Religion
A k a d e m i k A r a $ t i r m a l a r D e r g i s i 2 0 0 5 , S a y i 2 6 , S a y f a I a r 1 9 1 - 2 1 0
The Concept of Revelation According to the Bible and the Qur'an
Niyazi BEKI*
The main objective of this article is to itivestigate the tneaning of revelation in the Bible and the Qur'an. My basic question can be formulated as follows: Can the authenticity of revelation as a sacred text be established through its (verbatim) words, or through its meaning, or through both? To provide a general background, I shall start with the concept of revelation in the three Abrahamic faiths: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. I shall make some brief comparative remarks about the Jewish and Christian notions of revelation to show their common ground with the Islamic concept of revelation. The main focus of the paper, however, will be the concept of revelation in the Islamic tradition. If one understands that these three faiths share the same source of revelation, then the believers of these faiths can accord equal respect to one another and engage not only in dialogue, but also might learn to heed the call that has echoed throughout their scriptures. As it is described in the Qur'an: "The truth is from thy Lord: so be not at all in doubt. To each is the goal which Allah turns him: than strive together as in a race to all that is good. Wheresoever ye are, Allah will bring you together. For Allah hath power over all things" (2:147-148).'
Revelation is a divine communication to human beings. "It is the phenomenon whereby a supra human, or supernatural, communication is transmitted from the Divine to humankind or in which the manifestation or epiphany of the Divine occurs which presents itself to the human sight, hearing, sensibility, and consciousness as an event out of the ordinary course."^ As such, writes Johannes Deninger in The Encyclopedia of Religion, revelation is comprised of the most "diverse experiences."^ He explains that phenomenologists of religion divide the characteristics of revelation into five categories:
1. Origin or author: God, spirits, ancestors, power, forces. In all of these cases, the source of revelation is something supernatural or numinous.
2. Instrument or means: sacred signs in nature [...], dreams, visions, ecstasies; finally, words or sacred books.
3. Content or object: the didactic, helping, or punishing presence, will, being, activity, or commission of the divinity.
4. Recipients or addressees: medicine men, sorcerers, sacrificing priests, shamans, soothsayers, mediators, prophets with a commission or information intended for individuals or groups, for a people or the entire race.
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5. Effect and consequence for the recipient: personal instruction or persuasion, divine mission, service as oracle — all this through inspiration or, in the supreme case, through incarnation."*
These characteristics of revelation can also apply to the Islamic notion of revelation. This shows that we can find a relationship between the Islamic and Biblical concept of revelation. With this point in mind, we now turn to the Jewish concept of revelation as the Jews were the first people to have a revealed book.
I. The Jewish Concept of Revelation Jewish tradition emphasizes that Abraham broke the idols and false gods in
his father's household by smashing them into pieces. Little by little Abraham began to receive words and promises from God that formed the basis of a mutual agreement called a Covenant. Then, God revealed the Torah to Moses. He first sent a law because the pagan world was in a state of anarchy and needed the direction and discipline that only law could bring. Exodus 24:12 reads: 'The Lord said to Moses, 'Come up to me on the mountain, stay there, and let me give you the stone tablets with the law and commandment I have written down for their instruction." The tablets are described in Exodus 32:15- 16: "Moses went back down the mountain holding the two tablets of the Testimony, inscribed on both sides, on the front and the back. The tablets were the handiwork of God, and the writing was God's writing, engraved on the tablets." The law that was sent to Moses was of two kinds: ritual law and moral law, and both are found in various parts of the Torah and the other books of the Old Testament.'
The essence of revelation according to the Old Testament or the Hebrew Bible as it is called in the Jewish tradition consists precisely of this self- communication of God to His people as He makes himself known to them (Ex. 64:2) and speaks to them (Ex. 25:22). The word of God is spoken in a special way to Moses (Ex. 20:18). God's word to Israel is His most precious gift; in it He communicates himself: "I am the Lord" (Gn. 28:13; Ex. 6:2, 6:29) and "there is no other" (Is. 45:5).
In light of the above, we can say that the Jewish concept of revelation is based on God's direct communication to the people through books and commandments. "We believe," says Maimonides, "that the Torah reached Moses from God in a manner that is described in Scripture figuratively by the term 'word' and that nobody has ever known how it took place except Moses himself to whom the word reached."^ When God spoke with Moses at Sinai, "there was neither a physical voice nor a physical perception but rather a spiritual voice."'
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II. The Christian Concept of Reveiation The New Testament writers see revelation as the self-communication of God
in and through Jesus Christ. This communication is regarded as the supreme, fmal, irrevocable, and unsurpassable self-disclosure of God in history. In Jesus, the agent of revelation and content of revelation are identical and make up the sole object of revelation. According to The Encyclopedia of Religion, "Revelation is therefore given together with the person of the Logos (the Word); it is the manifestation of the life and love of God. Because Jesus is the only-begotten Son, he reveals the Father in what he says and does." Indeed, in John 14:9, Jesus says, "Whoever has seen me has seen the Father."
The classic formula explaining the concept of revelation is that God is the author of both the Old and New Testaments. Throughout the history of Christian thought, the Scriptures have been called the word of God and identified with revelation. In the Qamus al-Kitab al-Muqaddas (The Dictionary of the Bible) revelation is described as the "indwelling of the Spirit of God in the spirit of the inspired writers in order that they might know spiritual truths and unseen matters without anything of the personality of these writers being lost. Thus each of them retains their own style and mode of expression." In the same vein, the First Vatican Council said of the Scriptures that "because they were written as a result of the prompting of the Holy Spirit, they have God for their author".'" Similarly, in the twentieth century, the Protestant evangelist Dr. Billy Graham said that "the Bible is a book written by God through thirty secretaries"."
Revelation occupies a central place in the Christian tradition. First of all, it is basic to the Christian faith that God is a personal God who has spoken to men. He has initiated a dialogue with them, in which they are invited to listen to His words, and to respond. His words are revelation, and man's response is faith.'^ God, who through the Word creates all things (John 1:3) and keeps them in existence, gives men an enduring witness to Himself in created realities (Rom. 1:19-20). In time. He appointed and called Abraham in order to make of him a great nation (see Gen. 12:2). Then, after speaking in many and varied ways through the prophets, "now at last in these days has spoken to us in His
son."" As God's direct revelation, Jesus Christ may be said to have three, aspects or
functions, as follows: 1. Jesus represents the moral character of God. According to this view,
Jesus is God's revelation in the sense that he exemplifies for us what God is like. The moral attributes of God can also be attributed to a human being, and it is these qualities that Jesus reflects in his human aspect. For example, God is compassionate and forgiving, Jesus practiced compassion and forgiveness in his own life and death. From Jesus' human love we can see what God's love is like.
