COM - phyllis young
Chapter 8 Building Common Ground in Interpersona
The film American Beauty (1999) tells the story of a suburban family whose routine becomes thrown out of balance. Lester and Carolyn, a married couple, struggle with tensions in their re~ lationship, and Lester attempts to deal with his feelings about employment. his daughter, and his sexual desires.
Considerwatching the film and answering the following questions:
• What are some of the dialectical tensions in this family? How are they managed (or mis- managed)?
• Canyou identify destructive conflict strategies? What might make some of the conflicts more constructive?
• Whateffect do the communication strategies of Lester and Carolyn have on their daughter Jane?
• Whatcultural dimensions does Lester demonstrate? How do his internal conflicts reflect ten- sions about cultural and gender expectations?
• Do Lester's behaviors conform to the expectations of those around him? How do others re- spond when their expectations of Lester are violated?
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246 Principles 01Communication
harlotte Bustamante had a choice to make. She was a terrific high school basketball player. Dur- ing herjunior year,she led the league in scoring and received much attention as one of the best
players in the city. Charlotte was very competitive by nature and, going into her senior year, wanted to win the MVP trophy given annually to the best basketball player in the league. She also wanted to win the league championship.
During the summer, Charlotte's coach asked her to swncn positions from the team's shooting guard to its new point guard.As apoint guard, Charlotte would be the team leader but not the team's leading scorer. Charlotte accepted the coach's challenge,and the team worked to- gether to reevaluate each person's position and Contribu- tions to the team. Her teammates elected her captain, a responSibility she took seriously, actively trying to build team unity. She talked often with the newer players about tbe« abilities and how they could fit in with the returning players. DUring practice she would compliment team- mates on good plays but also qUietly Correct any player who made a selfish play. Charlotte also met regularly with the coach to pass along team concerns and to solve any problems that were occurring. During games Charlotte shOuted instructions and encouragement to teammates.
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Charlotte was no longer the highest scorer on her own team, but her team was winning. During the final game, Charlotte's strong defense, smart deci- sion making, and accurate passing helped the team win the coveted champi- onship. She was not voted the league MVp, but she felt good about the leadership skiffs she developed, the progress of the other players, and the sense of accomplishment of winning a team championship.
Charlotte's experience with her team is typical of many successful small groups. Individuals often sacrifice their individual goals for the achievement of the group. Members have clearly defined roles within the group, including a good leader like Charlotte. Like the basketball team, groups must coordinate and syn- chronize the actions of individual members. Successful groups usually feel a sense of togetherness, or cohesion, in the pursuit of a common goal and members work hard to resolve conflicts.Importantly, effective communication is essential for the success of a group. Through communication.groups coordinate their actions, pro- vide leadership, define and accept roles within the group, solve problems, and build cohesion. In short, one characteristic that separates successful groups from less successful ones is the effectiveness of communication.
All of us belong to groups. Humans are inherently social creatures, and we seek opportunities to be with others. We work in groups, study in groups, join clubs or associations, live in groups, and play sports in teams. Being a part of a group has many rewards, including the feeling that we belong to something and are needed. Group membership, however, can also cause frustrations due to disagreements or interpersonal problems with other group members, Regardless of whether groups are a source of frustration or comfort, they are a part of our lives. Positive group experiences can be enhanced and negative ones improved by understand- ing some basic characteristics of group communication. This chapter will help you to:
Understand the importance of groups in society Identify the advantages and disadvantages of group participation.
r Identify various group communication norms and roles. Use a structured approach to decision making in groups. Understand what it takes to lead a group in an effective and responsible manner.
" Never doubt that a small group of thoughtful, committed citizens can
change the world; indeed, it's the only thing that ever does."
-Margaret Mead, anthropologist
Small Groups Are Essential in Our Society
In the quote above, Margaret Mead expresses the sentiments of many experts: Small groups have more power than individuals to change society. Societies are or- ganized around individuals, small groups, and complex organizations that are made up of several small groups. For example, individuals belong to a family,sev- era! families make up a neighborhood, and several neighborhoods make up a city. The bridge between the individual and the larger, more complex society is the
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small group. To understand how groups jnfillenc~ s?ciety, on~ needs to know what a small group is and what types of groups eXISt10 our society,
Small Groups Exist through Communication People gather in large and small crowds all the time. You might be standing in line with several people to lise the campus ATM machine. Or, you might be srtnng In the bleachers with hundreds of other fans watching a soccer game. Perhaps you are studying at a table in the Hbrary with several other students whom you do not know. Do you think of yourself as a member of any of these "groups"? Do any of these gatherings even constitute a group? According to most small grall? theo- rists, Ihey don't. People who happen to be in the same place at the same time are not a group. If this is true, then, what is a small group? A small group is Com- posed of a limited number of individuals who communicate interdependently to achieve a common goal. Let's look at the various parts of this definition.
Groups Consist of a Small Number of Members. The actual num- ber of people is not as important as the opportunity to interact. That opportunity is what separates a large group, such as all members of the Audubon Society or Atlanta Falcons fan club, from a small group. Small groups usually consist of three to seven people. Communication researchers often differentiate between two people and three or more because the dynamics of communication between two people are considerably different than the dynamics between three or more. The number of communication channels lp, 15], the pOSSibilityof distortion and noise (p. 15), the opportunity to share diverse resources, the number of individual pref- erences to be accommodated, and the likelihood of conflict aU increase in a group (p.218].ln a group of three people,for example, two of the members could form a majority to "Outvote" the other member. These communication dynamics become mare complex as the group becomes larger. For instance, business man- agers have long recognized that supervising a group of 15 people is far more chal- lenglng than managing 3 people (Span of COntrol 2004).
ACCOrdingto Our definition, small groups are made lip of "individuals" who bring their Own personalities, biases, and goals to the group.This diversity of per- spective, experlen e, and resources can help a group to be successful, but ac- commodating individual differences is also one of the real frustrations of the group experience. For example, you may have been in a study group that included a few members who didn't want to study. Instead, they wanted to talk about cur- rent movies, rdationship problems, and the weather-anything but the course material! Oy leading the study group off On tangents, individual members can waste: the: time of the other members and diminish the ability of a group to ac- complish it goal. Ideally, at least One member of the group will realize what is happening and bring <veryone back to the topic at hand. One of the challenges facing a group IS to find ways to harness the individual talents of each member a~d CO~tribute: to a common goal while preventing idiosynCratic behavior from dlstractmg the group from its purpose.
Group Members Interact with Each Other TI I d' . . • le peop e stan II1g 10 line to usc the campus ATMmachine for instance a all b
' , re not re y a group e-cause they are: not interacting with each Other Througl1 '. I . . '. . communIcatIOn, t legroup establishes us Own 'dentlty apart from simply a collect'o f i divid I
< I n 0 In IVI U3 s.
239
• small group A limited number of individuals who communicate interdependently to achieve a common goal.
•
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Communication also enables the group to accomplish goals and maintain mem- . ber relationships. The definition of groups implies an expectation that communi- cation among members will be ongoing and somewhat constant. Members who rarely talk to other members arc really not a part of the group. Similarly, individu- als in the group are interdependent. If you are a member of a group, there is an ex- pectation that you will participate and contribute to the group. Ifyou choose not to participate, then the group is altered. In this way, each member affects the group as a whole.
Small Groups Have a Common Goal or Purpose. There are many different purposes of groups, ranging from problem solving to simple socializing. But whatever the common goal is, it defines the group and gives it purpose. With- out this purpose, the group stops existing. A jury, for example, is a group charged with the purpose of deciding the innocence or guilt of a defendant. When the de- cision is made, the group disbands. The word "common" also implies that mem- bers have a mutual interest in the outcome. They may disagree over how to achieve it, but a common goal is necessary to link members together. If a group disagrees about the fundamental nature of the goal, it rarely continues to exist.
