Communication

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CHAPTER 1

WHY WE STUDY

In this chapter, you will learn that: • There are multiple approaches to defi ning communication. • Communication may seem simple but it is not. • Communication is fundamental to everyday life. • Academic and personal approaches to studying communication

are different.

IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING COMMUNICATION • Communication Is Complex • Communication Is Vital to Workplace

Eff ectiveness • A Higher Education Does Not Ensure

Communication Competence • Communication Is a Valuable Discipline

THEORIES: GUIDES FOR ANALYSIS AND ACTION • Personal Th eories • Scholarly Th eories • Combining Personal and Scholarly

Th eories

COMMUNICATION

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DEFINING COMMUNICATION • Level of Observation • The Question of Intent • Point of View • The Issue of Outcomes

FUNDAMENTALS OF COMMUNICATION • Communication Is A Process • Communication Is Essential For Individuals, Relationships, Groups, Organizations, And

Societies • Communication Involves Responding to and Creating Messages • Communication Involves Adapting to People and the Environment

COMMUNICATION: OUR DEFINITION

GOALS OF COMMUNICATION AND HUMAN BEHAVIOR

CONCLUSION

CHECK YOUR KNOWLEDGE

IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING COMMUNICATION We may assume that just because we communicate all the time that we understand what we are doing. But, like many things in life, the more we understand “how something works” the better we will be at doing it. The process of communication is absolutely fundamental in nearly every aspect of our lives. No activity is more basic—personally, socially, or at work—but we tend to take it for granted since it seems so natural.

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FIGURE 1.1 What does your uncommon sense tell you about this scene? How does the audience determine the success of a presentation?

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If communication is so natural, why do we need to study and learn more about it? Good question. When we communicate, we make a number of important decisions—some that we know about and some that aren’t so apparent. Th e better we understand communication, the more we can be aware of the decisions we make, and the better those decisions can be. Th us, the way we understand communication infl uences the way we think about and react to situations and to other people. Th ese decisions make a major diff erence in how other people think about and respond to us, and have signifi cant implications for the kinds of relationships we form, who we become as people, and the way we contribute as members of families, groups, communities, organizations, and the societies in which we live.

Th ere are a number of other reasons why studying communication is worthwhile.

COMMUNICATION IS COMPLEX Recognizing that communication is a basic process does not mean that it is easily understood or controlled. In fact, communication is exceedingly complex and multifaceted. Th ere are many examples of complex communication situations in personal, family, community, professional, technological, national, and international settings. For example, there are numerous communication challenges whenever we form a new relationship, get a job, have a discussion with people who have diff erent points of view than ours, advocate for our ideas, lead a group or organization, or collaborate with people from other ethnic or cultural groups.

Many people think we can be successful in these situations just by using common sense, but communication skills are more than common sense. In fact, competence in communication requires what we call “uncommon sense.” Common sense, for example, suggests that when people talk to one another, they exchange information. As we will explain later in this book, the process of communication is not a simple, rational, or predictable exchange of information. Common sense also tells us that a public speaker’s presentation is the most critical factor in infl uencing an audience (“if I give a good speech, people will do what I ask them to do”); however, it is “uncommon sense” that helps us understand why it is

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oft en the audience members who determine the outcomes in public communication (“I can’t do what the speaker wants me to do because I can’t aff ord it”). Common sense leads us to the conclusion that most other people have the same communication needs and outlooks that we do, and so we believe that approaches to communication that work well for us are likely to work well for others. While these may sometimes be workable assumptions, more oft en they are not. “Uncommon sense” leads us to continually question our own assumptions and to become more attentive to others’ needs and perspectives. It is also “uncommon sense” that guides us to carefully assess the communication situations in which we fi nd ourselves, to become more aware of our own and others’ goals, and to recognize the need to develop an ever-broadening array of communication understanding and skills (see Figure 1.1). Th is perspective helps to increase the likelihood that we will be successful in achieving our communication goals. We’ll examine these and other challenges of communication in more detail in the pages ahead.