2. Jesus reveals the universal possibility of the Union between the Divine and the Human. This second view states that Jesus reveals "God-in-humanity"
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as a universal possibility of human life. Here Jesus' function takes on a more spiritual and metaphysical sense and goes beyond mere ethics.
3. Jesus reveals the unique presence and act of God. In this view, it is Jesus who reveals and embodies the unique presence of God in human life.'*
In the light of these considerations, we can identify three major views of revelation in the Christian tradition. The first is the revelation sent to the Biblical Prophets, which Christianity shares with both Judaism and Islam. This refers to all the revealed messages and the word of God written in the Old Testament. The second is the revelation sent to the authors of the scriptures, that is, the apostles who, according to the Christian view, have been divinely "inspired" to write down the Gospels. The third meaning of revelation pertains directly to Jesus himself as he is believed to be the Word of God. As we shall see below, these three meanings of revelation in Christianity have both similarities and differences with the Islamic concept of revelation, to which I now turn.
III. The Islamic Concept of Reveiation Islam's understanding of revelation is very much like that of the Bible,
especially the Old Testament. Wahy or revelation comes from God, usually through the agency of the archangel Gabriel. "Revelation is the act by which God, having created the world, proceeds to disclose Himself to His own creation, acting in His capacity as hadi (Guide). As such the term embraces any act of self-disclosure, beginning with God's addressing our First Parents in the Garden, and proceeding through a series of disclosures to prophets of both categories, rusul and anbiya', culminating in a final defmitive act of disclosure known as khatm an-nubuwwa, or Seal of Prophethood."'' It is unanimously accepted by Muslim scholars that revelation is given to prophets and, in its defmitive and fmal form, to the Prophet Muhammad. In the Qur'an, the content of revelation is wisdom and guidance for living and, above all, warnings and the announcement of the fmal judgment. Since revelation is divine in its origin, it cannot be altered.'*
To support the above, the Qur'an says: We have sent you revelation [wahy ] as we sent it to Noah and the
messengers after him: We sent revelation to Abraham and Ismail, Isaac, Jacob and the tribes, to Jesus, Job, Jonah, Aaron, and Solomon, and to David We gave the Psalms. Of some messengers We have already told you the story; of others We have not — and to Moses Allah spoke directly. Messengers who gave good news as well as warnings, that mankind, after (the coming) of the messengers should have no plea against Allah: For Allah is Exalted in Power and Wise (4:163-65)"
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Wahy means to inspire, or to communicate something in a manner that is not obvious or apparent to someone else. In the Qur'an it is referred to in the following contexts:
1. The natural order and laws of nature. The Qur'an says, 'Then He completed and fmished their creation (as) seven heavens, and He inspired in each heaven its affair" (41:12). This can be considered as the natural laws, such as the orbits of the planets and the rotation of the earth, etc.
2. Natural animal instinct. The Qur'an says, "And your Lord inspired the bee, saying, take as habitations mountains, and in the tree and in what (mankind) builds, than, eat of all fruits, and follow the ways of your Lord." (16:68-69)
This signifies the natural animal instinct that every creature is endowed with:
Bees, for example, instinctively build their hives and search for nectar from flowers.
3. Human intuition and emotion. This type of inspiration is also called ilhdm.
The Qur'an says, "And we inspired the mother of Moses, 'Suckle him! But when you fear for him, then cast him into the river and fear not, nor grieve" (28:7) In this case, the mother of Moses knew that if she were to leave her baby to float on the river, Allah would protect him, since she had received this ilham from Allah. This type of inspiration, however, does not make its recipient a prophet.
4. Signals or gestures to communicate. When Allah forbade Zacharia from speaking for three days: "he came out unto his people, and inspired them (by gestures and signs) to glorify Allah's praises in the morning and afternoon" (19:11)
In this verse, the gestures that Zacharia performed have been called an 'inspiration' since he did not pronounce his intent.
5. Evil whispers from Satan. Allah says in the Qur'an: "and of a certainty the devils inspire their cohorts (amongst mankind) to dispute with you" (6:121). And again, "And thus We have appointed for every prophet an enemy-devils among mankind and jinn, inspiring one another" (6:112).
6. Guidance to the angels from Allah. The Qur'an says, "(Remember) When your Lord inspired the angels, 'I am with you, so keep firm those who have believed" (8:12).
7. Inspiration and revelation to the prophets. This category is the subject of our present investigation. It is the primary meaning of the word wahy when used in the context of Islamic sciences.
8. The primary verse that explains the types and categories of wahy is Allah's statement: "It is not possible for any human being that Allah should speak to him, unless it be by inspiration, or from behind a veil, or (that) He sends a Messenger to reveal what He will by His Permission. Verily, He is the
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Most High, Most Wise" (42:51). Moreover, "It is for Us to collect it and recite it. When we have recited it, then follow its recitation" (75:17-8). Also, "And if any of the idolaters seeks your protection, then grant him protection, so that he may hear the word of Allah" (9:6).
The Truth of Wahy The truth of revelations prevails at all instants over all parts of the World of
the Unseen, with a most powerful manifestation. There comes with the truths of revelation and inspiration proceeding from the One All-Knowing of the Unseen, a testimony to His existence and unity far stronger than testimony of the universe and created beings. He does not leave Himself, His existence and His unity, only to the testimony of His creatures. Rather, He speaks with a pre- eternal Speech consonant with His own being. The Speech of the One Who is all-present and all-seeing everywhere with His Knowledge and Power is also endless, and just as the meaning of His Speech makes Him known, so does His discourse make Himself known together with His attributes.