Types of Groups There are many different types of groups that enrich our society. You may belong to a few or to many of these and are no doubt aware that different groups meet different needs. As you review the following descriptions of various types of groups, think about the impact they may have on your life.
Primary Groups: Satisfying Basic Needs. Primary groups exist to fulfill the basic human needs of survival, safety, and inclusion. Primary groups in- clude nuclear families, extended families, friendship groups, and other intimate groups of people. Primary groups are called "primary" because they are one of the earliest and most important influences on our socialization. Socialization is the .process of teaching individual members about society's expectations, customs, values, and rules. Primary groups are an important part of OUf lives, and the feel- ings of love and support that they provide shape our sense of worth and value. The lack of such support can have a lasting effect on our identity and our overall quality of life. Research on older people, for instance, indicates that those who participate in social groups and have close friendships are healthier and live longer than those who do not ("Socializing Elderly Live Longer" 1999;"Living to Age 100"1999).
Soctal Groups: Hailing Fun with Friends. Social groups provide members with opportunities for recreation, relaxation, and entertainment.These groups include sororities, fraternities, clubs, and hobby groups, In such social groups,getting together with others is sometimes more important to group mern- bers than the stated purpose of the group. Social groups frequently provide mem- bers with an opportunity to meet and form relationships that evolve into primary groups or other significant associations.They also may offer significant fringe ben- efits as discussed in the box on "Exploring Communications Concepts," wh.ich ex- plores some of the benefits and liabilities of group memberships for college students.
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Chapter 9 Communicating in Groups 241
Exploring Communica.'
Concep Alexander Astin, professor of education at the University of California at Los Angeles, conducted a far-reaching survey of college student behaviors and discovered significant benefits of joining student groups. Astin's study, published in the book What Matters in College? (1993), surveyed 25,000 students at approximately 200 colleges and universi- ties in the United States. Astin was interested in discovering what aspects of the col- lege environment and student behavior contributed most to the personal development of students and their academic performance. He discovered that while there were many differences between students who succeed at college and those who do not, one of the strongest factors correlating with success was joining a student peer group. Students who joined campus government groups, clubs, sororities and fraternities,
sports teams, or even class discussion groups were more likely to perform well in college than those who did not. In particular, those who joined peer groups reported greater in- creases in leadership abilities, interpersonal skills, and public speaking proficiencies than students who didn't join peer groups. Joining a group was also positively related to overall academic development including higher grade point averages, stronger ana- lytical and probLem-solving skills, greater cultural awareness, and a broader knowledge base. Membership was also correlated with social activism, satisfaction with the faculty, and intellectual self-esteem. Finally, students who joined peer groups reported feeling less depressed than students who did not. Positive correlation does not mean that group membership caused these positive outcomes; that is, joining a group will not necessar- ily improve your grades. Still, many college counselors believe that participation in one or more groups, together with a strong network of friends and groups, helps students ad- just to college life and is often an enriching experience (Light 2001). ASK YOURSELF:
1. How might joining a group help students improve their analytic problem-solving skills? Interpersonal skills?
2. How might joining too many groups hinder a student's overall academic performance?
Help Groups: Self-Improvement though the Support of Others. Help groups are unique because their goal is the improvement of individual mem- bers rather than group success. Help groups include counseling and therapy groups, consciousness-raising groups, and skill-building groups. Counseling and therapy groups usually have a trained facilitator who helps members confront and solve problems. These trained professionals know that group support can be an important part of overcoming challenges and encouraging individual better- ment. Support groups are composed of members who share a common problem, want to exchange information, discuss issues, share insights and resources, and provide empathic understanding. For instance, there are support groups for par- ents of children who are hearing impaired, victims of domestic abuse, and people who feel lonely. Members of support groups often find a renewed strength to han- dle their chaUenges after joining such groups.
Civic Groups: The Power of Participation. Civic groups are local government and education groups that operate within the official structure of
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242 Communication in a Changing World
public institutions. Some of these groups are composed of members who 3fC elected by local citizens.These groups include oversight boards for hospitals, reg- ulatory commissions for public utilities, school boards, and city councils. Some smaller municipalities still make decisions in town meetings where any citizen can attend, discuss, and vote on policies. Other civic groups 3CC composed of members who are appointed or volunteer to serve on various city and education committees. They include parent, student, and teacher associations (PSTAs), school site counsels, local historic preservation groups, museum boards, and juries and grand juries. Through participation in these civic groups, individual citizens engage in the democratic process and influence local politics.
Community Based Groups: Grassroots Efforts. Community-based groups (CBGs), often called grassroots groups, are local groups organized outside the official government structure. Some of these groups work in collaboration with city officials. For example, neighborhood watch groups work closely with 10- cal law enforcement agencies to help reduce crime in many communities, and lo- cal better business bureaus work with local authorities to ensure fair business practices. At other times, CBGs help supplement services that the local govern- ments do not offer or which are insufficient to meet community needs. Many such groups help feed and clothe the homeless, visit older citizens in their homes, and provide care for Alzheimer's patients. Finally, some CBGs, such as animal rights groups, offer an alternative voice to official positions. This alternative posi- tion is important in local governance. CBGs, such as the Southern Poverty Legal Center or antidefarnation groups, help to protect the rights of minorities and other marginalized groups. The alternative voice that these groups offer ensures diversity of opinion in our local communities. Special interest groups monitor and advocate policy on specific issues such as the environment or land use. The strength of CBGs lies in the commitment group members feel toward a common goal and their willingness to work together to advance their cause.
Virtual Groups: Networking Through Computers. Virtual groups are connected through computer networks and are unique because the members of the groups usually do not meet face-to-face or even talk to each other over the telephone. Rather, they use computers to communicate. Like aU computer- mediated communication, virtual groups transcend time and distance; that is, group members are not at the same location or even communicating at the same time. There are many different types of virtual groups. Some are virtual social groups, others are virtual help groups, and still others are virtual civic groups. Some virtual groups,like chat rooms, are very informal and lack the official struc- ture of leaders and deadlines. The common purpose in many of these groups is social connection and the opportunity to converse with others online (perry and Schneider 1999). People in chat rooms often assume different identities, and members learn to use codes for participation such as abbreviations or ernoti- cons [po 160]. Common codes include such abbreviations as AFK (away from keyboard), BBL(be back later), IRL (in real life), NP (no problem), and WB (wel- come back). A more focused type of virtual group is a discussion group (perry and Schnei-
der 1999). Usually these groups discuss a specific, common interest.These groups function as information outlets and decision-making groups. For example, the Online Learning Center that accompanies this text provides an opportunity to
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Chapter 9 Communicating in Groups 243
form a discussion group about course concepts. Discussion groups tend to be more topical and less anonymous than chat rooms. While there may be more than one topic of discussion. there usually is a limited series of related topics that group members refer to as threads. Discus- sion groups are often sponsored by specific organizations. For instance, many professors create discussion groups for college COurses where students can exchange and discuss course concepts. WIllie these conversations are more topical than those in chat rooms, they do wander considerably more than face-to-face conversation. Also, because communication in discussion groups, as well as chat rooms, is more anonymous than face-to-face communtca. tion, the conversation can become aggressive at times with some members re- sorting to insults and other forms of offensive communication. Some groups include a discussion monitor who edits postings and, when necessary, reminds participants of discussion rules.