We all face challenges in our personal, family, and workplace relationships. Even when we look carefully at the situations that we assume are going well, we almost always fi nd that there are opportunities for improvement that are possible if we become more aware of how communication works. An understanding of communication is essential to achieve the outcomes we want in our relationships with roommates, romantic partners, parents, colleagues at work, or acquaintances from another culture in face-to-face and mediated settings.

COMMUNICATION IS VITAL TO WORKPLACE EFFECTIVENESS Eff ectiveness at work calls for both understanding the process of communication and being able to communicate eff ectively. We need to be able to:

• analyze communication situations • understand the people we’re dealing with • develop productive communication strategies • receive and present ideas eff ectively through various communication channels • advocate for positions we believe in • listen to and understand others, and • collaborate successfully.

Communication competencies in the workplace are critical to success (Hart Research Associates, 2009; Jones, 2012). In fact, college recruiting professionals report that 10 skills and traits, ranked in the following order, are the most important qualities that employers want (NACE, 2013):

Using our “uncommon sense” means that we need to be very cautious about the assumptions we make about the way communication works.

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FIGURE 1.2 Selected Communication-Related Careers

Managing Communication (Integrating communication operations, programs, and services to support the mission of an

organization) Advertising Account Manager Communication Analyst Creative Director Corporate and Community Relations Crisis Communication Manager Employee Communication and Training External Communications Manager Health Communication Director Human Resources Manager Marketing Specialist

Media Manager Media Buyer Media Relations Specialist Newsletter Editor Organizational Communication Manager Promotions Manager Public Information Offi cer Public Relations Director Sales Manager

Creating Communication Products and Services (Preparing, packaging, or repackaging communication products or services for use by others)

Advertising Copywriter Art Director Consumer Advocate Customer Relations Specialist Editing Film Producer Health Communication Writer Marketing Specialist Photojournalist

Public Information Offi cer Public Relations Specialist Reporter Science and Technical Writer Special Events Coordinator Speech Writer Website Designer Writer

Analyzing Communication (Studying the foundations and theories related to communication systems, processes, programs,

and services, and/or assessing their functioning)

Audience Analyst Customer Satisfaction Analyst Health Communication Analyst Information Specialist

Market Researcher Public Opinion Researcher Social Scientist Web Analysis

Communication Education and Training (Providing instruction or training in communication)

Admissions Counselor Communication Trainer Drama Coach Health Communication Education

Human Resource Development Media Training Training and Development Specialist Trainer for Communication Technology

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1. Ability to work in a team structure 2. Ability to make decisions and solve problems 3. Ability to plan, organize, and prioritize work 4. Ability to verbally communicate with persons inside and outside the organization 5. Ability to obtain and process information 6. Ability to analyze quantitative data 7. Technical knowledge related to the job 8. Profi ciency with computer soft ware programs 9. Ability to create and/or edit written reports

10. Ability to sell or infl uence others

As you can see, communication is critical in at least half of these abilities. In a number of jobs, such as those listed in Figure 1.2, communication is the primary capability required.

In other occupations, communication expertise complements technical and disciplinary knowledge and ability. Th is is the case in fi elds like teaching, management, health care, international business, human resource management, counseling, politics, sales, computer applications, library and information science, and speech pathology. To perform competently in any of these roles—as a teacher, a counselor, or a politician, for example—a person needs technical ability plus communication ability.

Eff ective leadership—whether in workplace, club, or community contexts—requires a number of core competencies including communication (Gigliotti 2018; Gigliotti, 2019; Ruben, 2006; Ruben & Goldthwaite, 2018). In each of these settings, leadership communication skills are important to communicating purposes, aspirations, and values (Conrad & Newberry, 2012, p. 115), in addition to:

• Arousing enthusiasm • Being a change agent • Creating group synergy • Building team bonds • Expressing encouragement • Providing motivation • Being persuasive • Building optimism

Although the results of studies of desirable communication competencies vary somewhat, we believe that the following communication competencies, drawn from various writers (Conrad & Newberry, 2012; Stahl, 1989) and our own observations, are essential to success in many contexts including in the workplace:

The New Jersey Communication has an excellent online list of careers in communication (https://njca.rutgers. edu/communication-careers/).