The truth, reality, and existence of revelation has been made plain to the point of being self-evident by the consensus of one hundred thousand prophets (pbut), by the agreement among their proclamations concerning the manifestation of Divine revelation; by the evidences and miracles contained in the sacred books and heavenly pages, which are the guides and exemplars of the overwhelming majority of humanity, confirmed and assented to by them, and are the visible fruits of revelation. In fact, the truth of revelation proclaims five sacred truths.'^
"The First: To speak in accordance with men's intellects and understandings, known as 'Divine condescension to the minds of men,' is a form of Divine descent. It is a requirement of God's sovereignty that He endows all of his conscious creatures with speech, understands their speech, and then participates in it with His own speech.
"The Second: The One Who, in order to make Himself known, fills the cosmos with His miraculous creations and endows them with tongues speaking of His perfections, will necessarily make Himself known with His own words also.
"The Third: It is a function of His being Creator to respond in words to the supplications and offerings of thanks that are made by the most select, the most needy, the most delicate and the most ardent among His beings - true men.
"The Fourth: The attribute of Speech or parole of God, an essential concomitant and luminous manifestation of both Knowledge and Life, will necessarily be found in a comprehensive and eternal form in the being Whose Knowledge is comprehensive and Whose Life is eternal.
"The Fifth: It is a consequence of Divinity that the Being Who endows men with impotence and desire, poverty and need, anxiety for the future, love and
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worship, should communicate His own existence, by way of His speech, to His most loved and lovable. His most anxious and needy creatures, who are most desirous of finding their Lord and Master."
The evidences for the existence in unity of the Necessary Existent offered in unanimity by universal and heavenly revelations, which contain the truths of Divine descent, dominical self-proclamation, compassionate response. Divine conversation, and eternal self-communication, constitute a proof more powerful than the testimony for the existence of the sun brought by the rays of sunlight.
Understanding this and looking in the direction of inspiration, we see that veracious inspiration indeed resembles revelation in some respects and is a mode of dominical speech. There are, however, two major differences between revelation and inspiration.
The first difference: Revelation, which is much higher than inspiration, generally comes by the medium of angels, whereas inspiration generally comes directly. For instance, a king has two modes of speech and command.
The first consists of his sending to a governor a lieutenant equipped with all the pomp of monarchy and the splendour of sovereignty. Sometimes, in order to demonstrate the splendour of his sovereignty and the importance of his command, he may meet with the intermediary, and then the decree will be issued.
The second consists of his speaking privately in his own person, not with the title of monarch or in the name of kingship, concerning some private matter, some petty affair, using for this purpose a trusted servant, some ordinary subject, or his private telephone."
In the same way the Pre-Eternal Monarch may either, in the name of the Sustainer of All the Worlds, and with the title of Creator of the Universe, speak with revelation or the comprehensive inspiration that performs the function of revelation, or He may speak in a different and private fashion, as the Sustainer and Creator of all animate beings, from behind the veil, in a way suited to the recipient.
The second difference: Revelation is without shade, pure, and reserved for the elect. Inspiraition, by contrast, has shades, colours intermingle with it, and it is general. There are numerous different kinds of inspiration, such as the inspiration of angels, the inspiration of men, and the inspiration of animals; inspiration thus forms a field for the multiplication of God's words that are as numerous as the drops in the ocean. Our traveller understood that this matter is, indeed, a kind of commentary on the Qur'anic verse,
"Were the sea to become ink for the words of my Sustainer, verily the sea would be exhausted before the words of my Sustainer" (18:109).
Then looking at nature we can see that the wisdom and the testimony of inspiration are composed of four lights.
The first: it is the result of God's Lovingness and Mercifulness that He makes himself loved through word, presence and discourse, in the same way
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that He makes Himself loved to His creatures through His deeds. The second: it is a requirement of His Compassionateness that just as He
answers His servants' prayers in deed. He should also answer them in word, from behind veils.
The third: it is a concomitant of sovereignty that just as He responds in deed to the cries for help, supplications, and pleadings of those of His creatures who are afflicted with grievous misfortunes and hardships, so too He should hasten to their help with words of inspiration, which are like a form of speech.
The fourth: God makes His existence, presence and protection perceptible in deed to His most weak and indigent. His most poor and needy, conscious creatures, that stand in great need of finding their Master, Protector, Guardian, and Disposer. It is a necessary and essential consequence of His Divine solicitousness and His dominical compassion that He should also communicate His presence and existence by speech, from behind the veil of veracious inspiration -a mode of dominical discourse- to individuals, in a manner peculiar to them and their capacities, through the telephone of their hearts.
If the sun, for example, had consciousness and life, and if the seven colours of sunlight were the seven attributes, in that respect it would have a form of speech through the rays and manifestations found in its light. And in this situation both its similitudes and reflections would be present in all transparent objects, and it would speak with all mirrors and shining objects and fragments of glass and bubbles and droplets of water, indeed with all transparent particles, in accordance with the capacity of each; it would respond to the needs of each, and all these would testify to the sun's existence; and no task would form an obstacle to any other task, and no speaking obstruct any other speaking. This is self-evident.^"
The Scientific Value of the Inspiration The scientific value of inspiration depends on various factors from the
personality of the inspired to the aim of the inspiration. The spiritual ranks that are earned through the moral proximity toward God as well as the inspirations given to the heavens and some animals for their vital duties play a big role over' the rise of the scientific value of inspiration. As an example, we can quote the following verses from the Qur'an:
"So He completed them as seven firmaments in two days, and He assigned to each heaven its study and command" (41:12).
"And your Lord taught the Bee to build its cells in hills, on trees, and in (men's) habitations. Then to eat of the produce (of the earth), and follow the ways of your Lord made smooth: there issues from within their bodies a drink of varying colours; wherein is healing for men: verily in this is a sign for those who give thought" (16:68-69).
Besides the verses of the Holy Qur'an, there are some hadTth (traditions of
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the Prophet) pointing to the existence of inspiration. For instance. The Prophet said, "Beware of the believer's perspicacity, verily, s/he sees with the light of Allah."^' And, "Before your time there were some people who were given inspiration; if in my Ummah (the Muslim Community) a person is to be given inspiration, verily, it will be Umar (The second Caliph)."^^ And, "Verily, the Holy Spirit whispered in my heart that a person will never die until his (preordained) time comes."^^ This last hadith indicates that the Prophet(s) received inspiration as well as revelation. However, according to most of the Islamic scholars the inspiration given to mankind as stated above is not an epistemological source for definitive knowledge.̂ **
Wahy and Ilham/ Revelation and Inspiration The term 'inspiration' is commonly used to translate the Arabic word ilham.