The ability to solve problems and make decisions in groups is a fundamental communication skill that everyone should develop. e Cindy CharlesjPhotoEdit
Problem-Solving Groups: Focused on the Task at Hand. Most professional organizations, including businesses, civic groups, and CBGs, use small groups to solve problems or make decisions. Because solving problems and mak- ing decisions are so fundamental to a wide variety of careers and situations, the National Communication Association (NCA) identifies the ability to work in a group as one basic communication skill everybody should develop (National Communication Association 1998). Many employers rank the ability to work in a group as a qUalification they are seeking in an employee because numerous con- temporary businesses are organized around work teams (Kolb 1999). Some of these work teams, called ad hoc groups, are temporary in nature and are created for the purpose of making a specific decision Or solving a unique problem. Once the problem is solved or the decision made, the ad hoc groups are disbanded. Another type of group, called a standing group, has a broad mandate and works Continuously on a variety of related problems. For exam- ple, many businesses have quality control teams that eval- uate the quality of customer service or products, Your professional life will be filled with work teams and your ability to work effectively within these groups will be important to you .
• ad hoc groups Temporary groups created for the purpose of making a specific decision or solving a unique problem.
standing group Agroup that has a broad mandate and works continuously on a variety of related problems.
" A committee is a group' that keeps minutes and loses hours."
-Milton Berte, comedian
... The Rewards and Costs of Group Decision Making
Perhaps you think of committee and group work as a waste of time-too much talking and too few decisions. If so, you are not alone. Some professional managers become frustrated when working with groups and prefer simply to make decisions themselves. However, there are Some important benefits to group decision making. Consider the situation of Lorraine, a manager in a medium-sized
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244 Communication in a Changing World
• group synergy Group members combine their abilities to produce an outcome greater than the sum of their individual abilities.
• cohesion A sense of attachment, solidarity, and camaraderie that binds a group together.
business seeking to expand. She is assigned the task of deciding which products and services to increase and which to curtail. She can research the problem and make the decision herself, or she can form a group and involve her co-workers in the decision-making process from the beginning, explaining the problem to the group, giving co-workers some basic guidelines such as deadlines and budget, and ultimately letting the group make the decision. Which method of decision making would you select? An increasing number of managers are using groups to make decisions. They believe that the rewards of group decision making, especially if the group discussion is efficient, outweigh the costs. Group problem solving has several benefits over individual decision making, but there are also problems as- sociated with it.In the next sections we will look at the comparative advantages and disadvantages of group decision making.
Advantages of Group Decision Making Groups often make better decisions than individuals for a variety of reasons.
1. Group members bring with them different abilities, resources, and know!- edqe. This diversity enables a group to develop a broader perspective on a problem than anyone individual can, allows the group to see a wide range of possible solutions to the problem, and ultimately leads the group to select a better alternative (Hirokawa 1982, 1983; and Hirokawa and Pace 1983). By in- tegrating diverse perspectives, the group often performs at a level beyond the capabilities of anyone member. This phenomenon is called group syn- ergy. Group synergy occurs when group members combine their abilities to produce an outcome greater than the sum of their individual abilities (Enqle- berg and Wynn 1997). For example, a sports team of less talented players will often win a game against a more talented team because they play together so well that they transcend their individual limitations. Working as a team en- hances each player's ability. Similarly, in a decision-making group or a man- agement team, the process often produces a better outcome than would be expected from individuals comprising the group (Ranganathan 2001 I.
2. A group decision allows for a division of labor. In a group, you can divide a task into discrete parts and have each member assume responsibility for a different element. By dividing the labor among the group, no one person is burdened with all of the work, which typically means that a group can ac- complish more than an individual acting alone. For instance, consider a corn- munication club that is sponsoring a faculty-student reception. Instead of handling all of the arrangements by herself, the club president assigned each student and faculty member a specific task. Some members brought items of food or drink. Others worked on the invitations and still others arranged a program of guest speakers. The reception was a great success and no one in the group felt overwhelmed by the effort.
3- Finally, group members will be more committed to a decision that they make collectively than one that is made by only one or a few members. Shared decision making empowers group members to shape their own goals and future. The feelings of autonomy and self-determination that develop when one participates in a group often produce an attachment to the group and the group's decision. This sense of attachment, solidarity, and camaraderie that binds a group together is called cohesion. Cohesion motivates members to
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continue to participate in the group. Members feel as if they have a stake in the success of the group and are more supportive of and enthusiastic about implementing the decisions they make,
Disadvantages of Group Decision Making While there are many benefits to group decision making, there are also liabilities. Usually the advantages of group decision making Outweigh the liabilities, but it is important to understand the disadvantages so that you can mitigate the negative effects of a group experience and make the best decision possible.
1. Groupmembers must often sacrifice their individual preferences for the will of the group. Integrating diverse opinions into a collective group decision is one of the real strengths of group decision making. But a frustrating by- product of this integration is the loss of individual choice. You have probably had this experience. Several of your friends want to go a movie together, but they cannot agree on which one to see. After several suggestions, they finally settle on a movie that you have already seen. Being a good sport, you go to the movie anyway_ The group's preference may be different than any one member's choice, and it is sometimes difficult for a particular individual to modify his or her preference to accommodate the collective will of the group.
2. Group decision making can lead to conffict. Since groups are composed of unique individuals with different perspectives, conflict often Occurs. Not all conflict is bad [p, 2111_Conflict can force a group to see new perspectives and actually make a better decision, Indeed, groups that have no conflict often make bad decisions because they do not test their ideas through disagree- ment. Conflict can become counterproductive, however, when it escalates into personal attacks and selfishness. Some conflicts create factions or coali- tions within the group as members choose sides and square off against each other. Such coalitions hurt group cohesion and adversely affect the discussion.
Although conflict is inevitable and even necessary in group decision mak- ing, it still makes the experience difficult for members, who may experience anxiety as a result. With experience, however, participants can learn to mini- mize such anxiety and maximize the benefits of conflict Ip. 2201.
3. Group decision making takes more time than individual decision making. In- tegrating the opinions and preferences of members into an acceptable solu- tion is a complex and sometimes slow process. The logistics alone of assembling all of the members together can be time consuming. Also, a fre- quent complaint about working in committees or groups is the amount of time participants spend talking about tangential subjects. A certain amount of socializing is healthy for a group and helps to build cohesion, but some groups engage in excessive socialization to postpone or forestall working on the group project, a phenomenon called task-avoidance.
4. Finally, group decision making can mean working with members who do not do their share of the work. Groups frequently contain members who are, for one reason or another, undependable. Most often, other group members must work even harder to compensate for these slothful members. This
• task-avoidance Engaging in excessive socialization to postpone or forestall working on the group project.
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• group norms Expectations, established through interaction, about how members should behave.
causes considerable resentment and prevents groups from achieving their optimal performance. To avoid such a scenario, groups should establish clear work expectations for each member who is accountable for a particular share of the workload. Clear and accurate communication is the key to effective performance evaluation. Vague hints that some group members are "not ful- filling their responsibility" rarely produce a change of behavior. But even with clear expectations, some members will not fulfill their obligations and others must make up for this lack of effort
Although the disadvantages of group decision making often lead to frustration, the advantages provide real benefits such as better decisions and more commit- ted group members. Group decision making does not need to be tedious and unduly time consuming. Skilled groups can use time efficiently and still produce a sound decision. Also, a decision that takes some time to reach is sometimes a better decision than one that is made quickly. Group decision making inher- ently restrains individuals from rushing into hasty and ill-conceived courses of action.
Norms and Roles Are Established through Group Communication
Leaders and supervisors can often maximize the advantages and minimize the dis- advantages of group decision making by creating clear expectations for success. These expectations are communicated through the norms and roles that groups establish. In this section we will examine group norms and roles and how they are established through communication (see Figure 9-1).
Group Norms Establish Communication Guidelines for Members Group norms are expectations, established through interaction, about how members should behave. Generally, norms are prescriptions for action. They be- come the guidelines that members use to evaluate acceptable and unacceptable behavior. The group establishes these expectations as they communicate with each other. Norms change and develop over the course of group Life.What is un- acceptable at the beginning of a group's existence may become acceptable later. In families, for instance, younger children often have more freedom than their older siblings; as their children grow, parents change their expectations about what constitutes acceptable behavior.