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Skill Component: Communication (Verbal and Face-to-Face) Converses easily one-on-one and in small group settings inside and outside the organization; understands and can apply basic principles of client interaction, customer service, and sales Presents to groups inside and outside the organization—both with preparation and spontaneously Listens effectively and conveys to a speaker that s/he has been heard Negotiates, bargains, persuades, debates, and disagrees without being unpleasant, abrasive, or arrogant Respects the rights of all individuals and strives to understand their point of view and concerns; understands how other cultures (of all types) differ

Skill Component: Communication (Written) Effectively and professionally conveys in writing knowledge gained through analysis; summarizes complex information concisely and effectively; adapts writing to fi t workplace norms (e.g., letters, professional emails, memos, executive summaries, complex reports, talking points, user manuals, etc.); incorporates visual displays, such as graphs Checks and edits documents to ensure information is correct and complete, tone and emphasis fi t audience, and grammar, spelling, and punctuation are error-free Uses word processing tools and other computer-based tools to create, edit, and format documents, build graphs, and send information electronically

Skill Component: Teamwork, Leadership, and Project Management Builds collaborative relationships with colleagues and clients; interacts appropriately and effectively with peers, superiors, and assistants including those representing diverse cultures, races, gender, religions, lifestyles, and viewpoints Teamwork: works cooperatively with others; contributes ideas; completes necessary tasks; listens to and supports others on the team; resolves confl ict and motivates others toward the accomplishment of a common goal or vision Leadership: motivates; assigns responsibilities effectively and coaches others as needed; sets a good example for the team; resolves disputes fairly and effectively Understands and applies project management principles to manage own work and the work of teams (sets realistic goals, breaks project down into component steps, prioritizes tasks, links dependent tasks, etc.)

Skill Component: Information Gathering, IT Literacy, and Offi ce Technology Finds the most relevant information from multiple sources using the web and other tools, including social media, to identify and share current research and trends in fi elds of interest, determine the answers to key questions, and fi nd the causes of and solutions to key problems Uses commonly accepted standards to evaluate the reliability, accuracy, and usefulness of information; recognizes fl awed logic and false accounts (and/or “baloney”) Identifi es and learns to use the core functions of a wide range of software programs typically used in offi ce settings (Word, Excel, etc.) and those relevant to particular areas of interest (e.g., Photoshop for publishing, design, etc.); has at least an intermediate or advanced skill level in one or more programs

FIGURE 1.3 21st Century Communication Career Skills

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• Writing • Active listening • Building relationships • Making convincing presentations • Motivating and encouraging others • Networking • Teamwork and collaboration • Meeting management • Communication/information technology skills • Intercultural sensitivity and skills • Social media skills • Media literacy • Conflict resolution • Negotiation • Persuasive skills • Demonstrating respect

A HIGHER EDUCATION DOES NOT ENSURE COMMUNICATION COMPETENCE Education does not ensure competence in communication. Many aspects of communication are rarely addressed in PreK–12 academic programs and often insufficiently taught in colleges and universities. For example, schools place little formal emphasis on listening concepts and practices, perhaps because educators feel that it’s just common sense or everyone knows how to do it. Both assumptions are obviously unjustified.