It is commonly applied by Muslims to a form of communication of divine truth to saints and holy people. This differs from wahy, 'revelation', in that it does not consist of messages for the whole community, but only of private messages for the individuals receiving it, even though for them it may be a true basis for action. Christians would certainly claim that what they have in the non- prophetic books of the Bible is closer to wahy than to ilham.^^
The Stage of Revelation The vast majority of scholars hold the opinion that the process of revelation
occurred in three stages: In the First, the Qur'an, the word of God in Islam, was written on the Preserved Tablet/Law/i al-Mahfuz, which is with God. The fact that the Qur'an is written on the Preserved Tablet is mentioned in the Qur'an itself: "Nay! This is indeed a Glorious Qur'an! (inscribed) in the Preserved Tablet/Law/i al-Mahfuz" (85:21-2). And also, "And this is indeed a noble Qur'an; In a Book well-guarded i.e., Lawh al-Mahfuz)" (56:77-78). 'Thus the Qur'an affirms that it is but the transcript of a celestial archetype, which is why the Prophet is abjured to add or subtract nothing but to adhere strictly to the text that is given him," that is, by the Archangel Gabriel. Indeed, "the Qur'an is described as 'an unassailable scripture' which 'Falsehood cannot come at from before or behind, a disclosure [tanzil: sending down] from the Wise, the Laudable'(41:42).^*
Part of the reason fot this stage is to prove to the believers the authenticity of the Qur'an, as it was written down even before its revelation, in a place that guaranteed its preservation. This is also a manifestation of the infinite knowledge of God.^' The Qur'an describes the Lawh al-Mahfuz as having everything -small and big - recorded in it (54:53).
The Second Stage From the Preserved Tablet/Law/i al-Mahfuz, Allah revealed the Qur'an to
the lower heavens, in a place called "The House of Honor" (al-Bayt al- 'tzzah).
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This revelation occurred in Ramadan, on the Night of Decree (tMylat al- Qadr)}^ The proof for this is found in some verses of the Qur'an: 'The month of Ramadan is the month in which the Qur'an was revealed" (2:185), and "We have sent it (the Qur'an) down, on a Blessed Night" (44:3). The Qur'an later specifies this Blessed Night as, "We have sent it down on the Night of Power" (97:1).
The Third Stage The final stage of revelation is alluded to by Ibn Abbas in his previous
narration. In this stage, Gabriel brought those portions of the Qur'an which Allah commanded him to bring. The Qur'an refers to this revelation in many verses. In one of these Allah says, "And truly, this Qur'an is a revelation from the Lord of the worlds; which the Trustworthy Spirit (Archangel Gabriel) brought down; Upon your heart (O Muhammad) so that you may be among the Warners" (26:192-4).
This gradual revelation occurred over a period of twenty-three years.^' This narration does not mention that Gabriel took the Qur'an from the Preserved Tablet/Lflw/i al-Mahfuz. However, some scholars have inferred from these narrations that Gabriel took the Qur'an from the Preserved Tablet. But other scholars stated that Gabriel heard the Qur'an from Allah and took the Qur'an from the Preserved Tablet.^" As al-Zarqani states, whether Gabriel took the Qur'an from the Preserved Tablet or not is "not of great importance, as long as we are sure the source of revelation is Allah alone."^'
However, some scholars claim that Gabriel received the Qur'an only in meaning and not in words, and brought it to the heart of the Prophet. Therefore they hold that the wording of the Qur'an is either from Gabriel or Muhammad.^^ The majority of Muslim scholars, however, are of the opinion that the Qur'an is the speech of God revealed to the Prophet Muhammad in meaning and word. Some scholars have discussed this issue under several headings, which can be summarized as follows:
1. The Qur'an is revealed only as meaning The proponents of this view base their claims on the following verses: a. "Verily this is the word of an honored Messenger (Gabriel). Endowed
with Power, with rank before the Lord of the Throne" (S.81:19-20). "So I do call to witness what ye see, and what ye see not. That is verily the word of an honored messenger (Muhammad), it is not the word of a poet; Little it is Ye believe!"(S. 69. 38-48). The expression that "the Qur'an is the word of the honored Messenger" is inserted here because the 'word' indicates that the word ofthe Qur'an belongs to those messengers.''^
b. "Without doubt it is (announced) in the revealed Books of former peoples" (S. 26:196) shows that the Qur'an was placed in the Scriptures which
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were revealed before. According to that explanation we can say that the Qur'an is a revelation in meaning only.'"*
We can respond to these claims in a comparative way. In the first verse quoted above (a), the expression "the Word of the honored Messenger" does not mean that the words of the Qur'an belong to messengers because it was not revealed in the first person of the verb. What it indicates is that the Prophet who received revelation was an honored person who was worthy of honor on account of the purity of his life, and could be relied upon not to invent things but to relate in a truthful manner the inner experiences of his soul in revelation. In fact, it is closer to the truth to say that "the word of the messenger is the word of the meaning of his Maker."^^ There are other verses of the Qur'an that verify this point: 'This is a message sent down from the Lord of the world" (69:43). This verse shows that what is intended by "the Word of the Messenger" is the Word sent down to the Messenger by God. The reference of the 'Word' to the Messenger shows that the Messenger's duty was only to proclaim the revelation of God exactly as he had received it. Otherwise, if it is accepted that the words of Qur'an really belonged to the Messenger (Gabriel or the Prophet), the verse would have said that "the Words of the honored Messenger were sent down by God." This, however, is not what the verse states; otherwise it would be a contradiction. The second proof is the expressions following the aforementioned verse that "And if the Messenger (Muhammad) were to invent any saying in our name. We should certainly seize him by his right hand (the right hand is the hand of power and action), and We should certainly then cut off the artery of his heart" (S.69:44-46). Here, the use of words "taqawwal" and "aqawil" which are derived from the root 'q-w-l,' emphatically refute that the words of the Qur'an belong to the Prophet, to whom it was revealed.