Explicit Norms. Some norms are explicit rules" Explicit rules are usually communicated in a direct fashion and often written to emphasize their impor- tance. Frequently, these norms have specific sanctions for a member who violates them and another member who is in charge of enforcing the rule. At your place of employment, for instance, there might be an explicit expectation that you will wear a uniform with the company name on it when you go to work. This corn- pany norm would probably be written in the employee handbook and supervi- sors would be charged with enforcing the rule. If you did not wear the uniform, your supervisor might issue you a written reprimand.
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CONCEPT MAP OF GROUP NORMS
Group norms establish communication guidelines for members
Group norms are influenced by culture
/ .
Norms and Roles Are Established through
Group Communication
T - Cohesion is an
important norm in many successful
groups
Group roles facilitate group functioning and communication
Implicit Norms. Norms are implicit when they are assumed to exist but are rarely discussed openly. Through interaction, members gradually learn the expectations of the group. Classroom norms, for instance, vary from course to course. In Some classrooms, professors encourage class participation and wet- come comments from the students. In other courses, the professors expect stu- dents to listen and not to talk. These expectations become clear to students through classroom interaction, even though the expectations are not written any. where. [f a professor ignores raised hands, does not listen to student comments, or becomes impatient when a student asks a question, students quickly learn to sit quietly in class. By contrast, a professor who calls on students by name for com- ments, listens to those comments carefully, and welcomes questions invites stu- dents to contribute to the discussion. Groups of all kinds establish implicit norms about most aspects of group work. Miscommunication sometimes Occurs when implicit norms are vague and confusing. Often, making these implicit norms more overt helps clear up mjsunderstandings.
Group Norms Are Influenced by Culture Group norms and expectations about communication often differ from culture to Culture or from co-culture to co-Culture. For instance, we previously discussed the differences between high- and low-context cultures [p. 217J and noted that members of high-context cultures prefer implicit norms, whereas members of low-context cultures would be much more explicit in discussing communication
FIGURE _
Group norms and roles are expectations about how members should behave.
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248 Communication in a Changing World
Group norms can vary based on the cultural identities of group members. CI Fujifotos/K. Kai(The Image Works
•individualism Emphasis on the importance of individual rights over group rights, individual needs over group needs, and individual identity over group identity.
collectivism Emphasis on the importance of group obligations, needs, and identity.
• power distance The relative value that cultures place on status and power in relationships.
expectations. There are other basic cultural characteristics or dimen- sions that shape the use of group norms. This section introduces some of the broadest cultural contexts: col- lectivism and individualism, power distance, uncertainty avoidance, and masculinity and femininity. These cul- tural contexts all influence the devel- opment of group norms (Hofstede 1997).
CoLLectivism and Individual- ism. The first dimension, individ- ualism-collectivism, has been called the primary dimension on which cul- tures vary (Triadis 1995).lndividua!- ism refers to the tendency of some cultures to emphasize the impor- tance of individual rights over group rights, individual needs over group needs, and individual identity over
group identity (ring-Toomey 2000). Individualism is the dominant value of people in the United States and many Western European cultures. Collectivism, in con- trast, refers to an emphasis on the importance of group obligations, needs, and identity. People from countries such as China,)apan, and Mexico are accustomed to more collectivistic, group-based cultures (Ting-Toorney 2000). Someone from a culture that places great value on individuals acting alone is likely to be more self- focused and expressive, whereas people from collectivistic cultures are more likely to be aware of and adjust what they say based on the expectations of others.
As with all of the countries mentioned in this section, each country contains co-cultures with varying expectations; within cultures and co-cultures, individuals may interpret the expectations of others differently. However, understanding di- mensions such as individualism and collectivism provides a starting point for ap- preciating some of the most widely held expectations in a culture. Ifyou are from an individualistic culture such as the United States, you might have difficulty ap- preciating why your Mexican-American roommate sees going home on weekends to be with family members as more important than studying with other students for a final exam. Collectivist cultures are often more comfortable' with groups than individualistic cultures and will view group cohesion as more important than individual achievement .
Power Distance. Power distance refers to the relative value that cultures place on status and power in relationships. \Vhen people at the bottom of a hier- archy accept the idea that there is a great deal of power or status between them- selves and those at the top, they exemplify a high power distance culture (Hofstede and Bond 1984). Members of low power distance cultures believe that power should be distributed as equally as possible; there are very specific in- stances where people can legitimately claim power over others. For instance, an Egyptian worker, coming from a high power distance culture, might think that she is performing perfectly for her supervisor because she does exactly what she is told and doesn't ask questions. Her Swedish supervisor, however, coming from a
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, I 'gilt see the Egyptian as lacking initiative andlow power distance ell lure. rru assertiveness. . . d ta d
I f dtffe ent power distance cultures interacr, 1111SUn ers n _When peop e rom I II r ing is tikely,Think about the way most students in the United States expect to be
d b Ieir teachers At the end of the semester they are likely to evaluateIreale y I 1 I c • • • their teacher's ability to make course material interesting, promote discussion, and provide thorough explanations that they can understan.d. Students from China are more likely to be interested in whether the teacher IS compet~nt and malruams authority in the classroom. YOLIcan probably imagine the potential CO~. flicts that happen when an American student attends a Chinese school or a ChI- nese teacher joins :111 American faculty.
1 11. Uncertainty avoidance refers to the degree of uncertalnry tolerated by members of a culture or group. In cultures where uncer- tainty is accepted, members arc marc likely to accept change, speak against ideas, and push the boundaries of social norms. In cultures where uncertainty is to be avoided, meml ers arc less rolerani of people with deviant ideas or behavior and desire more formal rules about how to communicate. People who expect certainty are likely to Internet in very structured, ritualistic ways, and those who tolerate un- certainty can be frustrating to those who don't. For example, some professors may prefer to give writing assignments with very general directions, whereas many Students like spcciflc instructions about the topic, length, and style of the paper .
r md mtmntty, Cultures that place a high value on mas- cuJinity emphasize power, assertiveness, independence, materialism, and rigid dlstln tions between expectations of males and females. Cultures that are high in feminlnlly emphasize illlerdependencc,quality of life.and variability in the roles that females and males arc expected to perform. In cultures where the status of women is relatively low in terms of rights, opportunities, and wealth, masculine characteristics are more likely to be celebrated (Kimmel 2000), As with aU of the Cultural dimensions we have been exploring, the valuing of
attributes slereotypically labeled "masculine" and "feminine" varies within cul- tur s, groups, situations, and indiViduals.Nonetheless, understanding differences based on masculinity and femininity can be useful. Think abour the reaction of male group members to a feminine leader who frequently uses emotional lan- guage 3nd pronounced gestures. In more feminine CUltures, feminine leaders would seem normal in a group, whereas in masculine cultures, women in general arc more likely to be treated with suspicion.
Ollectivism and individualism, POwer distance, uncertainty avoidance, and rna ulirtity and femininity are dimensions of culture that can influence any level of comm~nic"tion,Table 9·1 Jp,2501 illustmtes Some of the implications of these culruraj differences for communicmion in groups.
d N rm in Many
An Irnponam norm that develops in most groups concerns the amount of cohe- sion between members, Cohesion is the feeling of unity and togetherness among group members,TI,e ~mount of cohesion that devclops in a group greatly influ- e.nc~ group com~Ul1lc.atlon. Members in a highly COhesivegroup will be enthu- sr:, lIc,about participating, concerned about' the group out'come and eneraJl commilled '0 the group, From sports t bust ,g y
earns to lISlnesswork teams, experts have
• uncertainty avoidance Thedegree of uncertainty tolerated by members of a culture or group.
•
249
masculinity Emphasis on power, assertiveness, independence. materialism, and rigid distinctions between expectations of males and females.
femininity Emphasis on interdependence, quality of life, and variability in the roles that females and males are expected to perform.