Another important aspect of communication that receives little attention in school is nonverbal communication, though research has shown that some of the most significant messages in human communication are created and conveyed through nonverbal behaviors. Interpersonal and group communication skills that are necessary to effective collaboration with members of a workgroup, family, club, or community group also are often not taught in schools. This is often the case when it comes to listening, persuasion, relationships, organizations, leadership, and intercultural and health communication—each a critical area in successful personal, social, and workplace activity. Ironically, in some instances, advanced education and training can actually be an impediment to competent communication. This may happen when physicians, scientists, engineers, and others with technical training become so accustomed to communicating with other technical experts that they are much less successful interacting with people who lack their expertise and training.

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COMMUNICATION IS A VALUABLE DISCIPLINE As we will discuss in Chapter 2, the study of communication is relatively new as a discipline but, at the same time, is one of the oldest fields of study. Historians generally trace the beginnings of the study of communication and human behavior to the early Greeks. Ancient Greece was an oral culture and affairs of business and government were conducted through spoken communication. It was, therefore, not surprising that an interest in understanding the theory and practice of communication would emerge during this era. Communication emerged as a behavioral discipline in the 1950s to join the growing list of social sciences, each of which approaches the study of human behavior from a particular vantage point.

As a discipline, communication has also maintained intellectual ties with the humanities— especially philosophy, literature, religion, cultural studies, and art. There are also significant connections between communication and professional fields such as law, education, medicine, business, information science, cognitive science, counseling, social work, computer science, and library science.

Today, communication is considered to be a social science and an applied liberal art. The discipline shares with psychology, sociology, anthropology, and political science the pursuit of knowledge about human individuals and social activity. Communication also draws on the traditions of the humanities as well as professional studies. Thus, communication students have the opportunity to study a single discipline that integrates and applies knowledge from social sciences, humanities, and professional practice.

So the answer to the question “Why study communication?” comes down to this: whether you are interested in the social sciences, the arts, or the professions; whether your interests are primarily occupational or mainly academic; whether your interests reside in better understanding yourself, relationships, groups, organizations, cultures, or international relations; whether your focus is more applied or more theoretical: communication is an extremely important and useful area of study.

THEORIES: GUIDES FOR ANALYSIS AND ACTION Communication and Human Behavior is a book that is designed to encourage you to think in depth about communication and to develop a more theoretical approach to your own behavior. Sometimes students react negatively to the word “theory” because it sounds like something very abstract, but theories are simply ideas, and as such they help shape the way we think and what we do. So, this is a book about communication understanding and how to translate those ideas into practices. Understanding communication theory and developing communication skills are both critical. In fact, we believe that success in the practice of communication requires, first and foremost, a solid

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theoretical understanding of the communication process. This understanding is the foundation for successfully using our communication skills, and this book is designed to provide you with that foundation.

Personal Theories Theories are guides to understanding. It has often been said that there’s nothing as practical as a good theory (Van de Ven, 1989) and that certainly applies to theories of communication (Lewin, 1951 cited in Cartwright, 1975, p. 169). Theories help us to describe, explain, predict, and sometimes control phenomena and circumstances we encounter. We all have personal theories about a range of things—about relationships, doors, friends, and weather, for instance. Our personal theories, which are sometimes called native theories by social scientists (see Mokros, 1993), allow us to navigate in our physical and social environment. For example, our personal theories help us describe particular places and things, explain how to develop close relationships, predict the weather, or control the volume of a television using a remote control. If we didn’t have these theories, we would have to approach each situation we encounter as completely new and unique. We would be unable to think about new situations in more general terms and would be unable to draw on previous experiences in our efforts to describe, explain, predict, or control them. We usually give little conscious thought to the nature of our personal theories, how they were developed, or how we are using them. They are based on everyday experience, tend to be taken for granted, are private, and are fairly stable over time.

Based on Everyday Experience. Personal theories develop in response to the situations and people we encounter. For example, our theories about relationships are based on our individual experiences with acquaintances, friends, colleagues, and family members throughout our lives.

