research paper

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CRACKING THE CODE

ENGL 101 Course pack

2020 – 2021

By Melinda Dewsbury

Trinity Western University

Module 3

Research Writing

What is research and why do you need it?

The Merriam Webster Dictionary states that research is:

1: careful or diligent search

2 : studious inquiry or examination

especially : investigation or experimentation aimed at the discovery and interpretation of facts, revision of accepted theories or laws in the light of new facts, or practical application of such new or revised theories or laws

3 : the collecting of information about a particular subject

SO, when we research, we carefully and thoroughly look for information and examine it. We use the information to make a theory or to discover something or to apply it.

We need to research in order to DISCOVER new knowledge and PROVE what we think.

In scholarly work, our own ideas are valuable but ONLY if we explain, develop, explore, and prove them.

Steps:

1. Choose and examine a topic.

2. Identify a question about your topic that you want to answer.

3. Read everything you can find to get a thorough answer to your question.

4. Collect your findings together and look for patterns.

5. Organize your findings into categories and consider how these categories connect to one another.

6. In each category, what does your research show you? What does it mean?

7. Begin to write. Interact with the research findings to show your readers what you discovered. The writing should be a combination of your own voice and thoughts with the research that helped you find those ideas.

Topic Development

Always check your syllabus and any additional handouts from your professor. Follow the instructions carefully, and ask your professor questions if you are not sure. Do NOT rely on what your friends tell you!

If your professor has given you an open-ended topic, your next step is to spend time brainstorming, exploring, and analyzing a topic.

Here are some starting strategies:

1. Ask yourself, “What am I passionate about?”

2. Brainstorm how a topic could be addressed from any academic discipline or perspective (marketing, economic, socioeconomic, demographic, management, leadership, art, music, pop culture, media, historical, psychological, environmental…) This might help you narrow your interests and exclude categories as well.

3. Enter your basic topic idea into a Google Image search. Sometimes an overview of images will give you ideas and inspiration.

4. Enter your basic topic idea into a search on TedTalks. Browse the findings and listen to some of the speeches to help you think of new questions and ideas.

Once you have chosen a topic and have some ideas, begin to explore ways to narrow it. A research topic should not be too broad.

WHO: Do you want to narrow to a specific demographic group (gender, age, culture…)? Is there a specific group of people you are interested in?

WHAT: Do you want to narrow to a specific problem or event?

WHEN: Do you want to focus on a current issue? A historic situation? Or do you want to look at changes over time?

WHERE: It is essential to narrow to a specific context because problems differ greatly according to place. You should not try to look at women’s issues all around the world, for instance. What country do you want to examine? Do you want to narrow it further to a specific city or region?

WHY: Do you want to limit your research to investigating one particular cause or effect?

HOW: Do you want to look at solutions? Do you want to research a specific kind of solution (such as economic, policy-making, medical, or educational)?

Developing a research question

A research question guides you. It keeps you from being distracted or getting off-track. You start to read your research to find the answer to your question.

A research question needs to have enough depth to lead you in writing a whole essay. It should NOT ask about a specific fact, such as “How many people died in the wildfires in California?”

It should NOT ask something that is trivial, such as “What did Emma Stone wear to the Golden Globe Awards?”

It should NOT ask something too broad and idealistic, like, “What is the best way to have world peace?”

It should NOT ask something obvious, like, “Is nuclear war dangerous?”

Here are some good ways to begin a research question:

What is the correlation between ____ and _____?

What is the relationship between ____ and ____?

What are the effects of ____ on _____?

How does ____ impact _____?

What are the underlying causes of _____?

Become aware of your biases

Before you begin reading and looking for answers, what biases do you have that might interfere with your search? Try to challenge yourself to read all kinds of perspectives, even ones you disagree with.

What is evidence?

As you look for answers, you will begin to form conclusions and ideas. The research informs what you think and it also provides your EVIDENCE for why you say what you say.

Where do you go for answers?

