSE

Poll: Baseball Ratings

Since 2016, Major League Baseball has seen a steep decline in the average number of viewers who watch each game of the World Series in the United States:

 2016: 22.8 million

 2017: 18.9 million

 2018: 14.1 million

 2019: 13.9 million

 2020: 9.8 million

What is the biggest reason for this decline in viewership?

o Younger Americans enjoy other sports more than baseball o Games take too long to watch o The teams involved have smaller fan bases o The league has fewer marketable stars compared to years

past o There is not enough offense to keep fans entertained o The trend is simply an anomaly and viewership will rebound

After a problem is defined and articulated, it is time to identify and evaluate its potential causes.

Most complex problems have multiple causes. Therefore, you must reduce the number of causes to

address a manageable few. Locating and addressing causes can be done through a root-cause

analysis, which is a technique for uncovering and addressing the base cause of the problem. To be

truly effective, any long-term solution must address the root cause.

Once you think you have identified the root cause, you must evaluate it. For a potential cause to be the root cause, it must meet all the following criteria:

 All agree it is the root cause that keeps the problem from being resolved

 The earliest beginnings of the situation have been explored and understood

 The root cause is logical, makes sense, and dispels all confusion

 Finding the root cause gives hope that something constructive can be done about the situation

 Workable solutions dealing with all the symptoms begin to appear

 A stable, long-term resolution of the situation now appears feasible

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54 © Management Concepts. See inside front cover for additional details.

1.3.1 Five Whys

The cause for which you cannot answer the question is often the root cause

Once you have identified the potential cause or causes of a problem, you can use the Five Whys method to refine your understanding.

Begin by asking, "Why does this happen?" 1.

Of the first cause, ask, "Why does this happen?" 2.

Repeat this process of asking successive "whys" until you cannot answer the question 3.

MODULE 3 | A MODEL FOR PROBLEM SOLVING

1.3.2 EXERCISE: IDENTIFYING THE ROOT CAUSE Directions

Working in groups, discuss the problem statements created in the previous exercise. Select 1.

three that you would like to work on together.

For each problem, discuss: 2.

— How this problem impacts your work

— What you perceive to be the root cause

Be prepared to share one problem with the class. 3.

Problem 1

1. What is the problem?

2. How does this problem impact your work?

3. What is the root cause of the problem?

Problem 2

4. What is the problem?

5. How does this problem impact your work?

6. What is the root cause of the problem?

Problem 3

7. What is the problem?

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56 © Management Concepts. See inside front cover for additional details.

8. How does this problem impact your work?

9. What is the root cause of the problem?

MODULE 3 | A MODEL FOR PROBLEM SOLVING

LESSON 2

DEVELOPING AND IMPLEMENTING

SOLUTIONS

Lesson Objective

After completing this lesson, you will be able to: 3.2.1 Use problem-solving steps to develop and implement actionable solutions

After clearly identifying and defining a problem, it is time to start working on possible solutions.

Whether you are choosing between alternative plans, job candidates, or technology solutions, to

make a smart decision, you will first have to evaluate the available options. Developing solutions

requires seeking additional information, thinking creatively, consulting experts, and conducting

research. When looking for solutions, people often focus on the constraints, rules, and limitations

that restrict the options for solving a problem. This type of thinking can discourage creative thought

and lead to suboptimal solutions. Many times, it is the most creative and unconventional approach

to the problem that produces the best results.

Discussion

Imagine that your computer just broke and you need to explore options for a replacement.

 What information do you need to know in order to make an informed decision?

 How do you determine which information is most influential in your decision making?

2.1 DEVELOPING POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS

Before generating ideas for a new solution, search for

existing internal solutions. If a ready-made solution

exists, evaluate it to see if you can use it. If a ready-

made solution does not exist, you will have to generate

ideas.

Consider these best practices when trying to brainstorm solutions:

 Gather feedback from all vested stakeholders

 Focus on the opportunities first, not the constraints

 Think of developing solutions as a two-step

process:

— Generate a high volume of ideas (as many as possible)

— Distinguish between viable and nonviable solutions

After generating many alternatives, decide which possible solutions are viable and within scope

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58 © Management Concepts. See inside front cover for additional details.

 Avoid making unnecessary assumptions

 Create opportunities for anonymous feedback (when appropriate)

2.2 CHOOSING THE BEST SOLUTION

With a list of possible solutions available, how do you determine which one to pursue? Decision

criteria are the agreed upon characteristics or values that will guide how the alternatives are

evaluated. Whenever possible, the criteria should be concrete and measurable. For other criteria

that are harder to measure, it may be helpful to compare different alternatives to each other and

determine which solutions are preferred.

Common decision-making criteria include:

 Cost

 Efficiency

 Reliability

 Return on investment

 Risk levels

 Ease of modification

 Speed of implementation

 Stakeholder/customer satisfaction

2.3 IMPLEMENTING THE SOLUTION When implementing the solution to a problem, effective planning and change management are essential. Use the following guidelines to support changes made to your organization:

Identify the interests of your staff and your organization, as well as your own interests. Try to 1.

separate these interests from the status quo. Try to imagine how these interests could be

realized after the solution is implemented.

Practice open communication with your manager and colleagues. Gather information about their 2.

opinions on the change and have them imagine what the outcomes will be. Allow them to ask

questions and express concerns. Ensure that as many stakeholder interests as possible are

included in the implementation plan.

Demonstrate your concern for any individuals who feel threatened by the change. Do not 3.

pretend that there is no danger if, in fact, you know there is a possibility that individuals will lose

rank, privileges, or jobs as a result of the change.

Break up the solution into sequential steps or activities. Ensure that these tasks are understood 4.

and given to individuals with the resources needed for success.

Continue to consult regularly with stakeholders throughout the implementation process. 5.

2.3.1 Course Correction

Implementing a new system or idea in an organization is rarely straightforward. When planning for

the future, risk is unavoidable. New information and realities are unveiled over the course of

implementation. Even if your initial plan is perfectly constructed at the outset, changes beyond your

control may arise that require a shift in approach and thinking.

MODULE 3 | A MODEL FOR PROBLEM SOLVING

COURSE CORRECTION MODEL

Adopting a course-correction approach requires:

 Creating a strong shared vision at the outset of the implementation plan

 Incorporating and seeking out continual feedback from relevant stakeholders

 Testing the approach frequently to gain insight

 High engagement from the implementation team and leadership

 Making frequent modifications to your plan as obstacles arise

Course Correction Example: Transportation Security Administration (TSA) The terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, exposed a major problem with security protocols at U.S. airports. Following the attacks, all liquids were banned from being taken through security, and all individuals, including the elderly, were forced to remove their shoes. However, over time, a number of these extreme measures have been modified. People over age 75 and infants no longer need to remove their shoes; small amounts of liquid and food can be brought through security; and people can sign up for TSA Pre✓® to reduce the amount of time spent in lines.

2.4 EVALUATING THE RESULTS The final step in the problem-solving process is to determine whether the implemented solution sufficiently addressed the problem. Evaluation planning involves three stages:

Identify performance measures. 1.

Collect data. 2.

Evaluate the results. 3.

LESSON 2 | DEVELOPING AND IMPLEMENTING SOLUTIONS

60 © Management Concepts. See inside front cover for additional details.

The design of an evaluation plan should take place concurrently with the development of the

implementation plan. This ensures that all stakeholders have a clear understanding of how success

(or failure) will be measured.

MODULE 3 | A MODEL FOR PROBLEM SOLVING

2.5 EXERCISE: FINDING AND EVALUATING SOLUTIONS

Directions

Working in your group, choose a common workplace problem. 1.

Articulate this problem clearly with a problem statement. 2.

Generate a list of possible solutions that could address the problem. 3.

Determine the two decision-making criteria that are most applicable to the problem. 4.

Determine the solution(s) you believe will work best based on your decision criteria. 5.

Be prepared to justify your decision. 6.

MODULE 3 | A MODEL FOR PROBLEM SOLVING

62 © Management Concepts. See inside front cover for additional details.

Action Planning

Refer to the Action Plan and record ideas to implement from this module.

Problem Solving Strategies

MODULE 4 | PROBLEM SOLVING STRATEGIES

64 © Management Concepts. See inside front cover for additional details.

PROBLEM SOLVING STRATEGIES

Module Objective

 Use various tools and strategies to generate ideas for workplace problems

Difficult workplace problems require new ways of thinking and an organized approach. Leaders

need creative thinking to drive positive change and push the boundaries of what is possible. They

also need the ability to take a level-headed and rational approach to working through complex

problems. You can be an asset to your organization by incorporating tools and strategies that spur

critical thinking and troubleshoot workplace problems.

Lessons

1. Strategies for Creative Thinking and Innovation

2. Tools for Solving Problems

MODULE 4 | PROBLEM SOLVING STRATEGIES

LESSON 1

STRATEGIES FOR CREATIVE THINKING

AND INNOVATION

Lesson Objective

After completing this lesson, you will be able to: 4.1.1 Use ideation techniques to generate creative solutions to workplace problems

Creative thinking and innovation are essential for group and organizational success, yet many

people struggle to find and use their creative capacity. Often, this is because they have not learned

to see their creative capacities for what they are—the ability to form new ideas, connections, and

patterns. Problem solving often requires creative thinking. When answers are not readily apparent,

it often takes new and innovative ways of thinking to overcome our problems. For this reason, it is

worth exploring creativity as a leadership skill and consider ways that innovation could be

incorporated into the fabric of your organization.

1.1 DEFINING CREATIVE THINKING There is no universally accepted definition of creative thinking used in the leadership domain. A number of different definitions are useful when considering process of thinking creatively:

 Robert E. Franken:1 "The tendency to generate or recognize ideas, alternatives, or possibilities

that may be useful in solving problems."

 Steve Jobs:2 "Creativity is just connecting things."

 Oxford English Dictionary:3 "The use of the imagination or original ideas, especially in the

production of an artistic work."