Taken for Granted. Most of us do not think very much about our personal theories, the manner in which they are formed, or the way we use them. Once developed, we generally accept them on faith. For instance, we each have our own theories about doors, and we take these theories for granted. We don’t think about how we formed these theories and give little conscious attention to our theories when we approach a door, locate the door knob, and turn the knob. We push or pull a door—such as those shown in see Figure 1.4—with full confidence that it will open, and we do all this without much thought about the “theory” we are applying, nor the fact that it has emerged over time based on our experiences.

Private. Personal theories are based on experiences which are to some extent unique for each of us. We often do not discuss our theories or the experiences on which they are based. Our theories about friends are based on our unique experiences, for example, and we generally discuss them only in a limited range of circumstances. There are some instances where we might discuss the way we think about “friends” or “friendship,” but it’s difficult to imagine very many situations where we would be sharing our theories about doors.

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Stable. Once formed, personal theories are generally quite resistant to change. Our personal theories tend to guide us to see and interpret what we observe in particular ways. We may ignore or unintentionally distort observations that don’t fi t in with our personal theories. We are likely to cling to our theories about friends even aft er we have encountered evidence that seems to contradict our theories. For instance, if a friend has told us something that we know to be untrue, we are likely to tell ourselves our friend probably believed it was true or else altered the facts for a very good reason. Most likely, this kind of “contradictory” event could occur a number of times before we conclude that our friend is purposely lying to us and, therefore, no longer worthy of being our friend. Or, to return to the case of our “doors,” our personal theory can present a challenge when we are confronted with what turns out to be an electronically controlled sliding door, but that one experience is unlikely to have much impact on our general theory of how doors work or on how we approach doors in the future.

Scholarly Th eories Th eories of a scholarly or scientifi c nature are similar to personal theories in terms of their basic functions: they, too, are used to describe, explain, predict, and sometimes control objects, people, and events. However, in contrast to personal theories, they are developed based on systematic observation and testing. Th ey are also questioned, public, and subject to being changed.

Based On Systematic Observation And Testing. Scholarly theories are developed through research involving systematic observation, information gathering, and analysis. Studies may be conducted in experimental laboratories or in natural settings. Data are gathered through interviews, questionnaires, or careful observations, and the results are systematically analyzed. For example, a theory about relationships may be based on the analysis of information derived from direct observations or videos. Or someone could develop a theory aft er analyzing interviews or surveys of a cross-section of individuals in varying types of relationships.

Questioned. Unlike personal theories, which tend to be accepted on faith and quite stable once they are formed, scholarly theories are continually questioned. Scientifi c theories are regarded as tentative and may be reexamined through follow-up studies and analyses. Consider our example of doors and door knobs: We have personal theories that allow us to predict that when we turn a door knob and push or pull, the door will open. Rather than be content with a personal theory about

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FIGURE 1.4 We develop native theories about many things, including doors.

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doors and door knobs, a scientific theory would be continually and methodically tested to ensure predictability. Thus, engineers in a corporation that manufactures door entry and lock systems test and retest their products to determine precisely how likely it is that the door knob mechanism will operate as intended or when push, pull, or sliding doors are most appropriate. They might want to determine the average number of uses sample of door entry mechanisms can tolerate before they fail to function or the relative reliability of push/pull versus sliding doors. Then they would study how and why malfunctions occur, and then develop and test theories about how to correct the problem.

Public. The methods and results of scholarly and scientific theories are disseminated to other scholars and scientists. The goal is to allow others to evaluate particular theories in terms of at least three standards:

• Validity—accuracy • Reliability—consistency and dependability • Utility—usefulness and applicability

In most cases, a scholarly theory will be reported at scholarly conferences or meetings and in journals, book chapters, and books so that other scholars and students can test and apply the ideas.

Subject to Modification. Because scholarly and scientific theories are public—and generally published in print or online—they are available, accessible, and subject to refutation or modification based on new information. Thus, scientific theories can be modified and improved as findings from new research emerge.

Combining Personal and Scholarly Theories We all have personal theories of communication and human behavior. Like other such theories, our views of communication are based on a lifetime of experience. We take them for granted, and they tend to be fairly stable. There are also many scholarly theories regarding communication and human behavior.