Communication in a Changing World, 2006 Edition
250 Communication in a Changing World
259
TAB L E Dimensions of Culture that Influence the Development of Group Norms
COLLECTIVIST INDIVIDUALIST
(China, Japan, Mexico. Philippines, Venezuela) Members often think in terms of "we." Harmony is desired; direct confrontation is avoided. ReLationships are often more important than tasks.
HIGH POWER DISTANCE
(Australia. Canada, France, Germany, United States) Members often think in terms of "1." Honesty is desired and demonstrated by speaking your mind. Tasks are often more important than relationships.
LOW POWER DISTANCE
(India, Iran, France, Korea, Nigeria, South Africa) Inequalities among people are expected and desired. Group members expect to be told what to do. Privileges, status symbols for leaders are expected and popular.
HIGH UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE
(Israel, Canada. Germany, NewZealand, Sweden, United States) Inequalities among people should be minimized. Group members expect to be consulted.
Privileges and status symbols are frowned upon.
LOW UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE
(Austria. Greece, Ecuador, Korea, Spain)
Uncertainty is threatening and must be fought. Aggression and emotion may be displayed at the proper time and place. Difference is dangerous. Members desire structured discussions.
Innovation is resisted.
FEMININE
(Canada, India, Jamaica, Hong Kong, United States) Uncertainty is normal and accepted.
Aggression and emotion should be hidden. Difference leads to curiosity. Members are comfortable with open- ended discussions. Innovative ideas and behavior are tolerated.
MASCULINE
(Costa Rica. Denmark, France, Portugal, Thailand) Dominant values in society are caring for others and preservation. All members are supposed to be modest.
Both men and women members take care of relationships. Leaders use intuition and value consensus.
(Brazil, Ireland, Switzerland, Venezuela, United States) Dominant values in society are material success and progress. Men are supposed to be assertive. ambitious, tough. Women are expected to take care of the relationships. Leaders are expected to be decisive and assertive.
Principles of Communication
Chapter 9 Communicating in Groups 251
discovered that highly cohesive groups are more productive than less cohesive groups (Galanes,Adams, and Brilhart 2000; McGrath 1984).There are some basic ways that group members can establish norms to develop cohesion.
I. Create a strong sense of teamwork in the group. Try following the lead of collectivist cultures and use the word "we" instead of "I." This simple change of pronoun encourages inclusivltv and establishes a sense of group identity.
2. Develop group traditions that foster a climate of togetherness. These tradi- tions might include starting the meeting the same way each time, celebrating group successes together, or even making "inside" references or jokes per- taining to past group experiences.
3. Develop shared goals. Cohesion is strongest in groups when all members are committed to the group goals. Similarly, members are most committed when they are empowered to help establish those goals. Goals are belter estab- lished by the group as a whole than they are when created by an individual member. Cohesion develops as members feel a sense of satisfaction when group goals are accampli~hed. Conversely, group members become dissatis- fied if the group never accomplishes anything. In the process of achieving the overall goal of the group, look for and celebrate smaller accomplishments.
4. Respect and accept all group members. Togetherness increases when mem- bers feel needed and appreciated by the group.
5. Recognize individual efforts and accomplishments of group members. 6. Respect differences between members and find ways to use individual differ-
ences to accomplish group goals.
7. Finally, develop a sense of cooperation in the group. The essence of cohesion is the Willingness of members to help each other. Members need to feel like they are connected and working together to accomplish the group goal. When group members realize that they can accomplish more working to- gether than they could by themselves, the group begins to reach the extent of its full potential (Engleberg and Wynn 1997; Rothwell 1988).
While cohesion is generally a positive quality in groups, excessive cohesion can cause problems. When cohesion increases, groups tend to enforce norms more rigidly.This strong enforcement of group values can stifle communication and creativity. Members may be reluctant to voice disagreement or express indi- Vidualityout of fear of group recrimination. Strong cohesion inevitably leads to a pressure to conform to what the group expects. Groups can protect against the pressures of conformity by developing a supportive climate where group mem- bers can voice disagreement without feeling attacked or defensive.The"Exploring Communication Concepts" box Ip. 252J examines groupthink and the dangers of creating climates in which disagreement is stifled.
V> Z o § z zov
260 L....::.:::"'- ..i------- .__. .. _._.. ..___
Watch a video dip about the power of conformity in groups (CD Clip 9.1).
Roles Facilitate Group Functioning and Communication Group roles are a collection of common expectations that define a specific pur- pose, need, or capaCity within the group. Role expectations are narrower than general group norms, which apply to all members in the group, because they set expectations for specific individuals. Some roles are very formal in nature and are explicitly assigned to a particular member. Someone in the group. for instance,
_________ C:.:o::.m::.m::..:un::..:icationin a Changing World, 2006 Edition 261
252 Communtcaricn in a Changing World
ExpLoring n Ion
•I
Perhaps the most influential theory about the negative effects of group cohesion is Irv- ing Janis's theory of groupthink (1983). Janis theorized that groups with strong cohe- sion develop a type of tunnel vision that prevents them from seeing flaws in their decisions. This narrow perspective develops because members of the group feel the need to agree with the collective point-of-view rather than critically challenge ideas. Janis developed his model of groupthink by analyzing government decisions that did not turn out as expected. After analyzing these historical cases, Janis hypothesized that there are three general causes of groupthink. • Groups overestimate their power. Excessively cohesive groups create an illusion of in-
vulnerability where members believe they can do no wrong. This sense of false power often comes from dogmatic members who believe in their inherent morality; they are right and everyone else is wrong. This false sense of power lures the group into rnak- iog quick decisions and avoiding critical thinking and reflection.
• Groups become closed-minded and narrowly focused in their discussion. Consequently, such groups develop "collective rationalizations" which they employ to discredit warnings or danger signals that indicate that they are on the wrong track. Often these rationalizations are rooted in their false sense of power. Group members might argue, for instance, that the danger signals come from uninformed sources that do not know as much about the probLem as the group. Groups create negative stereotypes of com- peting groups or dissidents outside the group. They label those who disagree as stu- pid, extreme, harmful. or evil.
• Groups pressure members to conform to rigid norms. Members are afraid to voice dis- agreement. They engage in self-censorship or withdraw into silence, The group ere- ates an illusion of unanimity even though some members may privately disagree with the policies of the group. In some extreme forms of groupthink, members of the group actively pressure dissenters by threatening or alienating them. Groupthink prevents effective decision making. Groups that engage in groupthink
rely on incomplete information, do not critically evaluate the information they collect, fail to examine a full range of possibilities before selecting a solution to a problem, and do not create contingency plans in case their preferred solution fails. In addition, they fail to examine the potential risks associated with their decision. Not all cohesive groups develop groupthink, and there are a few relatively simple things group members 'can do to prevent it. 1. Encourage members to voice disagreement. 2. Encourage the critical assessment of ideas. If no one disagrees with a decision,
maybe the group should reexamine the policy in more detail. 3. Assign someone to play "devil's advocate," a person who argues against the group
just to test an idea. 4. Take warning signals seriously and refrain from negative stereotypes of those who
disagree. 5. Consult outside experts frequently and regularly invite nonmembers to meetings. Byestablishing a supportive climate in which members can disagree without feeling
threatened or pressured, a group can be cohesive and stilt make good decisions. ASK YOURSELF: 1. What are some recent group decisions, either based on news accounts or from your
personal experience, that illustrate the theory of groupthink? 2. How would using perception checks [po 84] also help to prevent groupthink? 3. Besides groupthink, what are some other disadvantages of overly cohesive groups?
262 Principles of Communication
might be in charge of physicaj facilities and arranging meeting times. Other roles are not assignedbut emerge as the discussion progresses. One or two members, for example, might worry that the group is beginning to argue too much and act as mediators to resolve conflict. There are three types of group roles: task, group maintenance, and individual (Benne and Sheats 1948).
