into to human db week3
Communication and Perception
Communicating in the Real World
Perception chpt. 2 all sections
http://open.lib.umn.edu/communication/part/chapter-2-communication-and-perception /
Perception Defined
The Perception Process
Attributions
Self-Concept and Self-Esteem
Influences on Perception
Self-Presentation
Improving Perception
Agenda
Perception refers to the processes of selection, organization and interpretation of the information
What we select, the ways we organize it, and the interpretations we assign to it affect the ways we communicate.
Perception Defined
The Perception Process
The Perception Process
Selection occurs when we focus our attention on certain incoming sensory information
We take in information through all five of our senses, but our perceptual field (the world around us) includes so many stimuli that it is impossible for our brains to process and make sense of it all
The Perception Process 1. Selecting
We tend to pay attention to information that is salient
Salience = the degree to which something attracts our attention in a particular context.
The Perception Process Selection--Salience
It is probably not surprising to learn that visually and/or aurally stimulating things become salient in our perceptual field and get our attention
We tend to select stimuli with certain characteristics:
Intensity--stimuli with intensity-a loud bang
Size--stimuli that are large in size-very tall or very small
Contrast stimuli that contrast with surroundings-a noise in the library
Repetition Repetition--stimuli that are repeated http ://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f_SwD7RveNE
The Perception Process Selection—Visual and Aural Stimulation
We tend to pay attention to information that we perceive to meet our needs or interests in some way
This type of selective attention can help us meet instrumental needs and get things done
Example: You are need to study for an exam but your friends are playing video games—your need to study may allow you to shut out the game sounds
The Perception Process Selecting—Needs and Interests
We can find expected things salient
We also find things that are unexpected salient.
The Perception Process Selecting--Expectations
Organization occurs when we sort and categorize information that we perceive based on innate and learned cognitive patterns
Three ways we sort things into patterns are by using proximity, similarity, and difference
The Perception Process 2. Organizing
Proximity is when we tend to think that things that are close together go together
Similarity is when we tend to think similar-looking or similar-acting things belong together
Difference is when we assume that the item that looks or acts different from the rest doesn’t belong with the group
Perceptual errors involving people and assumptions of difference can be especially awkward, if not offensive
The Perception Process Organizing: Proximity, Similarity & Difference
Categorization= things we group together in some ways
Our brain innately categorizes and files information and experiences away for later retrieval, and different parts of the brain are responsible for different sensory experiences.
We naturally organize information by placing it into larger grouping of information
Ex: What do you think of when you see the word “Restaurant”—what will be there—what do you expect?
The Perception Process Organizing--Categorization
When we wonder why someone does something or says something, we are interpreting communication
Interpretation = assigning meaning to our experiences using mental structures known as schemata
Schemata are like databases of stored, related information that we use to interpret new experiences.
We all have fairly complicated schemata that have developed over time as small units of information combine to make more meaningful complexes of information.
The Perception Process 3. Interpreting
Attributions
One way that we interpret behavior is by attributing causes of behavior, explained by attribution theory.
When we observe others we automatically draw conclusions-why they are sad or happy, angry or content
We attribute behavior as being either internally caused (based on someone’s personality or choices) or externally caused (based on the environment or situation).
Ex: Our new friend told us to meet him in the cafeteria—when we show up he is angry and barely talks…why?
We try to assess the situation…is he angry about something or if that is just his personality
Attribution
You are more likely to attribute your own positive behavior to internal states and your negative behavior to external causes, which is an attributional bias called the self-serving bias.
If we are rude, it is because someone disrespected us
If we are nice it is because we are a good person
We tend to give ourselves more credit than is due when good things happen and accept too little responsibility when bad things happen
Self-Serving Bias
You are also more likely to attribute others’ negative behavior to internal causes (their personality) and their positive behavior to external causes (I helped them)
This is an attributional bias called the fundamental attribution error.
We are generally harsher judges of other people’s behavior
When we make attributions about others, we tend to trust and remember the negative information we hear more than the positive information
Fundamental Attribution Error
For the following example, indicate how the attributional bias would cause you to describe each of the following behaviors, depending on who had performed it.
Example: Forgetting to make a phone call
I'm busy. You're thoughtless.
Earning a good grade
I am ______________ You are _____________
Remember: the attributional bias is quite common. Pay attention to your own thoughts and comments the next time something bad happens to you or others.
To Do: Attributional Bias Exercise
Primacy Effect= to place more value on the first information we receive about a person
First impressions are enduring
For example: if we interpret the first information we receive from or about a person as positive, then a positive first impression will form and influence how we respond to that person as the interaction continues
Recency effect = to place more value on the most recent impression we have of a person’s communication over earlier impressions
Negative interpretations of information can lead us to form negative first impressions
Even a positive first impression can be tarnished by a negative final impression
Primacy and Recency Effect
Influences on Perception
Physical Appearance= style of dress and grooming are important and aid in
Ex: When you see a person in a hospital in a white lab coat, you perceive them to be a doctor
Environmental= material objects and people that surround a person influence our perception
Ex: How would your friends perceive you if they saw your bedroom?
Culture= Race, gender, sexual orientation, class, ability, nationality, and age all affect the perceptions that we make
Ex: In some cultures it would be very offensive for a man to touch—even tap on the shoulder—a woman who isn’t a relative
Influences on Perception
Personality = a person’s general way of thinking, feeling, and behaving based on underlying motivations and impulses
There are Five Identified Personality Traits
Extraversion. Refers to a person’s interest in interacting with others.
People with high extraversion are sociable and often called “extroverts.” People with low extraversion are less sociable and are often called “introverts.”