In this book, we will be examining a number of these scholarly theories. Being familiar with these theories helps us to become more aware of the nature and dynamics of communication. Exploring these theories can have the additional value of providing tools to help us more critically evaluate our personal theories. That is, we can begin to subject our own theories to some of the more rigorous standards associated with scholarly theory development and testing. Do our personal theories hold up in light of more systematic observation and testing? Are they valid, reliable, and useful? Can we benefit from making our personal theories public and discussing them with other people to see where they converge and where they differ? Are we able to modify our personal theories when evidence

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warrants? By comparing our personal theories with scholarly theories, we can better understand each and narrow the gap between the two and, in the process, also enrich our understanding of human behavior—and of ourselves.

DEFINING COMMUNICATION Few words are used in as many different ways, by as many different people, as the word communication. To some, the term communication brings to mind an image of a speaker addressing an audience from behind a podium, the lively discussion among colleagues at a meeting, or an exchange of glances between lovers. But communication can be a debate, a sermon, a social media post, a memorable night at the theater, the efforts of a child trying to overcome a speech disorder, a text or email, a political rally, a roadside sign, or a thoughtful walk on the beach. Communication is what we think of when we see two friends talking over coffee, a tear, an outstretched arm, a knowing smile, people using sign language, a kiss, an obscenity scrawled on a restroom wall, even a person engaged in a silent protest.

The multiple uses of the term communication can be confusing. People who are unfamiliar with the discipline may wonder whether the term has any limits. Is everything communication? How does being interested in communication differ from being interested in life?

To address the issue, it is important to understand that:

• Communication is the name of a discipline, as well as the label for a phenomenon. That is, the term refers both to an academic area and a focus of study.

• Communication has popular, professional, and technical meanings.

The term is commonly used in a very general way by the general public, in a more focused occupational way in professional settings, and in a still more specialized way in academic settings.

Obviously, there are a number of different meanings of the word communication. In fact, in one classic study, communication scholars Frank Dance and Carl Larson (1976) identified 126 published definitions. The Oxford English Dictionary, often considered the definitive record of the English language, alone lists over 15 definitions.

Definitions of communication have elements in common; they also have a number of differences in terms of the:

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• level of observation, • the question of intent, • the point of view, and • the issue of outcome.

[The discussion of levels of analysis, the question of intent, and normative judgment is based, in part, on Dance and Larson (1976) and Peters (1999).]

Level of Observation We can study communication on any number of levels—at the level of cells, individuals, relationships, organizations, a particular culture or society, or even the global level. There are definitions that focus on any one, several, or all of these levels. We will explore specific applications of these definitions throughout the book.

The Question of Intent Virtually all communication theorists agree that intentional acts that are noted and reacted to should be considered communication (Litttlejohn & Foss, 2010). Scholars often disagree, however, about whether messages have to be intentionally created to be considered communication. Thus, if you ask another person a question and the person answers, it seems clear that communication has occurred because we know that the speaker intended to convey a message. Some scholars would limit their definition of communication only to these acts (e.g., Motley, 1990). These scholars believe that communication refers solely to those events in which there are purposely created messages. They exclude from the definition of communication situations in which it is unclear that a person meant to create or convey a message to others—even if the behavior had meaning to others.

Other scholars argue that communication occurs any time behavior is attended to and interpreted, whether it was intentional or not (Andersen, 1991). Unintentional behavior that has meaning might include a yawn in class being perceived by others as boredom or an email accidentally forwarded to an unintended recipient. The yawner or the email initiator was not intending to communicate to others, but other recipients of these messages attached a specific meaning to the behaviors, and from that perspective the situations can be viewed as communication (see Figure 1.5). This is an important issue when it comes to making sense of how communication operates in everyday experience, and we will discuss this issue in greater depth later in this book.