Essentially, creative thinking involves developing and testing innovative ideas, approaches, and

solutions to solve specific problems.

1.1.1 A Model for Creativity

A number of academic models are used to categorize creative thinking. One of the most popular models (from Kaufman and Beghetto) outlines four levels (or Cs) of creativity:4

 Mini-c. This level of creativity offers intrinsic exploration and occurs during the learning process.

This creativity is not limited to a specific field and is particularly important during childhood.

 Little-c. This level is usually thought of as everyday creativity. This level encompasses the daily

discoveries and connections we make. Little-c creativity is generally noticed by teachers, peers,

and family members.

1 Franken 2006

2 Jobs 1996

3 Oxford English Dictionary 2021

4 Kaufman & Beghetto 2009

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 Pro-C. The pro stands for professional creativity. This level is more domain-specific and is

motivated by both intrinsic and extrinsic values.

 Big-C. This is the highest level of creativity in the model. It transcends professional accolades

and provides intellectual breakthroughs to society as a whole. This rare brand of creativity is

what we associate with great philosophers, scientists, and artists throughout history.

Inherent in the structure of this model is the idea of creative progression. While it may take a rare

combination of genes and environment to reach the highest level of creativity, each of us is capable

of creative endeavors in work and life. In this model, creativity is not an innate talent; it is a skill that

can be developed over time.

Example: Progression of the Kaufman-Beghetto Model

 Mini-c: As a small child, Shelly likes to play with blocks. She creates odd-shaped buildings that make sense in her head but may seem strange to others.

 Little-c: Through high school and college, Shelly enters a number of local architectural design competitions. She receives accolades from school for her work and is considered a bright kid by her math and science teachers.

 Pro-C: As an adult, Shelly studies to become an architect. She works for years at a highly regarded architectural firm. Her designs are innovative and well-received by clients.

 Big-C: Shelly's work inspires several generations of architects. Her designs are studied for years after her death, and a number of important buildings across the globe are built from her designs.

1.1.2 Research in Creative Cognition

Like many cognitive processes, much is unknown in the scientific community about what causes us

to be creative. There is no single part of the brain that is responsible for creative thinking. A

combination of executive functions in the brain interact with stimuli from the external environment to

produce creative thoughts. Thus, when creative thinking is necessary to solve problems, we should

try to create conditions that best maximize cognitive functioning.

Research suggests that two brain networks play critical roles in developing creative thinking:5

 Executive attention. This network is associated with cognitive control. It allows us to regulate

our thoughts and focus on a specific subject or problem. Executive attention can be

strengthened over time, as we learn techniques for blocking out unwanted thoughts and

distractions to focus our attention on a specific task.

 The imagination network. This network works together to retrieve personal memories and

experiences that can be useful when solving a problem in the present. When attempting to

generate new solutions to a problem, our brains go searching for similar experiences as a

reference guide. This network allows us to think in new and abstract ways, creating simulations

of how things might go in the future.

5 Kaufman 2014

MODULE 4 | PROBLEM SOLVING STRATEGIES

Creative thinking requires a balance between these two networks. Thinking that is too rigid and

focused will not produce innovative results. However, thinking that is too unstructured will not be

useful for solving a specific problem.

Example: How These Networks Work Together to Generate Solutions Imagine that when traveling home from work one day, you take a detour from your usual route and get lost.

 The executive attention network allows you to block out other driving distractions, such as your radio, ringing cell phone, and rain on your windshield, to focus on looking for visual clues for your current location. Because the situation requires focus on a specific task, your executive attention comes into play.

 The imagination network jumps into action to retrieve ideas for how you have overcome being lost in the past. This network reminds you of the map in your glove compartment, the GPS system on your phone, and your ability to stop and ask for directions at a local gas station. Because the situation required devising a new solution, your imagination network took the lead.

1.2 DIVERGENT AND CONVERGENT THINKING

Divergent thinking requires generating multiple solutions to answer an initial problem. Instead of

eliminating possible solutions, divergent thinking seeks to expand the pool of possible answers.

This style of thinking often requires creativity in order to generate innovative solutions to open-

ended questions. It also requires analysis of the many possible drivers of the initial problem that

should be addressed by various solutions.

DIVERGENT THINKING MODEL

Convergent thinking is a problem-solving method used to synthesize known facts, data, and ideas

toward the development of a single solution. This process usually begins with the question, "What

do I currently know?" Based on known information and constraints, infeasible solutions are pared

away until one remaining solution is chosen. Convergent thinking is a systematic, logical process

and works best when knowledge is available at the beginning of the thought process or when a

single answer is needed.

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CONVERGENT THINKING MODEL

Discussion

 Which workplace problems require divergent thinking?

 Which workplace problems require convergent thinking?

 Which workplace problems require a mix of both types of thinking?

1.3 IDEATION TECHNIQUES

Sometimes we are struck with creative ideas out of the blue. At other times, we need to actively

encourage creative thinking to find inspiration. Formal ideation techniques are used to draw out

ideas and concepts that are already within us but not readily apparent. By working with others, new

solutions can emerge from creatively combining or arranging ideas in a formal, organized way.

Effective ideation techniques include:

 Brainstorming

 6-3-5 method

 Mind mapping

 Storyboarding

1.3.1 Brainstorming

The best known technique for generating ideas is brainstorming. Brainstorming is a group technique used to generate as many ideas as possible in a short amount of time. Two types of brainstorming are:

 Structured brainstorming. Each member of a group must give an idea in turn or pass until the

next round.

 Unstructured brainstorming. Team members simply give ideas as they occur.

Both brainstorming types have advantages and disadvantages. Structured brainstorming is a good

way to encourage shy group members to participate, but it can create performance pressure.

Unstructured brainstorming, on the other hand, creates a number of ideas, but more vocal group

members may dominate the session.

MODULE 4 | PROBLEM SOLVING STRATEGIES

To use brainstorming effectively:

 Avoid criticizing ideas or ridiculing those who contribute them

 Strive for quantity, not quality, of ideas

 Do not evaluate ideas until after the brainstorming session

 Use one idea to generate others

 Write down all ideas

 Limit brainstorming sessions to no more than 15 minutes

1.3.2 6-3-5 Method

The 6-3-5 method is a structured form of brainstorming. The process follows these steps:

Six people are given a problem by the group leader. 1.

Each person writes down three ideas related to the problem. 2.

After 5 minutes, each paper is passed to the person on the right for additions or further 3.

development.

Each paper continues around the table until each person receives their original paper. 4.

All papers are then collected and evaluated at a later time. 5.

1.3.3 Mind Mapping

Mind mapping is used to visually organize information about a central idea or question. The topic

being discussed is usually placed in the center of the map. From this central topic, words, phrases,

images, and ideas are drawn out into separate pathways or branches. These branches are

decomposed until they reach their foundational elements and cannot be categorized further. Mind

mapping provides a visual depiction of how we organize our thoughts and ideas. Mapping our

thoughts in this way spurs creative thinking by realizing new categories of thought or by

reorganizing and combining elements to find previously unidentified connections.

EXAMPLE MIND MAP

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1.3.4 Storyboarding

Storyboarding is a method of graphically organizing ideas, processes, or lines of communication.

This process allows a team to sequence possible steps of solutions to a common problem. Many

people think of storyboards as elaborate illustrations used to map out scripts of television shows or

movies. While this is one possible application of a storyboard, the process does not need to be that

complicated; teams can use sticky notes, note cards, slides, or even just a whiteboard to organize

and sequence information.

Storyboards can convey:

 Ideas from brainstorming

 Process steps

 Timelines

 Organizational structures

 Development scenarios

 Communication between members of a team

The storyboarding process allows teams to assemble

processes and ideas in new and innovative ways.

Communicating a problem in a story format can lead to

creative solutions.

1.4 SUPPORTING INNOVATION

Most people agree that innovation is important and

necessary, but few organizations are willing or able to push the boundaries of what is possible. A

certain degree of order and conformity is required for the day-in, day-out operations of the vast

majority of organizations. By contrast, innovation requires flexibility and an acceptance of risk that

many people find uncomfortable. For this reason, innovation cannot flourish without specific

processes in place and without a collective commitment to creative thinking.

For organizations to support successful innovation, certain conditions are needed at three levels:

 Individual conditions. Individual employees need to feel empowered to practice creative

thinking. This may involve professional development opportunities, the permission to try and fail,

or simply time outside normal day-to-day operations in which to think creatively.

 Team conditions. Although individual creativity is essential to the innovation process,

innovations are rarely, if ever, the work of a solitary individual. Ideally, the ideas of one team

member spur more ideas from other team members, which are further adapted and refined by

the group to fit the operational realities of the organization. This kind of synergy starts with the

team's ability to share and forward new ideas.

 Organizational conditions. Organizations face a dilemma when trying to innovate: existing

processes contribute to the success and stability of the organization, but are antithetical to the

idea of innovation. For this reason, organizations need to adopt certain processes to incentivize

innovation:

— Set reasonable performance measures and rewards that encourage employees to try new

things

— Make innovation part of the daily discourse

— Develop processes and tools that integrate well with the current state

— Engage stakeholders early in the process to verify successes (and failures)

Storyboards do not require artistic prowess. Often, they are simple depictions of a sequence

of activities.

MODULE 4 | PROBLEM SOLVING STRATEGIES

1.4.1 Values of Innovative Leadership

Innovation starts with your willingness to instill these core values within your organization

Leaders must have the power to drive innovation throughout their organization. They are best able to accomplish this goal by instilling certain core values that are aligned to innovative processes and empower individuals to think creatively.

 Diversity. Innovative thinking requires diversity of experience, opinion, and ideas. Leaders who

foster innovation and creativity purposely bring diverse voices together, and value each

contribution. Leaders encourage everyone to voice divergent and even unpopular ideas or

opinions in order to disrupt the status quo and challenge groupthink.

 Risk-taking. Innovation requires experimentation and a willingness to take calculated risks.

