For Professor Tommy

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Chapter 6 Conditioning and Learning

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Gateway Theme

The principles of learning can be used to understand and control behavior.

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Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior that results from experience. Every experience we have—reading a book, riding a bicycle, shopping at a new store—causes a change in our brain that promotes learning. Remember, though, that “relatively permanent” is also an important part of this definition.

Gateway Questions

What are some types of learning?

How does classical conditioning occur?

Does conditioning affect emotions?

How does operant conditioning occur?

What is stimulus control?

Are there different types of reinforcement?

How are we influenced by patterns of reward?

What does punishment do to behavior?

What is cognitive learning?

Does learning occur by imitation?

How can behavioral self-management skills help me in my personal and professional life?

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Types of Associative Learning

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One form of learning occurs when a person or animal comes to recognize a relationship, or association, between various stimuli or behaviors. This is called associative learning and comes in a few variations.

On the other hand, cognitive learning occurs when we use existing knowledge and higher mental processes to understand, know, or anticipate. This type of learning is regarded as more advanced and more typical of humans rather than lower animals.

The two primary forms of associated learning are classical conditioning and operant conditioning, which together make up most of this chapter. In one, we learn to spread a reflexive response to a new precipitating stimulus, and in the other the consequences of our behaviors mediate future repetition of those actions.

Pavlov’s Experiment

An apparatus for Pavlovian conditioning

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Arguably one of the most influential discoveries in the entire field of psychology, Ivan Pavlov’s recognition of how dogs learned to associate two external stimuli and to spread a natural response from one to the other, is the crux of classical conditioning.

Though somewhat complicated, there is nothing particularly difficult to understand in the process of classical conditioning. Read carefully about Pavlov’s original process and then try to generate your own example of each:

neutral stimulus

unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

unconditioned response (UCR)

conditioned stimulus (CS)

conditioned response (CR)

Note that the most basic process of conditioning—the formula, if you will—tends to be the same regardless of the stimuli and responses in question.

Principles of Classical Conditioning (1 of 2)

The classical conditioning procedure

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When we are first learning a classically conditioned response, this is called acquisition, and once that learning has occurred it can serve as a part of future conditioning. This is called higher order conditioning. Briefly, when one CS has been effectively acquired, it can serve as the “UCS” for a new association to be made.

Have you ever suffered heartbreak? Immediately after the relationship ends, you tend to associate everything you see with the pain you are feeling. Over time, however, those associations fade away and the heartbreak heals. This is the basis of extinction. As time goes on, the relationship between a CS and a UCS fades away, and the response diminishes.

However, it is not gone completely! Spontaneous recovery shows us that even an extinguished response can re-emerge, often for no identifiable reason whatsoever. So if your heart has healed but one day you experience unexplained pangs of hurt that just show up in response to some innocuous stimulus, try not to worry about it. Eat some ice cream and find your smile! If you don’t like ice cream, French fries are an acceptable substitute.

Principles of Classical Conditioning (2 of 2)

Acquisition and extinction of a conditioned response

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The fact that we learn to respond to one specific stimulus does not mean that we won’t make a mistake and respond to others that are similar. This is what Pavlov called stimulus generalization. As an example, if you see someone in public who looks like your friend and you call out to them, only to realize that they are the wrong person, you’ve generalized a response to a similar (but different) stimulus.

On the other hand, stimulus discrimination occurs when we recognize that similar but different stimuli should evoke different responses. This is why your two friends, both of whom are tall and have short brown hair, don’t cause you to continually mix them up.

Conditioned Emotional Responses

Hypothetical example of a CER becoming a phobia

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Phobias can be initiated via classical conditioning, when a fearful response to one stimulus spreads to another stimulus. This is called a conditioned emotional response, and one of the most famous (and ethically questionable) studies in psychology was the case of Little Albert. This work, done by John B. Watson, demonstrated that even a very young child could acquire a fear through classical conditioning.

Thankfully, this can also help us to treat phobias via a process called systematic desensitization, which is sometimes referred to as a form of counterconditioning.

Vicarious, or Secondhand, Conditioning

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Do you know a child who has learned a response by observing her or his parents show that same response? This is explained via vicarious classical conditioning, which says that we can acquire another person’s emotional response and then absorb or adopt that response as our own.

As an example, the author of this PowerPoint slide is married to a woman who is terribly afraid of insects. All three of his sons are also very afraid of insects despite the fact that none of them have ever been bitten or stung by one. They have observed their mother’s fearful response, and now share that fear. This demonstrates vicarious conditioning.

Positive Reinforcement

Reinforcing language use

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Up until now, we’ve been talking about what is called S-R learning, where the stimulus precedes the response. But can that be reversed? What if the response leads to an environmental input—a consequence—that mediates future behaviors? That is what E.L. Thorndike studied when he worked with cats learning to navigate through puzzle boxes.

Thorndike’s law of effect noted that the type of outcome predicated how behaviors would be repeated in the future, what came to be called instrumental conditioning.

Later noted behaviorist B.F. Skinner adapted this into what is now called operant conditioning, identifying the importance of reinforcement and punishment. In his honor, we now refer to an operant chamber as a “Skinner box.”