Agreeableness. Refers to a person’s level of trustworthiness and friendliness.
People with high agreeableness are cooperative and likable. People with low agreeableness are suspicious of others and sometimes aggressive, which makes it more difficult for people to find them pleasant to be around.
Conscientiousness. Refers to a person’s level of self-organization and motivation.
People with high conscientiousness are methodical, motivated, and dependable. People with low conscientiousness are less focused, less careful, and less dependable.
Neuroticism. Refers to a person’s level of negative thoughts regarding himself or herself.
People high in neuroticism are insecure and experience emotional distress and may be perceived as unstable. People low in neuroticism are more relaxed, have less emotional swings, and are perceived as more stable.
Openness. Refers to a person’s willingness to consider new ideas and perspectives.
People high in openness are creative and are perceived as open minded. People low in openness are more rigid and set in their thinking and are perceived as “set in their ways.”
Take a personality quiz to see which one you are
http://www.outofservice.com/bigfive /
Influences on Perception
Social and Family= Parents and peers shape our perceptions, especially our self-perceptions, in positive and negative ways Feedback that we get from significant others, which includes close family, can lead to positive or negative views of self
Ex: telling a child “you can do anything” vs. “you are stupid”
Media = The representations we see in the media affect our perception.
The vast majority of media images include idealized representations of attractiveness which influence how we define beauty
Influences on Perception
Self-Concept and Self-Esteem
Self-concept = the overall idea of who a person thinks he or she is
Each person has an overall self-concept that might be encapsulated in a short list of overarching characteristics that he or she finds important
Self-esteem = the judgments and evaluations we make about our self-concept
how positively or negatively we view the characteristics that make up our identities
Self-esteem can change over time, but may be resistant due to our pattern of accepting appraisals that match our current level of self-esteem.
Self-esteem is not always consistent with how others see us; this depends on how much feedback we internalize from others and which aspects of our identity we
Self-Concept and Self-Esteem
The looking glass self =we see ourselves reflected in other people’s reactions to us and then form our self-concept based on how we believe other people see us
Our sense of self stems from their observations of the way others view them.
The appraisals of people important in our lives (particular others) as well as the collective appraisals of communities we belong to (generalized other-What “they” say) help define who we are.
The Looking Glass Self
Gradually you begin to see yourself in these specific ways which in turn influences your communication
Ex: we tell young boys how strong they are and young girls how pretty they are
Think about it:
Have there been particular others in your life that have helped to define your identity?
Ex: A coach who told you couldn’t bat well
Are there things that we take from a generalized other that have defined you?
Ex: girls can’t play football
The Looking Glass Self cont.
Social Comparison=we describe and evaluate ourselves in terms of how we compare to other people.
Social comparisons are based on two dimensions: superiority/inferiority and similarity/difference
We evaluate ourselves in relation to certain reference groups to see how we rate
Ex: a middle-age woman may feel “I look good for my age” after comparing herself to other women in her age range.
Ex: you may feel better getting a C- on a test when you found out most of your friends did too
Social Comparison
Self-discrepancy theory = the beliefs and expectations that people have for their actual and potential selves that do not always match up with what they actually experience
We have different “selves”
The actual self =the attributes that you or someone else believes you actually possess
The ideal self = the attributes that you or someone else would like you to possess
The ought self = the attributes you or someone else believes you should possess.
Self-Discrepancy Theory
Self-Presentation
Self-presentation = the process of strategically concealing or revealing personal information in order to influence others’ perceptions
Prosocial self-presentation = behaviors that present a person as a role model and make a person more likable and attractive
For example, a supervisor may call on her employees to uphold high standards for business ethics, model that behavior in her own actions, and compliment others when they exemplify those standards
Self-serving self-presentation = behaviors that present a person as highly skilled, willing to challenge others, and someone not to be messed with
For example, a supervisor may publicly take credit for the accomplishments of others or publicly critique an employee who failed to meet a particular standard.
Prosocial strategies are aimed at benefiting others, while self-serving strategies benefit the self at the expense of others.
Self-Presentation
Improving Perception
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy=thought and action patterns in which a person’s false belief triggers a behavior that makes the initial false belief actually or seemingly come true
When an individual expects something to occur, the expectation increases the likelihood that it will occur
Ex: What expectations do your parents or family members have or your education?
How might these expectations be “self-fulfilling prophecies”?
Think about it: Have you ever experienced a self-fulfilling prophecy
Ex: if you believe you are not going to do well on an exam, you probably won’t.
This is why positive visualization is so important
Beware of Self-Fulfilling Prophecies
Stereotypes = sets of beliefs that we develop about groups, which we then apply to individuals from that group
Stereotypes are schemata that are taken too far, as they reduce and ignore a person’s individuality and the diversity present within a larger group of people
Stereotypes can be based on cultural identities, physical appearance, behavior, speech, beliefs, and values, among other things, and are often caused by a lack of information about the target person or group
You stereotype when you assume that every member of the group possesses certain characteristics
Do all guys enjoy talking about sports?
Do all girls like shoes?
Think about it: Are stereotypes bad?
Stereotypes can be positive, negative, or neutral, but all run the risk of lowering the quality of our communication because we are not treating someone as an individual
Beware of Stereotypes
Perception checking = a strategy to help us monitor our reactions to and perceptions about people and communication
There are some internal and external strategies we can use to engage in perception checking
Internal strategies
Ex: review the various influences on perception that we have learned about in this chapter and always be willing to ask yourself, “What is influencing the perceptions I am making right now?”
External strategies are when we use other people to help verify our perceptions
Ex: Did you just see what I saw?
Perception Checking