Leaders need to create an environment where the drive to succeed does not overshadow the

willingness to fail. People need to be able to engage in trial and error in order to achieve better

results in the long run.

 Integration. Leaders who foster innovation are intentional about collaboration. They reach out

to multiple stakeholders for input, and focus on collective problem-solving and decision making.

Integration also involves finding ways to combine the best parts of multiple ideas to form a more

complete solution. This process requires everyone to set their egos and personal desires aside

to focus on the best solution for the entire group.

 Validation. Leaders must create an organizational environment where people are inspired and

motivated to think creatively. They must validate others’ opinions, ideas, and concerns. Leaders

must encourage their team members, provide positive reinforcement, and redirect focus as

needed. Validation requires an optimistic view, where leaders focus on creating a space full of

endless possibilities rather than endless constraints. In addition to validating the efforts of team

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members, leaders must validate that the innovation being explored will be useful to the mission

of the organization as a whole.

 Empowerment. Leaders must build a culture of trust, in which team members are empowered

to use critical thinking skills to question the status quo. Leaders need to entrust their teams with

decision making and problem solving, and encourage universal ownership of achieving

organizational goals. When employees feel a sense of ownership over the organization’s goals,

they’re more willing to think differently, voice their opinions, and go above and beyond to

achieve shared goals.

Poll: Values of Innovation

Which value is most important to successful innovation efforts within your organization?

o Diversity o Risk-taking o Integration o Validation o Empowerment

MODULE 4 | PROBLEM SOLVING STRATEGIES

1.5 EXERCISE: GENERATING CREATIVE SOLUTIONS

Directions

Working in groups, read your assigned scenario. 1.

Use at least one ideation technique to generate creative solutions to the problem. 2.

After a number of solutions have been generated, form a consensus on the preferred 3.

solution(s).

Be prepared to share with the class. 4.

Scenario 1 With increased public focus on government spending, every government agency has been tasked with finding new and innovative ways to cut costs. You have been invited to work on an interdepartmental task force that will make recommendations to senior leadership on how task dollars can be spent more efficiently.

The only two requirements you have been given are:

 Recommend ways to significantly reduce costs

 Ensure the mission and vision of the agency are still accomplished effectively

Scenario 2 Due to a number of organizational shifts, you have been placed on a new team in your department. This new structure was adopted in response to numerous communication failures between organizational silos at the agency. In the past year, a number of projects slipped through the cracks or had duplicated work across different parts of the agency. Your new supervisor has called a meeting to develop creative, yet concrete, recommendations for how to communicate with other teams.

At this meeting, you need to address:

 How you will communicate with other departmental teams

 How you will ensure projects do not fall through the cracks

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Scenario 3 After repeated discussions with the members of your team, a common frustration has emerged: reoccurring team and organizational meetings. These meetings are seen as overly long, disorganized, and out of touch with the real work employees do every day. Several team members have admitted that these meetings are not engaging and waste time that could be spent on actual work. These team and organizational meetings are supposed to communicate essential information and serve as a touchpoint for assessing employees' feelings and concerns. However, after speaking with the members of your team, it is clear these meetings do not accomplish these goals. You would like to design an innovative approach to team and organizational meetings to address the frustrations with the members of your team.

MODULE 4 | PROBLEM SOLVING STRATEGIES

LESSON 2

TOOLS FOR SOLVING PROBLEMS

Lesson Objective

After completing this lesson, you will be able to: 4.2.1 Analyze tools to solve complex workplace problems

When faced with a complex organizational problem, it can be difficult to know where to start and

how to engage others. Fortunately, there are many leadership tools that can be used to uncover

root causes, provide additional perspectives, and manage competing priorities. Understanding how

and when to use each of these tools allows you to be a more effective collaborator and problem-

solver.

2.1 SWOT ANALYSIS

A SWOT analysis, which stands for strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats, is a common

framework for providing context to organizational problems. It helps identify what your organization

does well and where it needs additional development. It also provides information on the internal

and external factors contributing in positive and negative ways to the problem.

TABLE: QUESTIONS IN A SWOT ANALYSIS

SWOT Element Questions to Consider

Strengths  What do we do well?

 What makes us unique as a team/department/organization?

 What skills do we have individually and collectively?

 What similar problems have we successfully addressed in the past?

Weaknesses  What do we need to work on?

 What gaps in skills or knowledge exist?

 What problems have given us trouble in the past?

 What are our constraints?

Opportunities  How can this problem help us grow?

 What external resources are available?

 How does this problem fit into the organizational vision?

Threats  What risks do we face?

 How might external factors make the problem more difficult?

 What are other organizations doing that might impact our decisions?

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2.2 JOURNALISTIC SIX

Based on the six key questions journalism students are taught to answer in articles and news

stories, the Journalistic Six can be used to analyze a complete picture of the stakeholders,

processes, and environment surrounding a problem. Asking the simple questions of who, what,

when, where, why, and how can initiate conversation and encourage creative thinking. It allows the

members of your team to clearly identify the problem and thoughtfully analyze solutions from

different perspectives.

TABLE: JOURNALISTIC SIX QUESTIONS

Category Questions to Consider

Who?  Who does the problem impact?

 Who do we need to engage for support?

 Who will benefit if the problem is addressed?

What?  What is currently happening?

 What should be happening instead?

 What has and has not worked in the past?

When?  When does the problem need to be addressed by?

 Is sooner preferable to later?

 What are our time constraints?

Where?  Where have similar problems occurred?

 Where do we need to address the problem?

 How does the location or process affect the people around it?

Why?  Why was or is this done, avoided, or permitted?

 Why did leadership make this decision?

 Why address the problem now?

How?  How did we get here?

 How can the problem be communicated to others?

 How can our processes be improved or altered?

2.3 FISHBONE DIAGRAM

The fishbone diagram, also known as a cause-and-effect diagram, is used to trace the causes of a

problem. This technique involves listing contributing factors on bones branching off from the spine

of the process that leads to the fish head representing the resulting problem.

MODULE 4 | PROBLEM SOLVING STRATEGIES

EXAMPLE FISHBONE DIAGRAM

To develop a fishbone diagram:

State the reason(s) for your problem (the spine of your diagram). 1.

Write the obstacles to your problem (the things you must overcome to meet your challenge) on 2.

bones branching off the spine.

Write secondary obstacles to your obstacles on secondary bones branching off the primary 3.

bones.

Continue building your fishbone, adding obstacles as they occur to you. 4.

Resolve the obstacles one by one to solve your problem. 5.

2.4 SIX THINKING HATS

Once a problem is properly defined, you can begin to explore possible options for the best course of

action. Edward de Bono’s Six Thinking Hats has become a popular way for individuals and groups

to explore various perspectives before making a decision.1 This tool requires that you look at a

decision six different times through separate lenses. By wearing different hats (i.e., intentionally

looking at a decision through multiple perspectives) you are forced to consider alternative

viewpoints. Each of the different hats involves a different thinking style, which results in a variety of

implications for a given decision.

TABLE: DE BONO'S SIX THINKING HATS

Hat Focus

White Hat With the white thinking hat on, focus on available data. Seek to understand all relevant data or any gaps in data. Analyze past trends and extrapolate data.

Red Hat With the red thinking hat on, look at situations from an emotional perspective. Consider how others will react emotionally to the decision. Also think about how others, who may be unaware of the reasoning behind the decision, may react to it.

1 De Bono 1999

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Hat Focus

Black Hat When wearing the black hat, look at all of the negative elements of the decision. Try to determine what might not work, and why it won’t work. Find the weak points in the decision or thinking.

Yellow Hat The yellow hat is the optimistic hat. When wearing it, see all of the benefits of the decision. Describe the value that the decision brings to people and the organization.

Green Hat With the green thinking hat on, focus on creativity. Find or develop creative solutions to the problem.

Blue Hat When wearing the blue hat, focus on process controls. Be the chairperson of the meeting. The person or people wearing this hat direct group members to use the other hats, when necessary, to help the group.

2.5 AGREEMENT AND CERTAINTY MATRIX Too often, groups make the mistake of trying to implement solutions that are not adapted to the nature of the challenge. An agreement and certainty matrix helps to easily sort challenges into different categories using two simple questions:

 How much agreement exists about the challenge and how to address it?

 How much certainty exists about how the generated solutions will work to address the problem?

In discussing and answering these questions, groups can divide challenges into four distinct categories:

 Simple. The problem can be solved reliably with solutions that are easy to duplicate.

 Complicated. The problem can be solved reliably with more sophisticated solutions.

 Complex. There are several clear paths to address the problem, but the outcomes are not easy

to predict.

 Chaotic. There is little agreement about the problem and the context is too turbulent to move

forward.

MODULE 4 | PROBLEM SOLVING STRATEGIES

2.6 EXERCISE: USING PROBLEM-SOLVING TOOLS

Directions

Working in groups, read your assigned scenario. 1.

Use one of the problem-solving tools from this lesson to analyze the problem and generate 2.

possible solutions.

Identify three key insights about the scenario you learned from using the tool. 3.

Be prepared to discuss with the class. 4.

Scenario 1 In recent months, your agency has experienced an unusually large number of high-profile retirements. This means that a great deal of institutional knowledge will soon leave the organization. With the agency recruiting new talent to fill vacant and soon-to-be vacant positions, you have been asked to evaluate how these changes in personnel will affect the organization in positive or negative ways. You have a short time frame for making a plan, as leaders at different levels are leaving the agency.

Scenario 2 Your agency is one of several that deals with the allocation of taxpayer dollars. Due to the nature of the business cycle, your workload often fluctuates. Sometimes you are extremely busy, while at other times the intensity and workload of your team is considerably more manageable. Your supervisor has noticed that during these down times many of your teammates seem disengaged. While some rest and recuperation is necessary, your supervisor feels that your team could spend this time more productively and strategically. Your supervisor has asked you to investigate the situation and come up with solutions for keeping everyone engaged throughout the entire performance cycle.