Acquiring an Operant Response

The Skinner box

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Research using a Skinner box has helped psychologists to understand a great deal about how operant conditioning works.

Timing: When reinforcement follows shortly after a response, it is more effective at strengthening that behavior.

Contingency—As your authors note, we come to associate a specific behavior with a specific reinforcement, and this response contingency helps to increase the impact of that behavioral outcome.

Superstitious conditioning—Sometimes, we are reinforced, but we misinterpret that reinforcement as being attached to a specific behavior (e.g., we believe that wearing our “lucky socks” helps us play better during a baseball game). This sort of superstitious behavior has been observed in both animals and human beings.

Shaping, Operant Extinction, and Negative Reinforcement

Pigeon ping-pong

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Have you ever wondered how performing animals or service animals learn to do such amazing feats? It all comes down to shaping, which involves reinforcing successive approximations of a desired response. How can we use shaping with human beings?

As in classical conditioning, extinction can also occur in operant conditioning when reinforcements are withheld and the behavior associated with those reinforcers diminishes. This can happen intentionally or, in other cases, unintentionally. But once again, if the reinforcers are then reinstated, spontaneous recovery of the associated behaviors may occur.

One often-confused concept from operant conditioning is negative reinforcement, which serves the purpose of strengthening behavior through the removal of some unpleasant or aversive stimulus. Can you think of examples of this, and how it might be misunderstood?

Punishment

Table 6.3 Behavioral Effects of Various Consequences

	Consequence of Making a Response	Example	Effect on Response Probability
Positive reinforcement	Good event begins	Food given	Increase
Negative reinforcement	Bad event ends	Pain stops	Increase
Positive punishment	Bad event begins	Pain begins	Decrease
Negative punishment(response cost)	Good event ends	Food removed	Decrease
Non reinforcement	Nothing	N/A	Decrease

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When we want to increase a behavior, we use reinforcement. The opposite, however, is punishment, which is the outcome of a behavior that serves to decrease that behavior’s future repetition.

When this comes in the form of applying an unpleasant stimulus, it is called positive punishment. On the other hand, when it occurs by the removal of a pleasant stimulus, this is negative punishment. Review some examples of each of these outcomes in the textbook.

Generalization and Discrimination

When behavior that has been reinforced begins to spread to other similar situations, this is called operant stimulus generalization. Just like classical conditioning noted that similar stimuli can produce similar responses, the same effect occurs as a result of previous reinforcement.

AND, just like classical conditioning showed that we can discriminate between stimuli and only show appropriate responses, the same is true in operant conditioning when operant stimulus discrimination occurs.

The stimuli that signal specific responses are therefore called discriminative stimuli.

Primary Reinforcement

Electrical self-stimulation of the brain

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Primary reinforcers are those that provide comfort, end discomfort, or satisfy a basic biological need. They tend to be instinctively rewarding rather than being learned or acquired over time, and they can activate the pleasure centers or pleasure pathways of the brain.

Secondary Reinforcement

Will work for tokens

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On the other hand, secondary reinforcers, sometimes called “acquired” reinforcers, are those rewards that we have to learn to like. They often gain their value through an association with a primary reinforcer, but on their own their value is not automatic.

The best example of a secondary reinforcer is probably money, which most people will engage in behaviors to earn. More basically, earning money is a form of a token economy in which specific behaviors can earn some sort of prize that can be used to obtain other more desired rewards,

Token economies are often used in school classrooms, hospital settings, and when parents attempt to teach their children appropriate behaviors.

Schedules of Partial Reinforcement

Typical response patterns for partial reinforcement schedules

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When we get a reward after every instance of a behavior, it is called continuous reinforcement. But more often, we get rewarded on one of several schedules of partial reinforcement. Review how each of these works, generate examples, and think about which schedule will promote the longest-lasting behaviors that are most resistant to extinction:

Fixed ratio (FR)

Variable ratio (VR)

Fixed interval (FI)

Variable interval (VI)

Related to this is the partial reinforcement effect, which talks about how receiving rewards some but not all of the time is related to extinction or perseverance of behaviors.

Variables Affecting Punishment

Remember that punishment is an outcome that weakens, or discourages, a particular behavior. The three variables that influence the effectiveness of punishment are timing, consistency, and intensity:

Timing—immediate punishment is the most effective, so that the association is made with the undesirable behavior.

Consistency—when the same inappropriate behavior is consistently punished, it will decrease with the greatest effectiveness. Inconsistency, however, will undermine the intention of the punishment.

Intensity—when punishment is too severe, it can lead to several undesirable and unintended outcomes even though it may effectively halt the behavior (see the next slide).

The Downside to Punishment

As noted above, severe punishment can effectively discourage a person or animal from repeating the antecedent behavior, but at what cost?

Punishment can lead to fear, resentment, and anger

Escape learning occurs when a behavior is halted for the sole purpose of escaping an unpleasant outcome. This does not actually teach about the behavior itself, but rather about strategically manipulating circumstances to avoid unpleasant results.

Avoidance learning is similar, only now we engage in specific actions simply to avoid negative outcomes.