Those who hold that the words of the Qur'an are those of the Prophet and not part of the revelation are confronted with further contradictions. Since, the term 'Word' is used as belonging to God in such verses as "Allah's promise is truth, and whose word can be Truer than Allah's?" (4:122) and "Soon shall We send down to thee a weighty Message" (75:5), it cannot be attributed to the Prophet. These and other verses indicate that the use of the word 'word' in relation to the Messengers (Gabriel and/or the Prophet Muhammad) is metaphorical, emphasizing the role of the messenger as a channel for transmitting the message. Therefore, the Qur'an is the Word of God that was sent down by Allah. The trustworthy Angel Gabriel, after he had heard the Qur'an from Allah, than revealed it to the Prophet Muhammad, who preserved it faithfully, without any alteration, and then passed it on to mankind. Indeed, "the Islamic tradition, taking its cue from the Qur'an has seen Muhammad as no more than a mouthpiece, if a sentient and intelligent one Muhammad, then, is the mediating agency in only the most attenuated sense."^'
In section (b) above, the expression "Without doubt it is (announced) in the revealed Books of former peoples" (S. 26:196) does not mean that the Qur'an
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in its present form, (text that includes meanings and wordings) had been part of the revealed Books of former peoples. On the contrary, it indicates that the Qur'an was announced by name, or its fundamental characteristics were described, in the revealed Books of former peoples.^' As well as that, the expression "Those who follow the Messenger, the unlettered Prophet, whom they fmd mentioned in their own (Scriptures), in the Law and the Gospel" (7:157) do not mean that the Prophet Muhammad as a person has been mentioned in the old Scriptures. Some people attribute this view to Abu Hanifah (d.l50 A.H.), the founder of the Hanafi school of Law^^ But Abu Hanifa points out in his Fiqh al-Akbar that "The Qur'an is the word {kalam) of Allah, written in the Mushaf, preserved in the hearts, recited by the tongues, and revealed to the Prophet".^'
As Ibn Taymiyyah states that to attribute the words and sentences of the Qur'an to the Prophet does not make sense, because what is meant by the word refers consistently to the Word of God, not to the Prophet.""^
2. The Qur'an is Revealed in both Meaning and Words The proponents of this view base their claims on a number of Qur'anic
verses and their arguments can be discussed as follows: a. The majority of Muslim scholars accept that the Qur'an is the word of
God in both meaning and words."" Prophet Muhammad said that "My ummah does not agree upon error.""*^ According to this hadith, the consensus of the majority of the scholars proves that it is true.
b. Such verses as "(Allah) Most Gracious! It is He who has taught the Qur'an" (55:1-2) explain that the Qur'an was taught by God. The first word of the Quranic revelation is 'Iqra', which means 'read' or 'recite'. This indicates that the Qur'an was in fact sent down as a Book. To further clarify these points, I shall discuss briefly some definitions of the Qur'an.
c. Almighty God reminds us of what Ibn Mughira says: "This [Qur'an] is nothing but man's word (74:25)." To show that this declaration is false, and that its speaker deserves punishment. Almighty God says: "Soon will I cast him into Hell-fire (74:26)." This proves that the Qur'an is not the word of any human being, including Muhammad (pbuh).
d. "We know indeed that they say: 'It is a man that teaches him.' The tongue of him they wickedly point to is notably foreign, while this is Arabic, pure and clear" (16: 103). In this verse, there are several points that show that the Qur'an consists of both language and meaning.
e. In the verse, the expression "It is a man that teaches him" takes place and is rejected off first hand. It is impossible to think that this teaching is only formed of meaning. And there is no such a usage. When we compare this expression to 'The Most Gracious has taught the Qur'an" (55:1-2), we see that one of the elements of the Qur'an is its language. It is because the word "ta 'iTm"
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(to teach) is used in both places. As meaning cannot be the only thing in teaching humankind, the Gracious God's teaching will also be in language.
While the teaching of men is rejected in the verse, how could the teaching of the Prophet, who is also a man, be allowed? In the expression "The tongue of him they wickedly point to is notably foreign, while this is Arabic, pure and clear," the word "Lisan" (tongue) is used both for the man and the Qur'an. In common usage of all people, the word "tongue" is used for the combination of meaning and language. Meanings are neither Arabic nor another language; only after clothed in words do they find expression in language. According to this, in the verse, the term "tongue," or "language", which is used both for a person and the Qur'an, is in the known meaning and expresses the word order.
In conclusion, all these proofs indicate that the Qur'an is God's miraculous word, which comes from infinite divine wisdom, and has infinite meanings in an unmatchable word order. From beginning to end, it is the utterance of God, letter by letter. Neither Gabriel nor Muhammad (pbuh) interfered in it. Almighty God, in order to relay his commands to his servants and make those orders understandable, stated his words according to his "internal speech" (Kaldm-i Nafsi) :'*^ In the same way, we people, express our ideas, our "internal speech" in a certain word order to make them understandable.'*''
Certainly, this should not be understood literally; it is a simile, a sign, an approximation to assist in understanding what is beyond human ken.
As Sayyid Qutb states, the miraculousness of the Qur'an is like the miraculousness of the universe. When a person holds a piece of earth that contains several elements, he can form a brick, a pot, a column, or similar things from it. God, however, creates animate beings with beating hearts and pulses from the same earth. The Qur'an's situation is not different from this. When people use words and letters, a normal statement, or a rhyming expression is formed. But, with the words and letters God uses, the miraculous Furqan, the Qur'an, is manifested. To make this fact obvious, the Qur'an challenges its opponents by sometimes wanting them to produce the like of the Qur'an, the like of ten of its chapters, or the like of one of its chapters."'
"(Allah) Most Gracious! It is He Who has taught the Qur'an."''^ "Verily this is a Revelation from the Lord of the Worlds: With it came down the Spirit of Faith and Truth (Gabriel) -To your heart and mind, that you may admonish in the perspicuous Arabic tongue."''^ "As to you (My messenger), the Qur'an is bestowed upon you from the presence of One Who is Wise and All- Knowing."''* "By the Book that makes things clear -We have made it Qur'an in Arabic, that you may be able to understand (and learn wisdom)."'" These verses point out the fact that the Qur'an was revealed by God with its language.