Task roles facilitate the group goal or purpose. In a decision-making group, these would include roles such as gathering information, evaluating information, contributing to the group discussion,recording group decisions, and coordinating group activities. Maintenance roles serve to build relationships within the group and to create a sense of teamwork. Someone who helps solve conflict, makes sure everyone participates, supports others, or relieves tension with ap- propriate humor is taking on a group maintenance role. Finally,disruptive roles satisfy member's needs at the expense of the group. These roles are often self- serving and are generally considered dysfunctional and counterproductive to the group goal. They include members who seek recognition, dominate the discus- sion, block group efforts, and refuse to participate. Table 9-2 [pp. 254-2551 lists several examples for each type of group role.
Difficulties associated with group roles can create communication problems for a group. In general, there are three types of role problems: role conflict, role ambiguity, and role load (McGrath t984). Role conflict OCcurs when members have competing expectations. For example, some members may want a group leader who is decisive while others may want a more democratic leader who con- sults them about all group decisions. These competing expectations can create role conflict for a leader. Role ambiguity Occurs when expectations are not clear to members. Sometimes role expectations change during the course of discussion and the new expectations are not clearly communicated to everyone. Members may also have difficulty translating ambiguous role expectations into behaviors. Forexample, suppose a member assumes the role of eval- uator without explicitly acknowledging his Orher inten- tions. Some members in the group might be confused and think of that person as a disruptive cynic rather than a constructive evaluator. The evaluator can clarify the role explicitly by saying things like, "Although the ideas sounds good, let me play devil's advocate," or "Please don't take this personally, but I would like to take a closer look at this idea," Finally,role load problems OCcurwhen group expectations are unevenly distributed. If one member has too many roles to perform effectively or a single member is assigned two competing roles, problems are likely to OCcur.
Chapter 9 Communicating in GroupS
• task roles Facilitate the group goal or purpose.
maintenance roles Serve to build relationships within the group and to create a sense of teamwork.
disruptive roles Satisfy member's needs at the expense of the group.
" The essential feature of common thought is not that it is held in common but that is has been produced in common .... The core of the social process is not likeness, but the harmonizi ng of differences. t -·Mary Parker follett, management expert. sociologist
CULTURAL INflUENCES AND GROUP ROLES
look at Table9-2 and ask yourself the following questions:
Howmight the different dimensions of a culture influence your choice of role to play in the group?
Whichroles might someone from a collectivist or individualistic culture select? Some- one with low or high power distance? High or tow uncertainty avoidance? Masculine or feminine?
253
. ..:C..:o_mmuniCation_in_a_C_han_9_in_9World, 2006 Edition 263
254 Communication in a Changing World
TAB l E
Roles define a specific purpose, need, or capacity within the group
Group Roles
TASK ROLES DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE
Initiator Suggests directions and "I think we should start by proposes solutions. reviewing the architect's plans
for the skate park."
Information and Researches discussion topics, "Charlene. how much money did opinion seeker asks for facts and suggestions, the Associated Students budget
and invites members to share for the skate park?" personal experiences and viewpoi nts.
Information and Provides relevant facts and "We already have six intramural opinion giver evidence, draws conclusions fields. 1 think students would
from the data, and shares prefer a skate park to another opinions. softball diamond."
Clarifier Clears up misunderstandings, "I said that the insurance clarifies ambiguous statements, company would cover our and simplifies complex ideas. liability in the park. However,
I'm also sure that it will cost us more money."
Elaborator Explains, expands, and develops "It is not just a skate park. ideas and suggestions. There is a place to ride bikes
and an area for roller hockey."
Coordinator Organizes the activities of the "Charlene, will you call our group and assigns task insurance company by next responsibilities. meeting and get an estimate on
the increased costs?"
Evaluator Tests ideas and makes "I have looked over these plans judgments about the value of and 1 still don't believe that information and suggestions. there is room to put a skate
park between the basketball arena and the tennis courts. It would be much better down by the swimming pool."
Tracker Keeps the group on task, "I don't think we should discuss clarifies the agenda, and the menu for the snack bar reminds members of the group before we decide where to put goal. the park."
Recorder Keeps the group record, "Does anyone have an item for prepares reports and agendas, next week's agenda?" and maintains the minutes.
264 Principles of Communkation
MAINTENANCE EXAMPLEROLES DESCRIPTION
Gatekeeper Promotes open discussion, "Pauline, you haven't said encourages reluctant members much. What's your opinion?" to join the discussion, controls channels of communication, and ensures even participation.
Norm setter Establishes group expectations "We shouldn't talk all at once. and standards. When someone else is speaking,
everyone in the group should listen."
Harmonizer Resolves conflict, manages "Andrea, would you support disagreement, and promotes Bill's proposal if we could compromise. reduce the costs by 10 percent?"
Tension reliever Relieves tension through humor, "Everyone, this is Michelle. She welcomes new members, and witl be joining our group. reduces status distinctions. Introduce yourselves and make
her feel welcome." Supporter Expresses positive feelings for "Dana, your report was well
others, builds group cohesion, written. I certainly learned and counsels/consoles other much by reading it." members.
DISRUPTIVE ROLES DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE Blocker Prevents group progress,
"Harriet, let me interrupt you.constantly raises objections, Before we move on, I would likeargues trivial points, and to reconsider the decision wefrequently reintroduces made last meeting."controversial topics.
Recognition Seeks individual achievement, "If we adjourn early, I could getseeker attention, opportunities, or home before the traffic gets toopleasure at the expense of the heavy."group.
Isolate Withdraws and refuses to "It doesn't matter to me. I'mparticipate. only here because Professor Jobs said I had to come."
Aggressor Puts down others, engages in
"lynn, you never make anyconflict for the sake of conflict, sense. Your next good idea willand tries to "one up" others. also be your first good idea."Cynic
Doubts all ideas, needlessly "We're never going to solve thisdiscourages others, and problem, so why try?"encourages failure.-
Chap tar 9 Communicating in Groups 255
Communication in a Changing World, 2006 Edition 265
256 Communication in a Changing World
• agenda A written guide that lists the order of tasks to be accomplished and topics to be discussed by the group.
problem-solving agenda (PSA) A standard approach to group problem solving that maximizes critical thinking while minimizing rash or impulsive decisions.
• group charge The overall or main objective of the group.
Using the Problem-Solving Agenda to Mal<eEffective Decisions
One common complaint from members in decision-making groups is the ineffi- ciency of the process. Some people feel that groups waste everybody's time and take too long to reach decisions. Group members might also struggle with uncer- tainty when they are asked to make an important decision without any prior no- tion of what would be the best course of action. Nonetheless, scholars of small groups have discovered that well-organized groups can be both efficient and effective in making decisions. Knowing bow to make group decisions often helps reduce uncertainty and
facilitates effective decision making. One key to running effective group meetings is using a good agenda, a written guide that lists the order of tasks to be accom- plished and topics to be discussed. An agenda provides a visible structure to the group process. Using an agenda in meetings helps groups focus their atten- tion, cover more business, and reduce the tendency to wander into unrelated and counterproductive topics. The problem-solving agenda (PSA) is a standard approach to group problem solving that maximizes critical thinking while mini- mizing rash or impulsive decisions. Research shows that groups that consider only one solution to a problem often make poor decisions (Hirokawa and Pace 1983), The PSA ensures that groups do not rush to adopt the first solution that they consider but instead generate and analyze many different solutions before selecting the best one. The general steps in the PSAare (I) define and under- stand the problem, (2) establish explicit criteria for an effective solution, (3) gen- erate possible solutions to the problem, (4) select the best possible solution to the problem, and (5) implement the solution and reevaluate the decision (see Figure 9-2).