Aggression—punishment that involves very aversive consequences can trigger aggression in the recipient, either in response to the punishment itself or in response to the frustration caused by the punishment.

Using Punishment Wisely

Types of reinforcement and punishment

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Refer to your text for a list of several recommendations for how to use punishment effectively, and remember that a wide variety of studies have found that the best policy is to use punishment as the exception, while reinforcement should be the rule.

Latent Learning and Cognitive Maps

Latent learning

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One assumption that was once made about learning is that when we learn something, we must immediately demonstrate that learning. Well Edward Tolman demonstrated that learning can occur but not show up until a later time, a process called latent learning. Evidence of this comes from the creation of cognitive maps, which are representations of an environment that we can use to guide future behaviors.

As an example, if you were asked where your favorite store is in the local shopping mall, could you easily write down or verbalize the path you’d take to get to it? Probably! But did you ever study that path and commit it to memory? This shows how something that you learned created a cognitive map that could be used at a future time.

Learning Aids and Discovery Learning

Boeing 747 airline training simulator

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When we are given continual information about our behaviors, this is called feedback, and it is an important part of the use of learning aids. Video games as well as educational software often uses this sort of approach, as you receive immediate responses that tell you if you are or are not behaving in an appropriate way or, as in the use of the software that accompanies your textbook, getting right answers.

Sometimes learning takes place through mechanical repetition—doing something over and over again—and this is called rote learning. Other times learning occurs in moments of insight and understanding, a process called discovery learning.

Modeling

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If you have older (or younger) siblings and have ever learned what to or not to do by watching their behaviors and consequences, you’ve engaged in the process of observational learning. Albert Bandura used the “Bobo doll” experiment to show how influential people can serve as role models for children’s behavior. How does this inform our willingness to let children observe actors, musicians, or professional athletes who do not behave in a prosocial manner? Does this lend more understanding to the impact of violent video games or television? What about fake violence when children don’t understand that it isn’t real (e.g., professional wrestling programs)?

At the same time, can children learn to behave in more prosocial or empathetic ways by observing those behaviors in influential adults?

Modeling and the Media

Video game violence and youth violence rates

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There is little argument that the media to which we are exposed is constantly saturated with violent images. Movies, television shows, and video games—even comic books—seem intent on showing us destruction, anger, aggression, and violence. How does this affect us? How does it affect children?

Research examining this very question has consistently found a strong positive relationship between children’s exposure to violent media—particularly television and video games—but that data are correlational and therefore does not appropriately support cause-and-effect conclusions.

Putting aside cause and effect, what might be some explanations for this “relationship?”

Your text notes that disinhibition can occur, which involves a loss of restriction of certain behaviors. Further desensitization can play a factor, in which the emotional sensitivity we might typically feel in response to aggression is reduced. Do you feel less repulsed by outrageous violence when you see it? Does this repulsion diminish with repeated exposure?

Result: Horn EyeblinkClassical Conditioning

Response Eyeblink

Key relationship

Stimulus Horn

Stimulus Air puff

Result: Whistle Sit up

Reinforcer Food

Stimulus Whistle

Response Sit up

Time

Antecedents Response Consequences

Operant Conditioning

Time

No salivation

Meat powder (US)

Salivation (UR)

Salivation (CR)

Reflex Reflex

Conditioned reflexAssociated

Before Conditioning During Conditioning (Acquisition) Test for Conditioning

Bell (NS)

Bell (CS)

164 8 120

2 4 60 8 10

Test trials during acquisition Test trials during extinction

D ro

p s

o f sa

li va

t o C

D ro

p s

o f sa

li va

t o C

(c)

(a) (b)

(d)

doll

duh

dat

Day 1

doll

duh

dat

Day 5

doll

duh

dat

Day 10

doll

duh

dat

Day 20

Food pellet dispenser

Water Light Screen

Food tray Lever

(b)(a)

Time (minutes)

400

200

300

100

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

Variable ratio

Fixed ratio

Fixed interval

Variable interval

C u

m u la

ti ve

n u m

b er

o f re

sp o n se

Positive state removed after response

Negative punishment (response

cost)

Negative reinforcement

Discomfort removed by response

Discomfort follows response

Positive punishment

Type of Event Positive Aversive

P re

se n te

d R

em o ve

d A

ft er

a R

es p o n se

, Ev

en t

Is :

Positive reinforcement

Positive event follows response

Days

T im

e 1 5 10 15 20

Reinforced starting on eleventh day Always reinforced

Start Food box

(b)(a)

So ci

et al

e xp

o su

re t

o v

io le

n t

vi d eo

ga m

Pe r

ca p it

a yo

u th

v io

le n ce

v ic

ti m

iz at

io n

Video game violence consumption Youth violence

9000

8000

6000

7000

5000

4000

3000

2000

1000

1 9 9 6

1 9 9 7

1 9 9 8

1 9 9 9

2 0 0 0

2 0 0 1

2 0 0 2

2 0 0 3

2 0 0 4

2 0 0 5

2 0 0 6

2 0 0 7

2 0 0 8

2 0 0 9

2 0 1 0

2 0 1 1