Since it is stated with incontrovertible proof that the Qur'an was revealed in Arabic, the word "tanzil", which represents the revelation of the Qur'an, is chosen to stand for both the meaning and words. Thus, verses like "The revelation of this Book is from Allah, the Exalted in Power, Full of Wisdom,"^"
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which are about the revelation of the Qur'an, in a way, signify that the Qur'an was revealed both with its meaning and its language, as a whole, by Almighty God.
Like al-Baqillani said, the following verses show that the Qur'an is a miracle with its versification:" "Yet they say: 'Why are not Signs sent down to him from his Lord?' Say: 'The Signs are indeed with Allah: and I am indeed a clear Warner.' And is it not enough for them that We have sent down to you the Book Which is rehearsed to them? Verily, in it is mercy and a reminder to those who believe."^•^
As Mohatnmed Arkoun writes, "Revelation in the Qur'an is at first a result of linguistic evidence: the syntactic, semantic, semiotic structure ofthe Qur'anic discourse imposes a space of communication totally articulated to impose a notion and a content of Revelation."^^ All the above points clearly indicate that the Qur'an is from God both with regard to its meaning and its language. Otherwise, the miraculous eloquence and clarity, which are claimed to be in every chapter ofthe Qur'an, would not be evident.
The Linguistic Meaning of the Word Qur'an There are a number of different opinions concerning the linguistic meaning
of the word Qur'an. The most popular opinion is that the Word 'Qur'an' is an infinitive, its pattern is 'fu'Ian' like 'gufran-shukran'. It is from the root 'q-r-a' which means 'to read-to recite' or from the root 'q-r-n' which means to collect, to join and to associate. Allah says in reference to the Qur'an that "Move not thy tongue concerning the (Qur'an) to make haste therewith. It is for Us to collect it and to promulgate it; but when We have promulgated it, follow thou its recital (as promulgate) (S.75:16-18). On the other hand. Imam al-Shafi'i (d.2O4 A.H.) held the view that the word 'Qur'an' was a proper noun that was not derived from any word, like the words 'Tawrah' (Torah) and 'Injil' (Bible).^*
The word 'Qur'an' as a name of the Holy Book is also accepted to be either a form of a passive participle, which means "the Book that is read", and so as form subject, which means 'the Collector Book'. It means that the Qur'an includes different chapters and verses, and different knowledge of the Old Scriptures.'^ The Qur'an is named 'Qur'an' because it is 'read by humans', and is named 'the book' because it is 'written in ink'.'^
The Definition ofthe Qur'an There are many definitions of the Qur'an, which differ in wording only.
There is no difference of opinion as to what the Qur'an is, but merely as to the best way to define it. A good definition must include everything that is essential, exclude everything that is extraneous, and be as succinct as possible.
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One of the more appropriate definitions is as follows:^^ "The Qur'an is the Arabic Speech {kalam) of Allah, which He revealed to Muhammad (phup) in words and meaning, and which has been preserved in the Mushafs, and has reached us by mutawatir transmissions, and is a challenge to mankind to produce something similar to it".'*
The Breakdown of the Definition The statement in the definition, "The Qur'an is the Arabic" states,
unquestionably, that the Qur'an is in the Arabic language. There are several verses pointing to this point. For instance, Allah says that "We have sent it down as an Arabic Qur'an, in order that you may learn wisdom" (S. 12:2) and "A revelation from (Allah), Most Gracious, Most Merciful. A Book, whereof the verses are explained in detail, a Qur'an in Arabic, for people who understand" (S. 41:2-3).''
This, therefore, implies that a translation of the Qur'an into any other language will not be the Qur'an itself. Imam al-Zarkashi says that "the Qur'an has been revealed in the Arabic language. Therefore, it is impermissible to recite it in any other language."^" The next part of the definition states that God revealed the Qur'an to Muhammad (pbuh). This excludes any 'speech' {kalam) that He spoke to prophets other than Muhammad (pbuh). For instance, Allah spoke to Moses on Mount Sinai. Hence the title of Moses in Muslim theology is kalim Allah, that is, the one to whom Allah spoke. Allah says that "and to Moses Allah spoke direct" (S.4:164). The Qur'an mentions specifically the revelation sent down to the Prophet. For instance God says that "if one amongst the pagans asks you for asylum, grant it to him, so that he may hear the Word of Allah; and then escort him to where he can be secure" (S.9:6). And also, "And truly this Qur'an is a revelation from the Lord ofthe worlds. With it came down the Spirit of Faith and truth. To your heart and mind (O Muhammad), so that you may be one of the Warners" (26:192-4).
The next part of the definition reads "in word and meaning." This part of the definition affirms that the words of the Qur'an are from Allah, and not from Gabriel or even Muhammad (pbuh). Ibn Taymiyyah said "the majority of Islamic scholars agree that the Qur'an is the speech of Allah in Meaning and Words."^'
According to the majority of the scholars, this part of the definition also excludes hadith qudsi, the sacred sayings of the Prophet because hadith qudsi are only inspired in meaning, while their words are from the Prophet. For instance. The Prophet (pbuh) said that "Allah said that 'O my servants, I have made injustice haram (forbidden) for Me, and have made it haram between you also, so do not be unjust to one another".*^ It is thus clear that the Prophet Muhammad distinguished between the Qur'an and his own speech including the hadith qudsi in his lifetime. As we know from history, when the chapters of the Qur'an were sent down to him, he asked his scribes {kuttab) to write them
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down. There are thus a number of differences between hadith qudsi and the Qur'an:
1. The most important difference is that the Qur'an is revealed to the Prophet from Allah in meaning and words.
2. The Qur'an is claimed to be a miracle that can never be imitated in its style, prose or content. The Qur'an challenges pagan Arabs and, by extension, anyone who does nol believe in it, to produce something similar or equivalent to it. A hadith qudsi, however, has no miraculous nature.
3. Allah has promised to preserve the Qur'an; no such promise exists for the sacred sayings of the Prophet.
4. The Qur'an has reached us in mutawatir (unanimous) chains of narration. But the haidth qudsi exists mainly in the form of ahad hadith, i.e., the type of hadith that has been narrated from single individuals and sources.