Define and Understand the Problem The first step of the problem-solving agenda is to obtain a thorough understand- ing of the group's responsibility for solving the problem, define the specific na- ture of the problem, comprehend the causes of the problem, and discover the harm or damage caused by the problem .
What Is the Group Supposed to Do? The group charge is the over- all or main objective of the group.The term "charge" implies that someone has ex- pectations for the group and has given the group a responsibility. While this may sound simple, understanding the charge is essential to the success of the group. Many groups fail at this most basic step. For instance, they may not understand their task: Should they be a fact-finding group, a group that makes recommenda- tions, or a group that takes some action? Agroup charged with exploring ways of increasing campus recycling will have a very different goal than a group charged with actually Increasing campus recycling by 15 percent. The first charge is largely a fact-finding responsibility, while the second group would need a specific plan of action. If the charge is unclear, the group should actively seek clarification from the person who determined the group's objective. The group should know what power and responsibilities they have, the rationale for forming the group, the nature of group performance, who will receive the output, and what will be
266 Principles of Communication _ .••..._----..•._._-.._---_ ....._ ... __ ._ .•.__ ._.•._._ •...._._ .._----
Chapter 9 Communicating in Groups
STEPS IN THE PROBLEM-SOLVING AGENDA
Step 2: I~ Establish explldt ! :1 criteria for an II
effective solution I'
I Step 3:
Generate possible solutions to the
problem
J Step 4:
Select the best possible solution to
the problem
I Step 5:
Implement the solution and
reevaluate the dedsion
done with the output. For example, suppose your university has a parking prob- lem (most do), and you have been asked by the student association to participate in a problem-solving group to suggest possible soturions. To find our what is ex- pected, you might ask the following questions:
257
The Problem-Solving Agenda (PSA) has five steps.
FIGURE _
-_._._ ..•._-- Communication In a Changing World. 2006 Edition 267
258 Communication in a Changing World
• What power do you have? • Is there money or other resources available to solve the problem? • What should your report look like-how long, how many copies, what style of writing?
• When should the report be completed? • Who will see the report when it is done? • Will your group be charged with implementing the solution or will your reo
sponsibilities be over as soon as the report is finished?
Part of defining the problem is determining the extent of the group's respon- sibilities toward it.The amount of time spent detailing the solution will depend on whether the group has the authority to develop a solution, or whether they are mainly charged with creating a picture of the problem for others who will de- velop a solution. If the group has been charged with issuing a report, group mem- bers need to know who will read the report.and why.These issues, too, will affect how the group frames its task. A report to city authorities will be different in scope from a report to the campus quality of life committee.'
What Is the Problem? TI,e next step in the process is defining the prob- lem. Groups should define the precise nature of the problem and understand the context in which it occurs. Careful consideration of the problem will usually re- veal unexpected dimensions to the situation, and how a problem is defined will ultimately determine the type of solution a group selects. For example, in exam- ining the lack of adequate parking, the problem might be defined as too few park- ing spaces on or near campus.This definition of the problem will naturally lead to solutions like more parking lots or garages. But the problem might also be defined as too many cars on campus or as a scheduling problem that brings too many cars to campus at the same time. These definitions of the problem might lead to solutions such as incentives for car pooling, restrictions on the number of permits issued, scheduling more classes early in the morning or at night, and maybe even decreasing the size of the student body.
What Causes the Problem? Having defined the problem, the group needs to understand its causes. This usually requires consideration of the history of the problem. The group should carefully gather facts about the problem and try to determine if it is relatively new or if it is a recurring situation. If the situa- tion is recurring, how have other groups tried to solve the problem, and what can you learn from their experience? If the problem is relatively new, the group should generate a list of possible causes and look for any relationship between and among causes. The parking problem, for instance, is probably the result of several factors, such as too many cars, a shortage of parking spots, lack of mass transit.lack of land to develop, and lack of money and resources to solve the problem.
What Harms or Damages Result from the Problem? Finally, the group should make a list of the negative consequences created by the problem. Specifically, who is being harmed and in what ways? Negative consequences usu- ally include the loss of money, opportunity, or health.Trying to quantify the loss in this way will also yield an understanding of the magnitude of the problem. The
268 Pnnci~ ofCommunkatlon
lack of adequate parking results in lost time for students as they hunt for parking d . d t· nal opportunities when they are late for class. It also costsspot an miss e uea 10
h S they pay 'or a service they cannot always lise. And too many carst em mancya II , . " . produce air pollution that causes environmental degradation, Illness, and 10* creased medical bills.
Chanter 9 Communicating in Groups 259
b ~licit Critena for an Effective Solution Deli re proposing a solution the group should carefully consider the characte~is- ucs of an effective solution. Three general or universal criteria should be applIed 10 all problems: feasibility,workability,and acceptability. First, an effective solution should be feasible. Feasibility means that there are resources available to carry out the solution. A feasible solution is affordable (in terms of money and resources), usesavailable technology, and allows adequate time for implementation. Workable mean th:u the solution will solve the problem. Many proposed solutions to a problem ate feasible but will not solve the problem. For Instance, building another parking 101is not likely to ease the traffic congestion and may even encourage m re people to bring cars to campus rather than car pooling. Increasing parking paces might need to be combined with incentives for car pooling and restric-
tions on driving. Finally,a good SOlution should be acceptable to those who im- plement it. A feasible and workable solution will not solve the problem if those who must Implement it arc reluctant to do so. One possibility to solve parking problems i simply to cement or asphalt every square inch of campus, induding playing fields, gardens, and walkways. But most students and faculty value the aes- theu nature of their campus and would reject a SOlution that would turn their environment into one large parking 10LIf a solution is not acceptable, workable, and feasible, It should not be adopted and other solutions should be sought.
Genen e Possible Solutions to the Problem On e criteria nrc established, a group should generate possible SOlutions to the problem. Members should do careful research to see how others have solved the problem. Very few problems are unique and a group can benefit greatly from someone else's experience. The group should also generate new and unique Ideas. The obje t of this step in the PSAis to think of as many potential solutions :1 possible. ROutine and often tired ideas are the easiest to think of and usually come first In the diSCUSSion,so group members should not settle for the first One Or tw? suggestions that. are generated.TIle more ideas a group considers, the bell~r their chances of fi~dl1lggood SOlutions.During this idea-generating stage, :t Is Impon~nt not to CClllClzePOssible SOlutions.Criticism often stifles creativity :l1ld redu e. the nt.,mber of POSSIbleSOlutions that are proposed. Even wildly Impr:acll 31suggestions somelimes lead to ideas that are feaSible workable anda ceptable , ,
elect II Best Possible Solution to the Problem nee a group has generated a number of pOtential SOlutions, the next step in the
proce I to selcct the best aiternative to solve the problem "0 I. I I. goal your g.r h ld . accomp IS 1 t liS (phase two) t:~a~,o~f th~:~t~~,~aIlY apply the criteria you have established limes ;II clear choi e w'lJ fSyour group generated (phase three). Some- be Obvious More often Ih emerge rom the POSSibilities and the decision will
' owever, [WOor more choices will look attractive and
Communication in a Changing World, 2006 Edition I 269 260 Ecmmunicaticn in a Changing World
deciding on one of these will be difficult.There are essentially three ways to make any decision in a group.
Majonty Rul S. The first way to make a decision is by a vote in which the majority wins."Majority rules" is a quick and efficient method of decision making. It satisfies most of the members of the group, gives everyone a chance to partici- pate in the process, and is an easy method of conl1ict resolution. But majority rule also divides members of the group into "winners" and "losers" and therefore tends to be less satisfactory to the members who did not vote for the selected choice. This dissatisfaction can lead to opposition to the decision and possibly even alienattori from the group. Voting should occur after the group has had a chance to discuss each alternative thoroughly and each member has had an opportunity to express an opinion.