· Experts – provide theories, knowledge, and interpretation

· Philosophers – provide ways of thinking

· Researchers – provide specific studies along with details of their methodology, sample group, findings, and data

· Data and Numbers – provide measurements so that you can provide evidence rather than just a perception or belief

· Maps – provide spatial information and comparisons over time

· Primary sources – provide records of the way of life and real experience of individuals at a specific time (includes court documents, historic documents, letters, diaries, business documents, emails, speeches, policy and government documents)

· Testimony – provide stories of experiences from people who actually lived the situation

· Images/photographs/video – provide physical documentation

· Interviews – provide direct answers to questions about a specific situation

· Scientific evidence – provide facts derived from inductive work (such as chemical analysis and biological processes)

Finding Research: information literacy

Before you search

· Do NOT type your whole research question into a search bar

· Do NOT type your whole thesis or detailed topic into a search bar

· Use a basic Google search or Wikipedia JUST to get an overview of the topic and write down important vocabulary to help you search

· Brainstorm KEY WORDS and continue to add to your list as you find more.

Consider general concepts

Consider synonyms

Consider different perspectives

Consider different word forms

Consider different combinations

Consider related words

USE the library!

· Ask the librarians for help. They will help you learn to use the databases, find useful key words, and even help you with your research.

· Request books and articles. If our library does not have it, they can find it for you. (There is a fee for this service and you must plan ahead).

· Use the Library Onesearch, which will search through books, articles, media, and ebooks. This should be your first place to look.

· You might need to find your research in pieces. For example, you might not find THE PERFECT article that says exactly what you want. You might find a little bit here and a little bit there. Remember that you are reading to DISCOVER so focus on learning new things.

· Follow subject headings and links to categories that fit your search. The categories that pop up may give you ideas for how to limit your topic.

· Remember to click on “full text” and “peer reviewed” to narrow your results

· Save or email the articles to yourself and include the citation format you need. This will provide the bibliography all ready for you. (Note: You may need to make small format changes as the auto-bibliographies are not perfect).

Use Google

· Do not rely on the internet. Use the library databases as your main search.

· Try different combinations of search words

· Access the internet via the TWU library. On the library homepage, look for “Additional Search Tools.” You will see links to Google Advanced and Google Scholar. By linking when you are logged into the TWU library, you will gain access to documents that will otherwise require payment.

· Look for major news publications such as The Economist, The Guardian, New York Times, Forbes, and Globe and Mail.

· Look for major research and statistical firms such as Ipsos, Gallup, Statistics Canada, any national statistics.

· Use university websites which often include published research and journals from their faculty or from university institutes and centres

· Do not use blogs and corporate articles unless they are relevant to your paper. For example, it you are talking about the impact of blogs, it would be relevant to quote from blogs. If you want to learn about the attitudes of youth towards a certain issue, you might want to read some social media discussions from youth to gain an understanding from their real dialogue).

Checklist for Evaluating Sources

Is the source scholarly or “popular?”

· Popular sources include magazines that you normally find in stores, such as

Woman’s Day, People, Chatelaine, Canadian Living. You don’t find scholarly journals at Superstore or Walmart. Scholarly articles are found in journals, not magazines.

· Popular sources are well-known in the general public. For example, although wikipedia is useful for your own personal interests, it is not a good site for your academic work.

· Popular sources are sometimes published weekly or daily. Check to see if the date includes day, not just month and year. Scholarly sources are usually published quarterly (four times per year) or sometimes monthly. They usually include a volume number (and sometimes an issue number).

· Popular sources are sometimes written by popular or famous people such as celebrities or television journalists. If you are not sure about the author, ask your professor. The most important information to check is the author’s background. Find out the author’s educational background, other books he/she has written, and associations he/she belongs to.

· Popular sources often use first person, second person, slang, idioms, humour, personal stories, and letters. They might include long descriptions. They might use a lot of questions and exclamations. Scholarly sources may use first person, but more often they use third person. They use formal vocabulary and grammar. They never use exclamation marks.

· Academic sources usually use references to studies and experts. There is usually a bibliography. If a website looks academic but does not include a bibliography, it is not a good one for your university research.

· Scholarly sources usually refer to studies, statistics, theory, and history, and they reference the authors and researchers who contributed this knowledge. Popular sources may use statistics, but they often do not tell you where the statistics come from. Beware of articles that say “Research shows…”

· If the source is from the internet, use your critical thinking skills to analyze .com sites. Use .edu or .gov or possibly .org

· If the source is from the internet, look at the visuals. If there are a lot of pictures, graphics, emoticons, cute visuals, and bright colours, it is likely not academic. Remember: academic sites usually look boring!!