5. It is an act of worship to recite the Qur'an, where this is not the case for hadith qudsi. In other words, it is only the Qur'an that can be recited in prayers.*''
Conclusion The importance of the Qur'an in Islam is similar to the importance of the
person of Jesus Christ in Christianity. In Christian theology, the Divine Logos became man. In Islam, God's Word became text.^ The language of the Qur'an is poetic, and the Qur'an introduced a new form of poetic speech. In having said that, the Qur'an is not poetry. As Taha Hussein put it, it is neither poetry nor prose, it is the Qur'an.*'
A proper understanding of the concept of revelation in the three Abrahamic traditions is an important step towards overcoming some long-standing obstacles that separate these traditions from one another. As we now realize, there is more held in common between the faith traditions than is not. I end with a quote firom Montgomery Watt, a prominent scholar of Islam and an important Christian theologian who has made substantial contributions to Muslim- Christian understanding:
"After all these considerations, what have Christians to say about the prophethood of Muhammad? For Muslims, Jesus is a prophet and is indeed something more than a prophet, since the Qur'an (4.171) speaks of him as 'God's word which he put into Mary and a spirit from him'. For Christians the question of Muhatnmad's prophethood is difficult, especially with the continuing infiuence in some minds of the medieval caricatures. In the light of the above discussions the following seem to be the salient points. Muhammad, claimed to receive messages from God and conveyed these to his contemporaries. On the basis of these messages a religious community developed, claiming to serve God, numbering some thousands in Muhammad's lifetime, and now having several hundred million members. The quality of life
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in this community has been on the whole satisfactory for the members. Many men and women in this community have attained to saintliness of life, and countless ordinary people have been enabled to live decent and moderately happy lives in 'difficult circumstances. These points lead to the conclusion that the view of reality presented in the Qur'an is true and from God, and that Muhammad is therefore a genuine prophet.**
* Yrd. Dof.Dr. Sakarya Oniversitesi ilahiyat Fak. ' Issa J. Boullata. "Fa-stabiqu 'l-khayrat: A Qur'anic Principle of Interfaith Relations. Christian-Muslim Encounters. Eds. Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad and Wadi Z. Haddad. (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1995). 43-53. ^ Ausaf Ali, "The Concept of Revelation and Implications for Theological Ethics in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam." ttamdard tslamicus, 20|3, (1997), 23. ^ Johannes Deninger. "Revelation" Encyclopedia of Religion. (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1995), XII, 356. " Ibid. ' Encounters with Eternity, eds., Christopher Jay Johnson, and Marsha G. McGee, ( New York, 1986), 206-208. * Abraham Joshua Heschel, God in Search of Man (New York: The Jewish Publication Society of America, 1956),185. ' Ibid, 188. * The Encyclopedia of Religion, (New York: Simon & Schuster Macmillan, 1995), XII, 360. ' Subhi al-Salih, Mabahith ft ulum al-Qur'dn, Beirut, 1990, p.25. Quoted from the (Qamus kitab al-Muqaddas, Beirut, 1894). '" Paul Edwards, The Encyclopedia of Philosophy, The Macmillan Company & the free press, (New York, 1967), 189. "Ibid. '̂ Walter M. Abbott- General Editor, The Documents of Vatican tt, translation Editor, Very Rev. Msgr. Joseph Gallagher,( New York, 1966), 108. '̂ The Sixteen Documents of Vatican tl. Commentaries by the Council Fathers, Compiled by Rev. J. L. Gonzalez, S.S.P. and the Daughters of St. Paul. Index compiled by Rev. Charles Dollen (Boston, n. d.), 376. ''' Richard Bauckham, "Jesus the Revelation of God" in Divine Revelation, edited by Paul Avis, (London: 1997), 175-180. '̂ Zaki Yaqub, "The Concept of Revelation in Islam." Islamic Quarterly, 27|2, (1983), 72. '* The Encyclopedia oJ Religion, volume twelve (New York, 1995), 361.
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See Nursi, Bediuzzaman Said, The Rays Collection, tr. Sukran Vahide (Istanbul: sozler Publications, 1998), 147-149. '* Ibid. " Ibid.
^' al-TirmizT Abu Isa Muhammad b. Isa, al-Jami al-Shih, al-Tefsir (Istanbul,1981), 16. ^̂ al-Buhkaii, Muhammad ibn Ismail, Sahih al-Buhari, Fadail al-Sahabe (Istanbul,1981), 6; Muslim ibn Hajjaj al-Qushayri^ Sahih Muslim, Fadail al-Sahabe (Istanbul,1981), 23.
" al-Suyuti, Jalal al-din Abd al-Rahman, al-Itqln fi Ulum aI-Qur'an,(Beirut, n.d.), V.I,.59; al-Jami' al-Sagir,(Beinit, n. d.) v.1,155; al-AjlQni, Ismail b. Muhammad, Kashf al-Khafa (Beirut, 1352), 1,231. '̂' See al-Taftz§ni, MasM ibn U'mar, Sharh al-Maqasid (Cairo, n.d.), 189-190
^' W. Montgomery Watt, tslam and Christianity today (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1983), 58. *̂ Zaki Yaqub, "The Qur'an and Revelation." Islam in a World of Diverse Faiths, ed.
Dan Cohn-Sherbok (London: Macmillan, 1991), 46-7. ^' Qadhi Ebu Ammar, Yasir, An tntroduction to the Sciences ofthe Qur'an (Birmigham: Al-Hidaye Publishing and Distribution, 1999), 76. *̂ Ibid, .76.
^' Ibid,78.
^° al-Qattan, Manna, al-Mabahithft Ulum al-Qur'an (Beirut, 1991), 35. . " al-Zarqani, Muhammad Abd al-Azim, Menahil al-Irfan fi Ulum al-Qur'an (Beirut,1988), I, 49. ^̂ al-Zarqani, Ibid; al-Qattan, Ibid, 36. •̂' al-Hazin, Ala al-din Ali bin Muhammad, Lubab al-Ta'wil fi Maan al-tanzil in the
(Macmu, Beyrut, n.d.), IV, 350; al-Saawi, al-Shayh Ahmad, Hashiyah Ala al-Jalalayn, (al-Maktaba al-Islamiyya, n.p.;n.d), IV, 243-4. •''' al-Sarahsi, Shams aldin, al-Mabsut, (Beirut, 1993), I, 37; Ibn Taytmyyah, Ahmad b. Abd al-Halim, al-Fatawa al-Kubra, ( Beirut, n.d), V, 144; al-Zarqani, Ibid, 50. " Elmalili Muhammad Hamdi Yazir, Hak Dini Qur'an Dili, (Istanbul, 1971), VIII, 324. '* Shabbir Akhtar. "An Islamic Model of Revelation." Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations, (1991), 11,97.