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Point of View Communication can be thought about from a speaker’s or writer’s point of view or from the viewpoint of a listener or reader. Most commonly communication is talked about in terms of the activities and eff orts of the people who initiate messages—their goals, message approach, style, and so forth. But, communication can also be considered from the perspective of a listener or reader, with particular focus on a recipient’s needs, goals, reactions, or styles. Just like the issue of intention discussed in the previous section, this is an important distinction. Depending on whether one looks at a situation from the point of view of a message sender or potential receiver, it is possible to come to diff erent conclusions about whether a particular communication event was eff ective or a failure.

Th e Issue of Outcomes Some defi nitions of communication include only situations in which a particular outcome occurs, for example, situations in which understanding, acceptance, and agreement seem to result from an interaction. Such a defi nition might not see communication as having occurred if misunderstanding,

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disagreement, or some other unintended outcome resulted from a situation. Other definitions focus on whether the process has taken place, more than upon whether specific outcomes have resulted.

FUNDAMENTALS OF COMMUNICATION To make sense of these many distinctions, to explain the discipline to others, and to organize our study of communication, we need a comprehensive and unifying definition of communication. A definition that meets these goals should include and integrate the following fundamentals of communication.

Communication Is a Process Communication is a process—an activity that has many separate but interrelated steps that occur over time.

When we prepare for and deliver a public presentation or create and send an email, for instance, we are not engaged in a single, static act. We move, instead, through a sequence of interrelated activities as we plan, define goals, draft a message, and perhaps refine or clarify the presentation or email based on the audience’s or recipient’s responses.

The communication that occurs in a conversation is, similarly, an activity composed of a number of interrelated steps occurring over time. Consider the following:

“Hi, how are you?” “Good. What about you?”

Even in such a simple exchange, a number of steps are involved as messages are created, sent, received, interpreted, and responded to. If, rather than responding “Good,” the second person said “I’ve been better,” the exchange would likely become considerably more complex, and probably trigger a series of further messages.

Communication Is Essential for Individuals, Relationships, Groups, Organizations, and Societies As individuals, communication is our link to the world, our means of making impressions, expressing ourselves, influencing others, and giving of ourselves. It is also our means of learning about the world and other people, becoming who we are, being entertained, persuaded, amused, deceived, or informed. It is through communication that we form relationships of all kinds—from the casual exchanges

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that take place between a customer and a store employee or between strangers on social media or waiting in line at a movie theater, to the intimate conversations or texts between lovers or members of a family. For friends, acquaintances, family, or colleagues at school or work, communication is the means of pursuing joint activities, relating to each other, and sharing ideas. In groups, organizations, and societies, communication is the means through which we coordinate our own needs and goals with those of others. Within larger organizations, societies, and the global community, communication provides the web of connections that allows for collective action, the establishment of a common identity, and the development of leadership.

Communication Involves Responding to and Creating Messages It is through the process of creating and responding to messages that we interact with our surroundings and one another. As we will discuss in greater detail later, a message is any symbol or collection of symbols that has meaning or utility. Messages may involve verbal codes—such as spoken or written language—or nonverbal codes, involving appearance, gestures, touch, or other means.

Speeches, emojis, letters, winks, statues, fl ags, poems, advertisements, or paintings are messages. Responding to messages involves attending to them, interpreting, and using them in some way—as individuals and in relationships, groups, organizations, or societies.

We create messages through verbal and nonverbal behavior. For example, we create messages when we introduce ourselves to someone, since we are in the process of constructing a meaningful message—at least, it is meaningful to us. Th e person we are meeting is engaged in message interpretation when he or she notices, attaches meaning to, and makes use of our introductory comments (see Figure 1.6).

In face-to-face settings, messages are conveyed from person to person or place to place verbally and nonverbally. In other situations, communication technology—or media—play an important role by extending our “natural” capabilities for communication. In these instances, communication between the individuals, groups, organizations, or societies is mediated.