Scenario 3 Your agency has experienced a hiring freeze for the last few years. Several key roles have vacancies in need of immediate staffing or people acting in multiple roles. To achieve your agency's mission, you have been assigned to the Workforce of Tomorrow task force. The task force's first priority is to identify where to recruit new talent to fill these mission-critical gaps in resources. Since your agency has offices (both physical and virtual) in rural and urban areas, the task force has decided to prioritize recent graduates of four-year universities and community colleges.

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Action Planning

Refer to the Action Plan and record ideas to implement from this module.

Leading through Problem Solving

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LEADING THROUGH PROBLEM

SOLVING

Module Objective

 Demonstrate leadership techniques to support problem-solving efforts

Effective organizational problem solving does not occur overnight. Building a workplace culture that

values critical thinking and problem solving takes strong leadership and sustained commitment. As

an individual worker, it can sometimes feel impossible to overcome cultural practices that are

antithetical to effective problem solving. However, every employee within an organization

contributes to workplace culture and has the ability to lead by example. Leading others toward

improved decision making and problem solving is self-reinforcing, improving outcomes and

magnifying our influence and value to the organization.

Lessons

1. Cultivating Buy-in

2. Selling the Decision

MODULE 5 | LEADING THROUGH PROBLEM SOLVING

LESSON 1

CULTIVATING BUY-IN

Lesson Objective

After completing this lesson, you will be able to: 5.1.1 Identify leadership strategies that promote an organizational commitment to solving

problems

You will not be able to solve complex organizational problems on your own. You will need a network

of supporters, allies, and supervisors to enact meaningful change. However, problem solving

represents a challenge to the status quo; this can be threatening to others, particularly when they

do not understand the personal or organizational benefits at stake. As a leader, it is your

responsibility to be an advocate for change and create buy-in from your colleagues.

1.1 MANAGING CHANGE

Organizational problems often require significant and disruptive changes. Too often, leaders focus

on the processes and structures that need to be changed without consideration of how these

changes might impact internal and external stakeholders. All changes, both big and small, involve

the ending of something familiar and the eventual acceptance of a new situation. The length of this

transition process differs from person to person, and can lead to conflicting emotional responses.

Author William Bridges outlines three phases for how most people react to changing circumstances:1

Letting go of the past. Transition starts with an ending. During this phase, people come to 1.

terms with the loss of what was familiar. There may be feelings of resistance, disorientation, and

frustration as individuals process what has occurred and how it will impact their lives in the

future.

The neutral zone. During this phase, changes have occurred, but people are not fully 2.

comfortable with new realities. This time serves as a bridge between the old and new. This time

may involve some level of stress and a decrease in productivity. However, it is also an

opportunity for individuals to be creative and innovative as they test the waters of the new

normal.

A new beginning. People develop a new identity, experience new energy, and discover a new 3.

sense of purpose to make the change begin to work. This phase requires flexible leadership as

new behaviors and attitudes need to be rewarded. This phase is critical for learning how to

better manage future transitions.

1.1.1 Barriers to Problem Solving

When faced with organizational problems, some people will enthusiastically participate in finding

solutions. However, others might be resistent to let go of the status quo. As a leader, you need to

1 Bridges 2004

LESSON 1 | CULTIVATING BUY-IN

84 © Management Concepts. See inside front cover for additional details.

keep an eye out for behaviors that demonstrate unease, as people are not always willing to

volunteer this information in a straightforward way.

TABLE: IDENTIFYING BARRIERS TO PROBLEM SOLVING

Indicator Description

Procrastination Individuals lag in completing work, particularly as it relates to what is changing; they may feel overwhelmed and desire to bite off smaller chunks of change

Burn-out, resentment, or exhaustion

These indicators may illustrate a weary crowd who, even if they supported the movement, are not ready

Verbal resistance People show open resistance, such as bad-mouthing an idea and/or actively disengaging

Fear Individuals openly express concerns about status, roles, responsibilities, or control

Action without outcomes People are busy and working but make little progress toward the goal. Big picture goals are not considered.

Isolation and loneliness Individuals become withdrawn and ignore or avoid the desired changes to the status quo

Avoidance Individuals act as though they did not know there was a request made of them

Silence Silence can indicate a form of resistance and is often present when there is not enough trust present for individuals to speak up and share their concerns

1.2 THE POWER OF SOCIALIZING

To gain support for a problem-solving initiative, you will need to help others move past their

resistance. This ability to get others to feel comfortable in upending the status quo is known as

socializing. The goal is to get buy-in and commitment from those impacted by the change. It

involves a concerted effort to convert detractors into champions throughout the organization.

MODULE 5 | LEADING THROUGH PROBLEM SOLVING

To effectively socialize problem-solving efforts, use the following techniques:

 Identify anything that could impede you from getting buy-

 Identify the magnitude of what you are asking

 Acknowledge fear and risks

 Directly address stakeholders' pressing concerns

 Create a formal communication plan to outline who will

receive information and when

 Take an empathetic approach

1.2.1 Identifying Stakeholders

Just as problems impact each person differently, you can

experience a wide variety of responses to proposed

solutions. Socializing requires leaders to consider how

different stakeholders, both internal and external to the organization, will be affected. This is often

done through a formal stakeholder analysis process.

When evaluating who may have an interest in the decision, it can be useful to divide stakeholders

into common categories.

STAKEHOLDER INTEREST CATEGORIES

1.2.2 Proactively Facilitating Change

When changes are on the horizon, leaders are responsible for facilitating the transition process for

their teammates. This requires a proactive approach, allowing the leader to frame the conversation

in a constructive way and encourage new and innovative ways of thinking. Initiating this dialogue

Socializing allows you to convert neutral stakeholders into advocates for your problem-

solving effort

LESSON 1 | CULTIVATING BUY-IN

86 © Management Concepts. See inside front cover for additional details.

ensures that employees are not blindsided by organizational changes and have an opportunity to

speak openly about their feelings and concerns.

Author Robert Marshak identifies five keys for successfully facilitating change:2

Create a safe environment. In addition to anxiety about impending changes, employees may 1.

also fear voicing their true feelings to colleagues or superiors. Creating a safe environment for

discussing concerns, frustrations, and anxieties goes a long way toward building trust with your

employees. It also allows you to frame changes in a positive way and correct misperceptions in

real time.

Be selective and seek movement, not exposure. During transitions, leaders may not have all 2.

the answers. To maintain credibility and trust, leaders should be as open as possible without

giving false or unconfirmed information. Conjecture about what might happen without actual

information will only add unnecessary stress to the transition process. Information should also

be shared in a way that helps the employee progress toward the ultimate goal.

Assume people are trying their best. During times of change and transition, presume the 3.

positive about the efforts of your employees. Even when employees act in ways that you believe

are detrimental to the team, assume that they are trying their best to emotionally process a new

situation.

Look in the mirror. Leading change in others requires self-awareness and reflection. Leaders 4.

have the opportunity to push change efforts forward with their words and actions, but can also

hold back progress as well. Facilitating change requires a critical look at how you are influencing

the successful transition of your teammates.

Act consistent with expectations of you and your role. Frequently with change efforts, many 5.

unknowns exist. Having leaders who are reasonable, willing to listen, and adaptable to

situations helps assure employees that they have space to both implement the change and to

internalize the transition.

Implementing these practices builds support for individual initiatives and positively contributes to the

organizational culture. When employees feel they are safely able to express themselves, they are

more likely to remain supportive in the future when other problems arise.

1.2.3 Building Cultural Affiliation

Culture is comprised of the often unwritten and unspoken norms that demonstrate the

organization’s values and beliefs. Culture includes everything from the language people use when

interacting to expectations of what to wear to work. To be maximally effective, leaders need to

demonstrate a commitment to problem solving and embed these values throughout an

organization's culture. This has downstream effects, encouraging all employees to be more

comfortable with change and embrace problem solving efforts.

As a leader, consider how you can infuse a commitment to problem solving using these cultural elements:

 Unifying symbols and artifacts. Common images or items that convey meaning or express a

shared past.

 Language. How employees communicate with one another, both formally and informally.

2 Marshak 2006

MODULE 5 | LEADING THROUGH PROBLEM SOLVING

 Onboarding procedures. How employees are introduced to the agency, its processes, and its

values. This includes informal conversations between employees and social proof of how work

is completed.

 Rituals. How people congregate, go about their day, celebrate, and use shared space.

 Recognition. How employees are acknowledged for their contributions.

 Mentorship. How experienced employees provide continuing professional development and

guidance.

LESSON 1 | CULTIVATING BUY-IN

88 © Management Concepts. See inside front cover for additional details.

1.3 EXERCISE: CREATING A COMMITMENT TO PROBLEM SOLVING

Directions

Working individually, think of seven words that best describe the culture of your organization. 1.

Select two descriptors that you have the most influence in changing. 2.

For each descriptor, evaluate ways of promoting a greater commitment to problem solving. 3.

Identify:

— Stakeholders that you can engage with

— Strategies for socializing change inititatives

Be prepared to share with the class. 4.

Cultural Descriptors

1. Words to describe my organization's culture:

TABLE: PROMOTING A COMMITMENT TO PROBLEM SOLVING

Cultural Descriptor

Stakeholders to Engage Strategies for Socializing

MODULE 5 | LEADING THROUGH PROBLEM SOLVING

LESSON 2

SELLING THE DECISION

Lesson Objective

After completing this lesson, you will be able to: 5.2.1 Use communication skills to provide strategic context to organizational decisions

When shopping, you might gravitate toward a specific brand of soft drink, car, or shoe because you

have had positive experiences in the past and know what to expect. The same is true in the

leadership field; we tend to accept decisions that come from trustworthy and reliable sources.

Building this level of credibility takes time and intentional effort. Employees need to know that you

are taking their concerns to heart when navigating complex problems. Similarly, we gain influence

when we are able to clearly align individual solutions to the broader mission and vision of the

organization. Being able to communicate clearly to your audience will help you gain support for

important workplace solutions.