Ibn Taymiyyah, Ibid. ^̂ al-Alusi al-Sayyid Muhammad al-Baghdadi, Ruh al- Maani fi Tafsir al-Qur'an al- Azim wa al- Sab' al- Mathani, (Beyrut, n.d)XIX, 125-126. ^'a/- Fiqh al-Akbar, 301, quoted from Qadhi Abu Ammar, Ibid,36. ^Ibid, 149-150. "' Ibn Taymiyyah, Ibid., 146. •"̂ Ibn Majah, Muhammad bin Yazid al-Qazwini, al-Sunan, Kitab al-Fitan
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(Istanbul,1981), 8; al-Darimi, Abd Allah bin Abd al-Rahman al-Tamimi, Sunanu al- Darimi, al-Muqaddima (Istanbul,1981), 8. *^ al-Zarqani, Ibid. ^Ibid.
"' Sayyid Qufb, Fi Zilal al-Our'an. (Beirut, 1979) I, 38. "^Qur'an 55:1-2. •*'Qur'an 26:192-195. '^ Qur'an 27:6. "'Qur'an 43:2-3. '° Qur'an 39:1 " See, al-Baqillani, al-Qadhi Abu Bekr, t'jaz al-Qur'an, II, 239-240. " Q u r ' a n 29:50-51 " Mohammed Arkoun "The Notion of Revelation." Die Welt Des Islams, 28, (1988), 67. '•* al-Alflsi, Ibid, 8; Qadhi Ebu Ammar, Ibid, 24. " See al-Raghib al-Asphah§ni, Mufradat Alfaz al-Qur'an ( Beirut, 1992), 'q-r-a' ; al- Alusi, Ibid. '* al-Diraz, Muhammad Abd Allah^ al-Naba' al-Azim, tr. Suad Yildirim (Izmir,1994), 3.
" see al-Zarqani, Ibid, I, 21; Qadhi, Abu Ammar, 25. ^̂ al-Zarqani, Ibid, 22; Diraz, Ibid,5; Cerrahoglu, Ismail, Tefsir Usulu_{Ankaiii,l919), 34. " Abdullah Said. Rethinking 'Revelation' as a Precondition for Reinterpreting the Qur'an: A Qur'anic Perspective. Joumai of Qur'anic Studies. N.d. 102. * al-Zarkashi, Badr al-din Muhammad b. Abd Allah, al-Burhan ft ulum al-Qur'an, (Beirut, al-Maktabah al-'Asriyyah, 1972), I, 287. *' Ibn Taymiyyah, Ibid, IV, 146. '^ Reported by Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj al-Qushayri, Sahih al- Muslim, Kitab al-Birr wa al-slat we al-adab, (Cairo: Maktaba Muhammad Ali Sabiyh, n.d.), VIII, 17. " Qadhi Abu Ammar, 72-74. '^ Stefan Wild, " Spatial and Temporal Implications ofthe Qur'anic Concepts of Nuzill, Tanzil and Inzai," in The Qur'an as Text (New York: KOln, 1996), 137. *' Navid Kermani, "Revelation in its Aesthetic Dimension", in "The Qur'an as Text," edited by Stefan Wild Leiden,( New York: Koln, 1996), 221. ** Ibid, 60-61.
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Abstract The Concept of Revelation According to the Bihle And The Qur'an
The main objective of this article is to investigate the meaning of revelation in the Bible and the Qur'an. My basic question can be formulated as follows: Can the authenticity of revelation as a sacred text be established through its (verbatim) words, or through its meaning, or through both? To
provide a general background, t shall start with the concept of revelation in the Judaism, Christianity, and tslam.
The New Testament writers see revelation as the self-communication of God in and through Jesus Christ. "Revelation is therefore given together with
the person ofthe Logos (the Word); it is the manifestation ofthe life and love of God. Because Jesus is the only-begotten Son, he reveals the Father in what he
says and does." Jesus says, "Whoever has seen me has seen the Father." tslam's understanding of revelation is that, Wahy. or revelation, comes
from God, usually through the agency ofthe archangel Gabriel, tt is unanimously accepted by Muslim scholars that revelation is given to prophets
and, in its definitive and final form, to the Prophet Muhammad.
Key Words: The Concept of Revelation, the Word of God. Judaism, Christianity, tslam, the Bible, The Qur'an
Ozet Kitab-I Mukaddes ve Kur'an-i Kerime Gore Vahy Kavrami
Bu Makalenin amact, vahyin mahiyetinin ne oldugunu tespit etmeye yoneliktir. Ara^ttrrtamtzda ?u sorulara cevap aranacakttr: Vahyin mahiyeti, yalmz mana mtdtr. yoksa sadece lafiz mtdtr yahut her ikisinin toplamtndan mi ibarettir? Konu, Kitab-t Mukaddes ve Kur'an-t kerim tftgtnda ele alinmt^tir. Yahudilere gore, vahyin mahiyeti. hem lafiz hem de mana olarak Allah 'a aittir.
Allah. Tevrat'i. Hz. Musa'ya bu ?ekilde (the word of God) vahyetmi^tir. titristiyanlartn gorii^leri farkliltk arzetmekle beraber genel olarak §dyle
ozaetlemek miimkiindiir. Allah'in digerpeygamberlere gondrdigi vahiy, hem lafiz hem de manadan ibarettir. Ancak tiz. Isa 'nin kendisi cismani bir vahydir;
Alldh onda tecelli etmi^tir. Islam alimlerinin gore ise, . Hz. Adem'den Hz. Muhammed'e kadar gelen butUn vahyler, Allah'in kelmt (the word of God)dir.
Vahyin mahiyetini yalmz mana olarak goren gok kuquk bir grubun diftnda, tslam alimlerinin ezici gogunluguna gore, vahiy. hem laftz hem de manadan
ibarettir.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Vahy Kavramt, Allah'in Kelamt. Yahudilik, Hiristiyanlik. Islam. Kitab-iMukaddes, Kur'an-i Kerim
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