FIGURE 1.6 Introductions are important opportunities for message creation and interpretation.

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Communication Involves Adapting to People and the Environment We create and interpret messages—as individuals, and in relationships, groups, organizations, and societies—to relate to the environment and to the people around us. In some cases, the process consists primarily of adjusting to the circumstances in which we fi nd ourselves. More oft en, communication involves actively creating situations and coordinating our actions with others. As we shall see, the same basic dynamics occur in groups, organizations, and societies, but on a progressively larger scale.

COMMUNICATION: OUR DEFINITION Communication focuses on the way people create, convey, select, and interpret the messages that inform and shape their lives. More specifi cally, communication can be defi ned as the process through which individuals in relationships, groups, organizations, and societies create and respond to messages in order to relate to the environment and one another.

Th is defi nition is helpful for thinking about the nature of communication and for explaining it in fairly straightforward terms to others. It also provides a useful framework for organizing the ideas presented in this book.

GOALS OF COMMUNICATION AND HUMAN BEHAVIOR Th e seventh edition of Communication and Human Behavior is a book designed to help students learn to think cogently and systematically about communication and its relationship to human behavior. It is based on the assumption that the way we think about communication makes an important diff erence in the way we understand what is going on around us and in the way we conduct our lives.

Th is book has three goals: 1. To introduce communication as an area of study: Communication and Human Behavior

provides an overview and explanation of communication theories, basic concepts, key scholars, issues, and applications.

2. To provide a framework that helps make connections between communication theory and communication processes in action: Th e objective is to help you develop a communication-oriented perspective on events taking place around you—personally, socially, in work situations, nationally, and internationally.

Communication is the process through which individuals in relationships, groups, organizations, and societies create and respond to messages in order to relate to the environment and one another.

19CHAPTER 1: Why We Study Communication

3. To provide tools to help you use this communication-oriented perspective to analyze, better understand, and be more competent in their own communication behavior.

CONCLUSION In a broad range of settings and contexts, communication plays a basic and fundamental role. The role of communication is so essential that it is easily taken for granted and thought to be common sense. When we consider the many problems that result from poor communication, however, the complexity and challenges associated with the process make it clear that this is not the case. Popular and scholarly writings show us the importance of communication in our personal and occupational lives. The process is fundamental in many jobs and more generally contributes to professional effectiveness in nearly every field. Communication theory and skills are not assured by the amount of education we have, as many of the critical aspects of the phenomenon are underemphasized in schools. Because of its relevance, its importance, and its many challenges as a topic and field, communication is an extremely popular discipline.

Theories are the building blocks of understanding. Theories of behavior provide guides to understanding and action. They help to describe, explain, predict, and sometimes control human affairs. Over the course of our lives we each develop personal theories based on our experiences that are quite stable once developed. We typically spend little time analyzing or discussing these theories. In contrast, scholarly theories are systematically developed, publicly shared, and carefully tested with the goal of achieving validity, reliability, and utility. The two types of theories can be quite complementary and mutually informative.

Communication theories and definitions are numerous and sometimes contradictory. They vary depending on their level of observation, assumptions relative to intention, point of view implied, and perspective on the issue of outcomes. The definition that serves as the foundation for this book is: human communication is the process through which individuals in relationships, groups, organizations, and societies create and use information to relate to the environment and one another.

20 CHAPTER 1: Why We Study Communication

CHECK YOUR KNOWLEDGE Now that you have fi nished reading this chapter, you should be able to:

• Explain how communication is a pervasive part of contemporary life with relevance to our lives as individuals, family members, professionals, and members of communities and society

• Describe the diff erent approaches to defi ning and studying communication • Analyze the ways that individuals develop personal (native) theories of communication based

on their life experiences • Identify examples of how the study of communication theory can help us better understand

human behavior, more fully appreciate the skills and techniques that are important to achieving communication goals, and improve our ability to refl ect upon and make sense of our own behavior.

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