2.1 POLITICAL CONSIDERATIONS

All workplace problems have a political context that must be considered. Organizational politics

influence how decisions are made and who holds power in any given moment. We can follow the

most robust decision-making methodology, use all available data, and arrive at an ideal decision

only to have senior leaders make decisions that go contrary to the evidence. Therefore, leaders

need a clear understanding of how decisions are made and the political climate in which chosen

solutions will be implemented.

When viewing decision making through the lens of organizational politics, leaders need to consider the following questions:

 Are there other groups of stakeholders that have a vested interest in the outcome of this

decision? If so, who are they?

 Will the decision advance the agenda of certain key stakeholders? If so, how? If not, why not?

 Will the decision undermine or undercut other efforts across our agency?

 How does the rest of the organization view our decision-making group? Do we always have our

decisions implemented at the expense of others?

 When we make decisions, how much political capital are we using?

 Do we expect our decisions to stand the test of time? Across administrations?

 For our decision to be considered and chosen, who do we need to win over?

 What support do we need to gain and sustain that stakeholder support?

2.1.1 Managing Up

When you occupy a management position, you are expected to have a plan for encouraging

success for each employee you supervise. However, it is also possible to take this approach toward

your manager. Managing up involves being aware of the needs and expectations of those above

LESSON 2 | SELLING THE DECISION

90 © Management Concepts. See inside front cover for additional details.

you in the chain of command. It also requires a commitment to balancing your individual needs with

finding ways to make your manager successful.

Managing up is:

 Understanding your boss's needs and preferences

 Finding ways to more effectively communicate

 Understanding how you contribute to your boss's success

 Taking ownership of the relationship

 Exploring how your personal aspirations align with the needs of the organization

 Giving and receiving feedback

 Identifying opportunities to be a resource

 Asking specifically for what you need

Managing up is not:

 Using flattery to get your way

 Ignoring your professional goals and aspirations

 Avoiding sharing information or ideas

 Treating shortcomings and blindspots as unchangeable

 Avoiding accountability

2.2 ENGAGING IN CHANGE CONVERSATIONS

Because change can be difficult, it important to prepare for how you plan to talk about overcoming a

problem. Clear communication and transparency go a long way in building support.

When engaging in conversations related to change, consider these best practices:

 Use the past as a baseline. Begin the conversation by highlighting successful transitions from

past experience. These examples encourage feelings of self-efficacy and motivation. Past

experiences can also provide lessons learned for how to more effectively respond to change in

the future.

 Ask empathetic questions. To access how your teammates truly feel, you need to ask probing

questions that uncover their emotions. By asking thoughtful open-ended questions, you will not

only show compassion to your employees, but you will also be able to better diagnose the root

of their concerns. Examples include:

— What do you think is possible?

— What resources do you need to be successful with the transition?

— What opportunities are within reach?

 Use powerful metaphors. Metaphors use one word or phrase to stand for another, suggesting

an analogy between them. These figures of speech can communicate powerful messages that

reframe change in a positive light. Even a simple metaphor like "This ship is headed in a new

direction" evokes feelings of togetherness and joint purpose.

2.2.1 What's in It for Me? (WIIFM)

Effective communicators are able to clearly express how and why a decision is relevant to the

audience. This is sometimes referred to as "What's in It for Me?" or WIIFM. Communicating the

importance of the message increases the likelihood that your audience will act upon or internalize

what you have shared. To incorporate WIIFM into your messages, you need to have some

understanding of the audience.

MODULE 5 | LEADING THROUGH PROBLEM SOLVING

Example: WIIFM Messages

 Starting next week, we ask that you please fill out your timesheets before leaving the office each day. This will improve the accuracy of project billing and allow the accounting department to issue your paychecks more expediently.

 We will send out a survey following the training session asking for your feedback. Please fill these out in a timely and truthful manner. We want to make sure future training opportunities meet your needs.

2.2.2 Communicating the Big Picture

It is human nature to view problems and solutions through our own individual lenses. However,

organizational initiatives are rarely pursued to appease individual employees. Organizations have

complex and varied goals that serve broader missions and visions. It is important to keep this global

perspective in mind when thinking through workplace problems and decisions. This perspective can

be especially helpful when decisions are made that conflict with our immediate interests. Though

we might not agree with how a problem is handled, hopefully we can see how decisions might

support the greater good of the organization.

As a leader, your responsibility is to the organization. This can sometimes result in difficult

conversations with your team as you have to communicate unwelcome or disruptive news. Still,

when employees consider the full organizational context of a decision, they are more likely to

support it.

When communicating organizational decisions, try to answer these questions:

 How does this decision support the mission and vision of the organization?

 What strategic initiatives/goals are in place?

 What long-term opportunities can be realized?

 How can pain points be addressed in the future?

 What will change? What will not change?

 What perspectives were included in making the decision?

LESSON 2 | SELLING THE DECISION

92 © Management Concepts. See inside front cover for additional details.

2.3 EXERCISE: COMMUNICATING THE DECISION

Directions

Working in groups, read the scenario. 1.

Prepare for a conversation with your team to discuss the new organizational changes. 2.

Consider: 3.

— How your message will be received

— How you can communicate WIIFM

— How you can emphasize the big picture

Be prepared to discuss with the class. 4.

Scenario You are the manager of an experienced ten-person team. The members of your team are conscientious and hardworking. You have developed a strong working relationship with each person and feel that they are open and honest about their opinions. Earlier this week, senior leadership sent out a memo highlighting a major restructuring of departments that will take place in the coming months. Organizational leaders want to create new functional teams that diversify knowledge and skills for upcoming multiyear programs and projects. Only three employees from your current team will be allowed to stay in their current positions. The other seven teammates will report to different managers within the department.

In your team meeting this week, you want to address the upcoming changes to the organization. However, you are wary because you know several of your teammates will be upset about no longer belonging to such an effective team.

MODULE 5 | LEADING THROUGH PROBLEM SOLVING

Action Planning

Refer to the Action Plan and record ideas to implement from this module.

Problem Solving Workshop

MODULE 6 | PROBLEM SOLVING WORKSHOP

PROBLEM SOLVING WORKSHOP

Module Objective

 Use collaboration to effectively solve workplace problems

With critical thinking defined and problem-solving strategies identified, it is time to put strategies into

action. This module provides an opportunity to tackle a current workplace problem in a group

setting. You will gain new insights and perspectives from listening to your classmates talk through

your problem. Similarly, you will be able to use your experience to help others brainstorm solutions

to their problems. Collectively working on problems sharpens our critical thinking and optimizes our

search for feasible solutions.

Lessons

1. Collaborative Problem Solving

MODULE 6 | PROBLEM SOLVING WORKSHOP

LESSON 1

COLLABORATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING

Lesson Objective

After completing this lesson, you will be able to: 6.1.1 Apply critical thinking strategies to solve workplace problems

The benefits of critical thinking and problem solving are magnified when these skills are used

collaboratively in a team setting. Collaborative teams are able to generate new ideas, provide

diverse perspectives, and share best practices in ways that individuals cannot. For the toughest

workplace problems, it can help to leverage the collective power of your colleagues and peers.

MODULE 6 | PROBLEM SOLVING WORKSHOP

1.1 EXERCISE: PROBLEM SOLVING THROUGH CONVERSATION

Directions

Working in groups, take turns working through a current workplace problem. 1.

One participant (the explainer) will spend 5 minutes explaining the problem. During this time, 2.

other group members cannot ask questions or comment.

After listening to the explainer, the rest of the group will talk out the problem and generate 3.

possible solutions for 15 minutes. The explainer should take notes and cannot comment or

answer questions during the brainstorming.

After brainstorming, the group and explainer can discuss the problem freely and debrief for 10 4.

minutes. The goal should be to:

— Highlight new perspectives that had not previously been considered

— Identify actionable and feasible next steps

Rotate between group members until each member's problem has been discussed and 5.

addressed.

MODULE 6 | PROBLEM SOLVING WORKSHOP

Action Planning

Refer to the Action Plan and record ideas to implement from this module.

Action Plan

CRITICAL THINKING FOR PROBLEM SOLVING

RESOURCE A

ACTION PLAN

OVERVIEW

Participating in a training course is only the first step to mastering a discipline. In order for your

learning to continue, it is important that you put the tools and techniques presented in this course

into action.

PART I: KEY LEARNING POINTS

At the end of each module or lesson, time is allotted for you to document ideas that you want to

remember.

Module/Lesson Title Key Learning Points

CRITICAL THINKING FOR PROBLEM SOLVING

Module/Lesson Title Key Learning Points

RESOURCE A: ACTION PLAN

Module/Lesson Title Key Learning Points

PART II: ON THE JOB

Review your key learning points and select three to five that you want to implement when you return

to your job.

Use the table provided on the next page to:

 Prioritize your implementation items

 Write a SMART objective for each item

— Specific

— Measurable

— Attainable

— Realistic

— Time-bound

 Identify the content that supports your objectives

 Document your strategy to achieve your objective

 Set a due date for achievement

Once back on the job, post this action plan in a visible location to remain focused on the completion

of these goals.

CRITICAL THINKING FOR PROBLEM SOLVING

ACTION PLAN

Priority Objective Supporting Content Strategy Due

Presentation Slides

CRITICAL THINKING FOR PROBLEM SOLVING

RESOURCE B

PRESENTATION SLIDES

Critical Thinking for Problem Solving

Course Objectives

Analyze qualities and habits of effective critical thinkers Evaluate strategies for overcoming common barriers to

critical thinking  Incorporate a formal model into workplace problem-

solving efforts Use various tools and strategies to generate ideas for

workplace problems Demonstrate leadership techniques to support problem-

solving efforts Use collaboration to effectively solve workplace

problems

Exercise: Virtual Team-Building

Directions 1. Introduce yourselves to your teammates, sharing your:

—Name —Job title and agency —Years of experience

2. Review the scenario. As a group: — Identify the problem — Identify five strategies or processes to suggest to senior

management to address the problem 3. Be prepared to discuss your perspective with the class.