· If the source is from the internet, follow links. Look at the homepage and the About Us links. Look at who sponsored the site (at the end in small print). Look at when the page was last updated. If it is not recently updated, it may not be a very good site. Look at what else the site is connected to. Do not use it if the website is promoting a product or service.

What are the author’s credentials?

This is usually found at the beginning of a book and at the end of an article, or at the front of a journal. Publishers’ websites often have bios or their writers. You can also find out by searching for the author’s name in the library, on databases like EBSCOHost, or on the internet. Look at what other things he/she has written to find out what topics and perspectives he/she usually discusses. Also look at the names of journals to find out any potential bias.

· What is his/her education?

· What is his/her experience?

· Is he/she associated with any organization, publication, university?

· What is his/her perspective?

· What is his/her bias? Does this bias affect the trustworthiness of his/her work?

Is the source current?

Try to use information published within the last 10 years, with the exception of classical works and “pioneers” in the field. Unless you are studying a topic historically, use only very recent statistics. For natural, applied, and social sciences, research should be very recent.

Is the source accessible for you?

It should not be so difficult that you cannot use it responsibly.

Credibility Ratings: Critical Thinking about Research

For each item you discover as you research, consider the level:

1 Popular source for self-help or entertainment

2 Personal story, testimonial, or narrative (blogs, magazines, pop culture books)

3 News article, magazine article, article from a professional organization; may include research but reported in journalistic or less formal style

4 Scholarly source but written for average reader; includes references and scholarly research such as studies, statistics, and reports.

5 Scholarly source written for advanced academic work; includes references and scholarly research; written in very formal style, with long sentences and difficult vocabulary. This level is written for experts in the field.

In most academic writing, only use levels 3-5. You might use level 2 in some kinds of essays, as people’s real life experiences and testimonies can provide valuable evidence and interesting examples. This is more common in journalistic writing than in academic writing.

Research Essays: Overview

Your essay should NOT be just a list of the information you found. It should not be a collection of information (like a Wikipedia page). Your essay should present your argument, which you developed as you looked for the answer to your research question. The parts of the essay should work together to reveal your argument.

Introductory paragraph

Your introduction should be approximately ½ page or a little more. The purpose is to warm up the reader and present your thesis statement. You should NOT provide background, history, or evidence in this paragraph. Your thesis should appear at the end of the introduction. Your thesis is a statement that summarizes your whole argument.

A=B paragraph (Context and Background)

The length of this paragraph will vary depending on what you need to define or how much background you need to provide. This paragraph includes research. NOTE: In some courses, you may be asked to write an “argumentative essay,” which requires you to provide “opposition points.” You can sometimes use the A=B paragraph for this purpose.

B=C paragraph (Connection to your topic)

The length of this paragraph will also vary. Here, provide background information on the specific issue/country/group of people that you are going to focus on. This paragraph includes research.

Body paragraphs

The body of your essay will require many paragraphs. Remember: this is NOT a 5 paragraph essay! Each paragraph needs to build connections to the thesis and show how the research proves what you have discovered. Each paragraph should include multiple citations and layers of research evidence.

Concluding paragraph

The concluding paragraph is usually fairly short, perhaps 5 sentences in length. Restate your argument in a fresh way. You do not need to repeat all of your points or sections. Do NOT offer solutions, suggestions, or recommendations in this kind of essay. Sometimes you can discuss some of the limitations of your research. You may wish to end with a strong sentence that leaves the reader thinking. However, do not use a “wonderful” sentence (such as “As the government pays more attention to this problem, the country will be a wonderful, happy place.”).

The Thesis Statement

When you are drafting your thesis statement for any kind of research paper, it is important to consider all of the following features. A strong thesis:

· Limits the topic – a specific topic, appropriate to the essay length, with necessary limitations

Consider: specific group of people, age, place, time, condition, situation, type

· Unifies the parts – take one side (avoid talking about both advantages and disadvantages) unless your question asks you to examine both

· Develops an opinion – may be strongly stated (such as “should”) or may be created simply by the connections you make.

To test for opinion, ask yourself, “would everyone agree?” If the answer is “No,” then you have opinion.

· Considers a specific perspective – generally, don’t look at multiple perspectives but rather limit to one

· Lists your roadmap – not essential but very helpful. The roadmap may be in a separate sentence following the thesis. It includes at least three categories, but depending on the length of the essay, could include more. The roadmap helps your reader predict your organization (how you will categorize your evidence). It’s kind of like an index to your essay.