Exercise: Virtual Team-Building Scenario

For years, the work of your organization took place in one central building. If there was someone you needed to talk to, you could simply walk over to their cubicle or office. However, this workplace environment has dramatically changed within the last couple of years, as the pandemic forced many people to work from home. Additionally, your organization has hired a number of new employees and contractors from around the country to meet the needs of mission- critical projects. Though many people have thrived working in virtual teams, it has also had some negative consequences. A recent organizational survey found that employees felt less connected to their teammates and supervisors. Similarly, communication has been more challenging, and many people believe work is being accomplished less efficiently. As a result of these findings, senior management has gathered a cross- functional team to evaluate ways to promote team-building in an increasingly virtual environment.

The Critical Thinker

Module Objective

Analyze the role of critical thinking as an essential leadership skill

Elements of Critical Thinking

After completing this lesson, you will be able to:

Describe the applications of critical thinking in the workplace

Defining Critical Thinking

• Scriven & Paul: "The intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from or generated by: observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action."

• Paul & Elder: "That mode of thinking—about any subject, content, or problem—in which the thinker improves the quality of his or her thinking by skillfully taking charge of the structures inherent in thinking and imposing intellectual standards upon them."

• Halpern: "The use of those cognitive skills or strategies that increase the probability of a positive outcome. It is used to describe thinking that is purposeful, reasoned, and goal directed - the kind of thinking involved in problem solving, formulating inferences, calculating likelihoods, and making decisions when the thinker is using skills that are thoughtful and effective for the particular context and type of thinking task."

Exercise: Exploring Critical Thinking

Directions

1.Review each statement related to critical thinking.

2.Indicate whether each statement is true or false.

Components of Critical Thinking

Components of the Paul-Elder framework include:

• Intellectual standards

• Elements of reasoning

• Intellectual traits

Critical Thinking Applications

Critical thinking has many useful applications. At work, critical thinking allows us to: • Identify purposes, assumptions,

and consequences • Recognize biases and

contradictions • See clarity in contrast to confusion • Distinguish:

— Central from peripheral concerns — Relevant from irrelevant

statements — Accurate from inaccurate accounts — Good reasons from bad reasons

• Recognize different perspectives • Draw reasonable inferences • Provide evidence to back up

conclusions

Discussion

• How would developing your personal critical thinking skills improve your current role?

• How would developing the critical thinking skills on your team help your entire organization?

Traits of Effective Critical Thinkers

After completing this lesson, you will be able to:

Analyze the traits and characteristics of effective critical thinkers

Exercise: Examining Critical Thinking Qualities

Directions

1.Review the case study on Stanislav Petrov.

2.Working in groups, identify examples of critical thinking used by Petrov.

3.Be prepared to share with the class.

Characteristics of Critical Thinkers

Critical Thinking Practices

• Reflect on individual thinking patterns, biases, and tendencies

• Ask others to challenge your thinking and assumptions • Research professional journals, blogs, and white papers

to expand your knowledge base • Ask questions for clarity and to communicate interest • Practice active listening • Analyze facts, figures, and data to inform your opinion • Evaluate the evidence behind your beliefs and

arguments • Suspend immediate judgment

Exercise: Critical Thinking Self- Assessment

Directions 1. Individually, read the list of skill statements

related to critical thinking 2.Assess your agreement with each statement

on a 1–5 scale and record your rating in the "Rating" column of the table.

3.Tally your overall score by adding all of the numbers in the "Rating" column of the table. Then, use the Overall Rating Scale to determine your results.

4.Be prepared to discuss with the class.

Exercise: Critical Thinking Self- Assessment Questions

Skill Rating

In a disagreement with someone else, I make an attempt to listen as much as I speak.

I regularly seek out points of view other than my own.

I spend significant time specifically defining a problem before attempting to solve it.

I appreciate differences in how others think.

I regularly take time to review decisions I have made.

I am aware of my own emotional state when there is a difference of opinion.

I regularly question the data used to support points of view.

I regularly differentiate between data or facts versus opinions.

Overall rating

Overcoming Critical Thinking Barriers

Module Objective

Evaluate strategies for overcoming common barriers to critical thinking

Understanding Our Thinking

After completing this lesson, you will be able to:

Use metacognition to support critical thinking efforts

Discussion

Listen to the prompt from the instructor. Pay close attention to the process and experience of how your thoughts develop.

Attention Systems

System Characteristics

Automatic System This system is: • Involuntary • Always on • Subconscious • Reactive • Fast

Reflective System This system is: • Deductive • Self-aware • Effortful • Rational • Self-control

Discussion

• What distracts you?

• When you realize you are distracted, how do you regain focus?

Promoting Thoughtful Attention

• Exercise

• Sleep

• Meditation

Tips for Practicing Mindfulness

To incorporate mindful reflection into your daily routine, consider these practices: • Focus first on your breathing • Use wait times—at the elevator, turning on the

computer, on hold—to your advantage • Repeat a motivating or inspiring phrase • Recognize your thoughts, then let them go • Build in 5 minutes to your morning routine for

reflection • Allow your mind to wander and daydream

The Role of Emotions

Responding to threats results in:

• Limited critical thinking

• Avoidance behaviors

• Narrow perspectives

• A lack of communication with others

Responding to possible rewards results in: • More rational and

critical thinking • Willingness to tackle

difficult problems • Greater perspective • Improved

communication with others

Metacognition

To practice metacognition, ask yourself: • What am I feeling right now? • What specifically is causing me to

feel this way? • When have I felt this way before?

What is similar or different about this situation?

• What story am I telling myself right now?

• How might I be contributing to the problem or conflict?

• What am I noticing? What am I pretending not to notice?

• What is my gut telling me? • What am I doing automatically

without special attention?

Metacognitive Strategies

Consider these strategies when trying to encourage metacognitive thinking:

• Mindfulness

• Knowledge evaluations

• Journaling

• Self-questioning

Exercise: The Problem with Fireplaces

Directions

1.Listen closely as the facilitator reads the prompt.

2.As you listen, pay close attention to:

—Your thought processes

—Your emotional responses

3.Be prepared to discuss with the class.

Obstacles to Critical Thinking

After completing this lesson, you will be able to:

 Identify common obstacles to thinking critically

Discussion

Consider a time when you made a decision without fully thinking through its consequences. What stopped you from practicing critical thinking during this situation?

Blocks to Critical Thinking

• Egocentricity

• Frame of reference: —Monological thinking

—Multilogical thinking

• Self-deception

• Ethnocentricity

• Cultural conditioning

Using Metacognition

Beneficial metacognitive strategies to support critical thinking include:

• Practicing nonjudgmental awareness

• Reflecting upon our own knowledge

• Practicing self-questioning

• Regulating emotional responses

Groupthink

Groupthink tends to occur more frequently under certain conditions: • The group is led by a

powerful or charismatic leader

• There is high cohesion among group members

• There is external pressure to make a decision

Video: Groupthink

Tips to Avoid Groupthink

• Promote a culture of openness without fear of repercussion with disagreement

• Include outside vendors or experts to sit in on meetings for important decisions

• Limit the size of team meetings to ensure all voices are heard

• Avoid stating opinions at the beginning of a discussion

• Assign a team member to play the role of devil's advocate to ensure all ideas have been considered

Exercise: A Case Study of Groupthink

Directions

1.Read the case study on the Salem Witch Trials.

2.Identify conditions that contributed to groupthink within the Salem community.

3.Be prepared to discuss with the class.

Ladder of Inference

Logical Fallacies

Exercise: Overcoming Logical Fallacies

Directions 1. Working in groups, review the information on your

assigned logical fallacies. 2. You will be responsible for teaching your assigned

fallacies to the class. Your presentation should outline: —A workplace example explaining each fallacy —How to recognize when you are using it instead of

critical thinking skills —A strategy for avoiding each fallacy in the future

3. Be prepared to share with the class.

A Model for Problem Solving

Module Objective

 Incorporate a formal model into workplace problem solving efforts

Poll: Common Issues in Problem Solving

Which of these issues do you routinely encounter when trying to address workplace problems? o Trying to solve problems that are too large or too vague o Jumping to a solution before analyzing the problem o Failing to involve stakeholders in the problem-solving process o Attempting to solve problems beyond your control o Relying on familiar solutions for all problems rather than

seeking creative solutions o Failing to develop sound decision criteria and weigh them

appropriately o Failing to develop an action plan to implement the chosen

solution o Failing to monitor the implemented solution to ascertain

whether it is succeeding

Framing the Problem

After completing this lesson, you will be able to:

Frame the context of workplace problems

Problem-Solving Model

Benefits of the Model

• Ensures everyone has a consistent understanding of processes and the nature of the problem

• Ensures all relevant stakeholders are involved early in the change process

• Allows you to build a convincing business case to management

• Ensures solutions are based on data, facts, and experience

• Ensures that the eventual solution is implemented properly and evaluated for its effectiveness

• Ensures that long-term goals—not simply stopgap solutions—are considered

Defining the Problem

• Gap analysis

• Developing problem statements

• Root-cause analysis

• Five Whys questioning

Gap Analysis

Three essential components of any gap analysis are:

• The current state

• The desired state

• Action items to bridge the gap between these states

Problem Statements

Problem statements should be written in about a dozen words and contain two essential components: fact and implication. • Fact statement: The department saw a 20%

increase in turnover this past year. • Implication: If this trend continues, we will lose

institutional knowledge and spend more in hiring new employees.

• Problem statement: The department saw a 20% increase in turnover this past year. If this trend continues, we will lose institutional knowledge and spend more in hiring new employees.

Exercise: Writing a Problem Statement

Directions

1.Using the prompts provided, develop a problem statement that clearly articulates a problem you are experiencing at work.

2.Be prepared to share with the class.

Poll: Baseball Ratings

What is the biggest reason for this decline in viewership? o Younger Americans enjoy other sports more than baseball o Games take too long to watch o The teams involved have smaller fan bases o The league has fewer marketable stars compared to years past o There is not enough offense to keep fans entertained o The trend is simply an anomaly and viewership will rebound

Since 2016, Major League Baseball has seen a steep decline in the average number of viewers who watch each game of the World Series in the United States: • 2016: 22.8 million • 2017: 18.9 million • 2018: 14.1 million • 2019: 13.9 million • 2020: 9.8 million

Determining the Root Cause

Once you think you have identified the root cause, you must evaluate it. For a potential cause to be the root cause, it must meet all the following criteria: • All agree it is the root cause that keeps the problem from

being resolved • The earliest beginnings of the situation have been explored

and understood • The root cause is logical, makes sense, and dispels all

confusion • Finding the root cause gives hope that something constructive

can be done about the situation • Workable solutions dealing with all the symptoms begin to

appear • A stable, long-term resolution of the situation now appears

feasible

Five Whys

Exercise: Identifying the Root Cause

Directions 1.Working in groups, discuss the problem

statements created in the previous exercise. Select three that you would like to work on together.

2.For each problem, discuss: —How this problem impacts your work —What you perceive to be the root cause

3.Be prepared to share one problem with the class.

Developing and Implementing Solutions

After completing this lesson, you will be able to:

Use problem-solving steps to develop and implement actionable solutions

Discussion

Imagine that your computer just broke and you need to explore options for a replacement.

• What information do you need to know in order to make an informed decision?

• How do you determine which information is most influential in your decision making?

Developing Possible Solutions

Consider these best practices when trying to brainstorm solutions: • Gather feedback from all vested stakeholders • Focus on the opportunities first, not the constraints • Think of developing solutions as a two-step process:

—Generate a high volume of ideas (as many as possible) —Distinguish between viable and nonviable solutions

• Avoid making unnecessary assumptions • Create opportunities for anonymous feedback (when

appropriate)

Choosing the Best Solution

Common decision-making criteria include: • Cost • Efficiency • Reliability • Return on investment • Risk levels • Ease of modification • Speed of implementation • Stakeholder/customer satisfaction

Implementing the Solution

1. Identify the interests of your staff and your organization, as well as your own interests.

2.Practice open communication with your manager and colleagues.

3.Demonstrate your concern for any individuals who feel threatened by the change.

4.Break up the solution into sequential steps or activities.

5.Continue to consult regularly with stakeholders throughout the implementation process.

Course Correction

Course Correction at the Transportation Security Administration (TSA)

The terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, exposed a major problem with security protocols at U.S. airports. Following the attacks, all liquids were banned from being taken through security, and all individuals, including the elderly, were forced to remove their shoes. However, over time, a number of these extreme measures have been modified. People over age 75 and infants no longer need to remove their shoes; small amounts of liquid and food can be brought through security; and people can sign up for TSA Pre✓® to reduce the amount of time spent in lines.

Evaluating the Results

The final step in the problem-solving process is to determine whether the implemented solution sufficiently addressed the problem. Evaluation planning involves three stages:

1.Identify performance measures.

2.Collect data.

3.Evaluate the results.

Reviewing the Model

Exercise: Finding and Evaluating Solutions

Directions 1. Working in your group, choose a common workplace

problem. 2. Articulate this problem clearly with a problem statement. 3. Generate a list of possible solutions that could address

the problem. 4. Determine the two decision-making criteria that are most

applicable to the problem. 5. Determine the solution(s) you believe will work best

based on your decision criteria. 6. Be prepared to justify your decision.

Problem Solving Strategies

Module Objective

Use various tools and strategies to generate ideas for workplace problems

Strategies for Creative Thinking and Innovation

After completing this lesson, you will be able to:

Use ideation techniques to generate creative solutions to workplace problems

Defining Creative Thinking

Definitions for thinking creatively: • Robert E. Franken: "The tendency to

generate or recognize ideas, alternatives, or possibilities that may be useful in solving problems."

• Steve Jobs: "Creativity is just connecting things."

• Oxford English Dictionary: "The use of the imagination or original ideas, especially in the production of an artistic work."

A Model for Creativity

• Mini-c

• Little-c

• Pro-C

• Big-C

Research in Creative Cognition

Research suggests that two brain networks play critical roles in developing creative thinking:

• Executive attention

• The imagination network

Divergent Thinking

Convergent Thinking

Discussion

• Which workplace problems require divergent thinking?

• Which workplace problems require convergent thinking?

• Which workplace problems require a mix of both types of thinking?

Ideation Techniques

Effective ideation techniques include:

• Brainstorming

• 6-3-5 method

• Mind mapping

• Storyboarding

Brainstorming

To use brainstorming effectively: • Avoid criticizing ideas or ridiculing those who

contribute them • Strive for quantity, not quality, of ideas • Do not evaluate ideas until after the

brainstorming session • Use one idea to generate others • Write down all ideas • Limit brainstorming sessions to no more than

15 minutes

6-3-5 Method

The 6-3-5 method is a structured form of brainstorming. The process follows these steps: 1. Six people are given a problem by the group leader. 2. Each person writes down three ideas related to the

problem. 3. After 5 minutes, each paper is passed to the person on

the right for additions or further development. 4. Each paper continues around the table until each person

receives their original paper. 5. All papers are then collected and evaluated at a later

time.

Mind Mapping

Storyboarding

Storyboards can convey: • Ideas from brainstorming • Process steps • Timelines • Organizational structures • Development scenarios • Communication between

members of a team

Supporting Innovation

For organizations to support successful innovation, certain conditions are needed at three levels:

• Individual conditions

• Team conditions

• Organizational conditions

Values of Innovative Leadership

Poll: Values of Innovation

Which value is most important to successful innovation efforts within your organization?

o Diversity

o Risk-taking

o Integration

o Validation

o Empowerment

Exercise: Generating Creative Solutions

Directions 1.Working in groups, read your assigned

scenario. 2.Use at least one ideation technique to

generate creative solutions to the problem. 3.After a number of solutions have been

generated, form a consensus on the preferred solution(s).

4.Be prepared to share with the class.

Tools for Solving Problems

After completing this lesson, you will be able to:

Analyze tools to solve complex workplace problems

SWOT Analysis

SWOT Element Questions to Consider

Strengths • What do we do well? • What makes us unique as a

team/department/organization? • What skills do we have individually and collectively? • What similar problems have we successfully addressed

in the past?

Weaknesses • What do we need to work on? • What gaps in skills or knowledge exist? • What problems have given us trouble in the past? • What are our constraints?

SWOT Analysis, continued

SWOT Element Questions to Consider

Opportunities • How can this problem help us grow? • What external resources are available? • How does this problem fit into the organizational vision?

Threats • What risks do we face? • How might external factors make the problem more

difficult? • What are other organizations doing that might impact

our decisions?

Journalistic Six

Category Questions to Consider

Who? • Who does the problem impact? • Who do we need to engage for support? • Who will benefit if the problem is addressed?

What? • What is currently happening? • What should be happening instead? • What has and has not worked in the past?

When? • When does the problem need to be addressed by? • Is sooner preferable to later? • What are our time constraints?

Journalistic Six, continued

Category Questions to Consider

Where? • Where have similar problems occurred? • Where do we need to address the problem? • How does the location or process affect the people around

it?

Why? • Why was or is this done, avoided, or permitted? • Why did leadership make this decision? • Why address the problem now?

How? • How did we get here? • How can the problem be communicated to others? • How can our processes be improved or altered?

Fishbone Diagram

Six Thinking Hats

1.White hat. Focus on data.

2.Red hat. Focus on emotions.

3.Black hat. Focus on the negative.

4.Yellow hat. Focus on the positive.

5.Green hat. Focus on creativity.

6.Blue hat. Focus on process controls.

Agreement and Certainty Matrix

Groups can divide challenges into four distinct categories: • Simple. The problem can be solved reliably with

solutions that are easy to duplicate. • Complicated. The problem can be solved reliably

with more sophisticated solutions. • Complex. There are several clear paths to

address the problem, but the outcomes are not easy to predict.

• Chaotic. There is little agreement about the problem and the context is too turbulent to move forward.

Exercise: Using Problem-Solving Tools

Directions 1.Working in groups, read your assigned

scenario. 2.Use one of the problem-solving tools from

this lesson to analyze the problem and generate possible solutions.

3.Identify three key insights about the scenario you learned from using the tool.

4.Be prepared to discuss with the class.

Leading through Problem Solving

Module Objective

Demonstrate leadership techniques to support problem- solving efforts

Cultivating Buy-in

After completing this lesson, you will be able to:

 Identify leadership strategies that promote an organizational commitment to solving problems

Managing Change

• Letting go of the past

• The neutral zone

• A new beginning

Barriers to Problem Solving

Indicator Description

Procrastination Individuals lag in completing work, particularly as it relates to what is changing; they may feel overwhelmed and desire to bite off smaller chunks of change

Burn-out, resentment, or exhaustion

These indicators may illustrate a weary crowd who, even if they supported the movement, are not ready

Verbal resistance People show open resistance, such as bad-mouthing an idea and/or actively disengaging

Fear Individuals openly express concerns about status, roles, responsibilities, or control

Barriers to Problem Solving, continued

Indicator Description

Action without outcomes People are busy and working but make little progress toward the goal. Big picture goals are not considered.