Sample thesis statement structure

From a ___________ perspective, specific topic + your opinion + connection to another concept (BECAUSE)+ roadmap (THROUGH, IN, WITH, BY).

From an anthropological perspective,

orphan care in Haiti

must focus on nurturing

because complex cultural patterns continue to put children at risk

through

abandonment, desperation, imprisonment, and slavery.

1 2 3 4

A=B Section (context, background, and Definitions)

In a research essay, in a section immediately after your introduction, provide your A=B paragraph.

The A=B paragraph could provide:

· An overview of the history of your topic, such as the different perspectives and opinions on the issue. (This is sometimes called a Literature Review, or “Lit Review”).

· Key definitions

· A definition of your perspective, also called a premise. For example, “All children have a right to a family.” The paragraph would then explain or argue for family as a basic right and explain why family is so crucial for human development.

B=C Section (Background of your specific issue)

The next paragraph moves to a more specific level. It focuses on your actual topic. For example, “The orphans in Haiti need families.” The rest of the paragraph would then provide:

· Background facts, numbers, and other information of the situation you will analyze, such as the number of children who are orphaned, the different kinds of orphans, and the number of children who live on the streets.

· A summary of the situation, such as a story or chronology of the last two decades of the orphan situation in Haiti.

· The specific perspective or definition that you will follow, such as the value of nurturing in child development.

The Ladder of Abstraction

General/Abstract

All

Most

Many

Some

Few

One

Specific/Concrete

Using the Ladder:

· Most paragraphs move from general to specific, building onto each concept (most common academic pattern).

· Research follows the ladder from top to bottom – from general research earlier in the paragraph to more detailed evidence later in the paragraph

· Introductions move from the top down.

· Conclusions move from the middle up.

· Examples fall at the bottom of the ladder.

Research Paragraph Pattern

Begin with your assertion, which should include your thesis key words and your paragraph key word. Explain this assertion in further detail in another one to two sentences. Introduce general research support, “Give your quote or paraphrase or evidence” (Citation, Year). Transition. Give your discussion of the research and connect to your key words. Introduce more specific support, “Give your quote or statistics or factual details” (Citation, Year). Transition. Give your discussion and connect to your key words. Introduce your very specific support, “Give your quote or specific details of the case or story” (Citation, Year). Transition. Give your discussion and connect to your key words. At the end, you may or may not want to add a concluding statement in your own words.

Remember the ladder of abstraction for organizing your research support:

General: Expert comments, theoretical ideas.

Middle: Findings of a research study, statistics, factual information.

Bottom: One person’s experience or one specific event to illustrate.

You might organize each paragraph following this general guide, or you might have multiple paragraphs that organize your evidence in this way.

Integrating Research

1. Introduce the quote, summary, or paraphrase. You can do this in different ways:

· Give the source (name or title) and a verb such as:

writes illustrates

explains highlights

suggests reveals

describes argues

emphasizes asserts

**Vary the reporting verb throughout the paper and make sure that the verb you choose accurately reflects what the original author was doing and/or saying

· Use a transition word or expression to connect to your previous sentence.

· Put the quotation inside your own sentence. For example,

When parents are faced with the reality that they can only feed two of their five children, they “are forced by desperation to make a choice that might seem unacceptable to an outsider” (Smith, 2010, p. 71).

2. Don’t forget documentation! Remember that all research must have a reference, even if you are just using a general idea, a term, or an example. You do not need to document “common knowledge” such as well-known historical events, fairy tales, and widely-known facts. If in doubt, it is best to provide evidence and documentation.

3. Add a transition. Consider what you want to do with the research. Do you want to restate it, emphasize it, add to it, explain it, agree or disagree with it…? This transition shows the reader how YOU are interacting with what you found. This is what makes your essay an essay and not an encyclopedia.

This means/ shows/ reveals/ highlights /indicates/ clarifies

In other words

It is clear that

Clearly, then,

For this reason,

With this in mind,

4. Explain from your own perception and thought what you think of the research, why it is important, how it relates to other points, or how it relates to your main point. Use key words to make connections. Use a key word from the quote plus a key word from your paragraph to put the two pieces together.

In explaining and discussing, do NOT use first person (I, me, my) or second person (you, your) in research papers.

© Melinda Dewsbury, 2019

© Melinda Dewsbury, 2019