Isolation and loneliness Individuals become withdrawn and ignore or avoid the desired changes to the status quo

Avoidance Individuals act as though they did not know there was a request made of them

Silence Silence can indicate a form of resistance and is often present when there is not enough trust present for individuals to speak up and share their concerns

The Power of Socializing

• Identify anything that could impede you from getting buy-in

• Identify the magnitude of what you are asking

• Acknowledge fear and risks • Directly address

stakeholders' pressing concerns

• Create a formal communication plan to outline who will receive information and when

• Take an empathetic approach

Identifying Stakeholders

100

Proactively Facilitating Change

1.Create a safe environment

2.Be selective and seek movement, not exposure

3.Assume people are trying their best

4.Look in the mirror

5.Act consistent with expectations of you and your role

101

Building Cultural Affiliation

• Unifying symbols and artifacts

• Language

• Onboarding procedures

• Rituals

• Recognition

• Mentorship

102

100

101

102

Exercise: Creating a Commitment to Problem Solving

Directions 1.Working individually, think of seven words that

best describe the culture of your organization. 2.Select two descriptors that you have the most

influence in changing. 3.For each descriptor, evaluate ways of

promoting a greater commitment to problem solving. Identify: —Stakeholders that you can engage with —Strategies for socializing change inititatives

4.Be prepared to share with the class. 103

Selling the Decision

After completing this lesson, you will be able to:

Use communication skills to provide strategic context to organizational decisions

104

Political Considerations

• Are there other groups of stakeholders that have a vested interest in the outcome of this decision? If so, who are they?

• Will the decision advance the agenda of certain key stakeholders? If so, how? If not, why not?

• Will the decision undermine or undercut other efforts across our agency?

• How does the rest of the organization view our decision-making group? Do we always have our decisions implemented at the expense of others?

105

103

104

105

Political Considerations, continued

• When we make decisions, how much political capital are we using?

• Do we expect our decisions to stand the test of time? Across administrations?

• For our decision to be considered and chosen, who do we need to win over?

• What support do we need to gain and sustain that stakeholder support?

106

Managing Up

Managing up is: • Understanding your boss's needs and preferences • Finding ways to more effectively communicate • Understanding how you contribute to your boss's

success • Taking ownership of the relationship • Exploring how your personal aspirations align with the

needs of the organization • Giving and receiving feedback • Identifying opportunities to be a resource • Asking specifically for what you need

107

Engaging in Change Conversations

When engaging in conversations related to change, consider these best practices:

• Use the past as a baseline

• Ask empathetic questions

• Use powerful metaphors

108

106

107

108

What's in It for Me? (WIIFM)

Examples of WIIFM messages: • Starting next week, we ask that you please fill out

your timesheets before leaving the office each day. This will improve the accuracy of project billing and allow the accounting department to issue your paychecks more expediently.

• We will send out a survey following the training session asking for your feedback. Please fill these out in a timely and truthful manner. We want to make sure future training opportunities meet your needs.

109

Communicating the Big Picture

When communicating organizational decisions, try to answer these questions: • How does this decision support the mission and

vision of the organization? • What strategic initiatives/goals are in place? • What long-term opportunities can be realized? • How can pain points be addressed in the future? • What will change? What will not change? • What perspectives were included in making the

decision?

110

Exercise: Communicating the Decision

Directions 1.Working in groups, read the scenario. 2.Prepare for a conversation with your team

to discuss the new organizational changes. 3.Consider:

—How your message will be received —How you can communicate WIIFM —How you can emphasize the big picture

4.Be prepared to discuss with the class. 111

109

110

111

112

Problem Solving Workshop

Module Objective

113

Use collaboration to effectively solve workplace problems

Collaborative Problem Solving

After completing this lesson, you will be able to:

Apply critical thinking strategies to solve workplace problems

114

112

113

114

Exercise: Problem Solving Through Conversation

Directions 1. Working in groups, take turns working through a current workplace

problem. 2. One participant (the explainer) will spend 5 minutes explaining the

problem. During this time, other group members cannot ask questions or comment.

3. After listening to the explainer, the rest of the group will talk out the problem and generate possible solutions for 15 minutes. The explainer should take notes and cannot comment or answer questions during the brainstorming.

4. After brainstorming, the group and explainer can discuss the problem freely and debrief for 10 minutes. The goal should be to: — Highlight new perspectives that had not previously been considered — Identify actionable and feasible next steps

5. Rotate between group members until each member's problem has been discussed and addressed.

115

Bibliography

CRITICAL THINKING FOR PROBLEM SOLVING

BIBLIOGRAPHY “Creativity.” Oxford English Dictionary. Accessed 2021.

http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/44075?redirectedFrom=creativity#eid.

Bridges, William. 2004. Transitions: Making Sense of Life’s Changes, 2nd Edition. Philadelphia, PA:

Da Capo Press.

Cooper, Belle Beth. "What Is Mediation and How it Affects Our Brains." Last modified August 21,

2013. https://blog.bufferapp.com/how-meditation-affects-your-brain.

De Bono, Edward. 1999. Six Thinking Hats. Back Bay Books.

Diane F. Halpern. 1996. Thought and Knowledge: An Introduction to Critical Thinking. Erlbaum

Associates: Mahwah, NJ.

Franken, Robert E. 2006. Human Motivation, 6th ed. Calgary: Wadsworth Publishing.

History.com Editors. 2011. Salem Witch Trials. https://www.history.com/topics/colonial-

america/salem-witch-trials

Janis, Irving. Groupthink: Psychological Studies of Policy Decisions and Fiascoes, 2nd ed. Boston,

MA: Houghton Mifflin.

Jobs, Steve. February 1, 1996. "Steve Jobs: The Next Insanely Great Thing." Wired. Interview with

Wired Magazine.

Kahneman, Daniel. 2011. Thinking, Fast and Slow. New York City: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.

Kaufman, James, and Ronald Beghetto. 2009. "Beyond Big and Little: The Four C Model of

Creativity," Review of General Psychology 13 (1): 1-12.

Kaufman, Scott B. "The Controlled Chaos of Creativity," Beautiful Minds (blog), Scientific American.

Last modified June 25, 2014. http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/beautiful-minds/the-controlled-

chaos-of-creativity/.

Lambert, Craig. 2005. "Deep Into Sleep." Harvard Magazine, July-August ed.

http://harvardmagazine.com/2005/07/deep-into-sleep.html.

Marshak, Robert. 2006. Covert Processes at Work: Managing the Five Hidden Dimensions of

Organizational Change. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler Publishers.

McDowell-Larsen, Sharon. "The Care & Feeding of the Leader’s Brain." Center for Creative

Leadership. Last modified 2015. http://insights.ccl.org/articles/white-papers/the-care-feeding-of-

the-leaders-brain/.

Paul, Richard, and Linda Elder. 2010. The Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking: Concepts and

Tools. Foundation for Critical Thinking.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Schuster, S. 2017. Stanislav Petrov, the Russian Officer Who Averted a Nuclear War, Feared

History Repeating Itself. Time Magazine. https://time.com/4947879/stanislav-petrov-russia-

nuclear-war-obituary/

Scriven, Michael, and Richard Paul. "Defining Critical Thinking." Last modified 2003.

http://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/defining-critical-thinking/410.

Syllabus

Course Overview
Course Expectations
Professional Benefits

Opening Exercise

Exercise: Virtual Team-Building

The Critical Thinker

Elements of Critical Thinking

1.1 Defining Critical Thinking

1.1.1 Exercise: Exploring Critical Thinking

1.2 Components of Critical Thinking
1.3 Critical Thinking Applications

Traits of Effective Critical Thinkers

2.1 Exercise: Examining Critical Thinking Qualities
2.2 Characteristics of Critical Thinkers
2.3 Critical Thinking Practices
2.4 Exercise: Critical Thinking Self-Assessment

Overcoming Critical Thinking Barriers

Understanding Our Thinking

1.1 Attention Systems

1.1.1 Promoting Thoughtful Attention

1.2 The Role of Emotions
1.3 Metacognition

1.3.1 Metacognitive Strategies

1.4 Exercise: The Problem with Fireplaces

Obstacles to Critical Thinking

2.1 Blocks to Critical Thinking

2.1.1 Using Metacognition

2.2 Groupthink

2.2.1 Exercise: A Case Study of Groupthink

2.3 Ladder of Inference
2.4 Logical Fallacies

2.4.1 Exercise: Overcoming Logical Fallacies

A Model for Problem Solving

Framing the Problem

1.1 Problem-Solving Model

1.1.1 Benefits of the Model

1.2 Defining the Problem

1.2.1 Gap Analysis
1.2.2 Problem Statements
1.2.3 Exercise: Writing a Problem Statement

1.3 Determining the Root Cause

1.3.1 Five Whys
1.3.2 Exercise: Identifying the Root Cause

Developing and Implementing Solutions

2.1 Developing Possible Solutions
2.2 Choosing the Best Solution
2.3 Implementing the Solution

2.3.1 Course Correction

2.4 Evaluating the Results
2.5 Exercise: Finding and Evaluating Solutions

Problem Solving Strategies

Strategies for Creative Thinking and Innovation

1.1 Defining Creative Thinking

1.1.1 A Model for Creativity
1.1.2 Research in Creative Cognition

1.2 Divergent and Convergent Thinking
1.3 Ideation Techniques

1.3.1 Brainstorming
1.3.2 6-3-5 Method
1.3.3 Mind Mapping
1.3.4 Storyboarding

1.4 Supporting Innovation

1.4.1 Values of Innovative Leadership

1.5 Exercise: Generating Creative Solutions

Tools for Solving Problems

2.1 SWOT Analysis
2.2 Journalistic Six
2.3 Fishbone Diagram
2.4 Six Thinking Hats
2.5 Agreement and Certainty Matrix
2.6 Exercise: Using Problem-Solving Tools

Leading through Problem Solving

Cultivating Buy-in

1.1 Managing Change

1.1.1 Barriers to Problem Solving

1.2 The Power of Socializing

1.2.1 Identifying Stakeholders
1.2.2 Proactively Facilitating Change
1.2.3 Building Cultural Affiliation

1.3 Exercise: Creating a Commitment to Problem Solving

Selling the Decision

2.1 Political Considerations

2.1.1 Managing Up

2.2 Engaging in Change Conversations

2.2.1 What's in It for Me? (WIIFM)
2.2.2 Communicating the Big Picture

2.3 Exercise: Communicating the Decision

Problem Solving Workshop

Collaborative Problem Solving

1.1 Exercise: Problem Solving Through Conversation

Action Plan

Overview
Part I: Key Learning Points
Part II: On the Job

Presentation Slides
Bibliography