Authority Decision Making. A second method of decision making is de- cision by authority. "Authority decision making" charges one person or one sub- group with making the decision for the whole group. The group's responsibility is to provide the authority with carefully constructed arguments for and against each alternative. The authority may be the leader of the group, a judge or arbitra- tor, or an established expert. Decision by authority forces the group to evenly con- sider the pros and cons of each decision and often to carefuUy write justifications for each position. But decision by authority also takes the decision out of the hands of group members and is the least participative of the decision making methods.
Decision Making by Consensus. Finally,consensus decision making is reaching unanimous agreement through group interaction. Consensus decision making is the most difficult and time-consuming method, but it is potentially the most beneficial. Reaching consensus forces a group to evaluate and reevaluate ideas, alter proposals to meet objections, critically evaluate all possibilities, corn- bine good ideas, and reject bad ones. Also, once a group reaches consensus all members of the group are committed to the outcome.
Implemen the Solution The last step of the PSA involves determining how the group will implement the decision. A good decision with poor implementation rarely works. The key ele- ments of implementation are what, who, and when. The group should divide the implementation into the key activities and actions that must be taken, This list should be comprehensive, but each action item should be discrete. Duplications of action waste time and resources. Assignments should be based on expertise and abilities. For instance, the task of editing the final group report should be as- signed to a member who is particularly good at writing. TIle work should be equally divided among the group members so that no one person is burdened with too many responsibilities, Finally, the group should establish a timeline for completion of the project. Generally it is better to have a series of interim. due dates rather than one final deadline, since this approach allows the group to as- sess problems as they occur. Clear communication among group members is es- sential for effective implementation of a solution. Members should know their exact responsibilities and have a firm deadline for completion. Too often, irnple- mentation fails because no one is sure who should be doing what.
270 Principles of Communication
Chapter 9 Communicating in Groups 261
Communicating Responsibly; Becoming an Effective Leader ------------------_._---
Probably the single most important factor in any smail group is the type ofleadership it enjoys. Group leaders set the style and tone of group commu-nication. Leadership is the process of exerting positive influence over other group members. A leader can exert influence in many ways. In this section, we discuss styles and principles of leadership. •
leadership The process of exerting positive influence over other group members.
Styles of Leadership There are many different methods of influencing group members. A stereotypical image of a leader is someone who directs the group by giving commands or or- ders. In truth, this is only one style of leadership, and it is perhaps the least effec- tive.There are actually three basic styles of leadership. Each has its place in influencing groups, but each also has its limits.The three styles are authoritarian, laissez-faire,and democratic.
• Authoritarian Leadership. Authoritarian leadership is predomi- nantly autocratic. The leader makes all decisions for the group. Some authoritarian leaders ignore group input entirely and make decisions with little regard for group members. Other authoritarian leaders are more concerned about the wel- fare of group members and actively seek their advice. But both types of authori- tarian leaders do not trust members to make decisions. Authoritarian leadership is often quick and decisive, and there are same situations, such as a military group in combat, where this strong leadership style is effective. In many more cases, authoritarian leadership is despotic and repressive. Group members eventually feel alienated from the decision making process and resent the leader.
authoritarian leadership The leader of the group makes all decisions for the group.
• Laissez·faire Leadership. Laissez-faire leadership is a nondirective style of leadership in which the leader exercises a hands-off approach to influ- ence. AIalssez-faire leader gives minimal guidance to the group and allows group members to work with little or no structure. In many ways, Jalssez-faire leadership is the opposite of authoritarian leadership-it is leadership by no leadership. Groups with many experienced members, or creative and artistic groups where any stmcture inhibits the imaginative process, often benefit from Iaissez-fatre lead- ership. However, the lack of structure and gUidance often creates a lack of direc- tion and frustrates members who want to accomplish the group task efficiently.
laissez-faire leadership The leader of the group gives minimal guidance and allows group members to work with little or no structure.
• Democratic Leadership. Democratic leadership allows members to participate fully in the decision-making process. A democratic leader facilitates group discussion and allows members to make important decisions. Decision making under democrartz leadership takes more time than under authoritarian leadership but usually produces more satisfied and committed group members. Most of the discussion in this chapter has assumed the democratic leadership style.
democratic leadership The leader of the group allows all members to participate fully in the decision-making process.
Developing Group Leadership Skills Being a group leader is an important responsibility. The leader is the most visible member of the group,and other members look to the leader to set the climate for
_____ -:C::.o.:..m-:m-:u:.:n::.ica:.:t:.:io~nin a Changing World, 2006 Edition 271
262 Communication in a Changing World
the group. At some point in your life, you will probably be a group leader. Here are a few basic suggestions [0 help you be more effective as a leader.
Be Organized, But Flexible. Distribute a clear notice of the meeting,in- eluding the time and place, to each member prior to the meeting date. Also, pre- pare and distribute an agenda before the meeting. Carefully plan time limits and the sequence of topics, but be flexible. Use the agenda as a guide to discussion and be willing to deviate from the agenda if the group so desires. Recognize that some group members from high uncertainty avoidance cultures might welcome a detailed agenda, whereas others will appreciate an opportunity to help shape the agenda. Also, leaders can influence the behavior of other members by model- ing behaviors of acceptance and tolerance [p. 227J. Be accepting of diverse ideas that are expressed responsibly in the discussion.
Facilitate and Manage the Discussion. The leader is responsible for ensuring a productive discussion by encouraging participation and guiding the discussion. Thomas Scheidel and Laura Crowell (1979) list five aspects that lead- ers should consider when managing the discussion.
1. The leader should "locate" the discussion by providing a clear understand- ing of the status of the discussion. ("OK, we have agreed that there is a need to reduce the time we spend on paperwork, but we haven't yet figured out the best way to do this. Next, we should decide which forms we eouid eliminate. ")
2. The leader should "summarize" the discussion at important points of the process to ensure clear and accurate recall of past activity. If the discussion takes place over the course of several meetings, the leader should provide a summary of each meeting in the form of minutes or other written records.
3. The leader can "open" new topics of discussion by providing transitions from one aspect of the discussion to the next. When possible, limit the discussion to just one topic and resist the urge to revisit a topic unnecessarily.
4. The leader can also "track" the discussion by connecting related points and discussing the relationship of ideas. It is also the leader's responsibility to bring the group back to the topic if group members wander off into irrelevant
discussions. 5. Finally, the leader should "pace" the discussion by allocating time to each
topic. The pace of the discussion should be appropriate for the complexity of the issue. You want to be thorough but not waste time. Group members will become impatient with a discussion that moves too slowly or discusses the same issues at every meeting.
Be an Active Participant. Leaders often play the important role of group participant. As a leader, you have an obligation to do research, take and fill regular assignments, suggest solutions to problems, and critique ideas in addition to your leadership responsibilities. But be careful. Because you are the leader, you are also the most visible member of the discussion; use this power responsibly. Work hard to be fair and open minded. Let others participate in discussion, and minimize fa- voritism. Most leaders can augment their status by being involved in the action of the group rather than staying at a safe distance. if you have a good suggestion for
272
the group, offer it to them as a participant, not as the leader. One of the symptoms of groupthink is that members may accept suggestions from the leader without thinking about thern,so be sure that the group tests your ideas with the same crit- ical nature that they apply to all ideas.
Principles of Communication
Chapter 9 Communicating in Groups 263
In Most Circumstances, Be a Democratic Leader. Trust members to make important decisions. In some situations, the group might prefer the leader to make unimportant decisions autocratically. For example, a long discus- sion about where to meet as a group might be a Waste of time. Be sure that there is clear agreement in the group about which decisions the leader should make au- tocratically and which can be the province of the entire group. Help members es- tablish procedures for decision making and accept the decision they make even if it is not your preferred alternative. Your first instinct when you become a leader might be to give orders and direct people. Remember, democratic leaders facili- tate more than they command. Help members to make decisions by identifying and securing key resources and by organizing the discussions, but allow members to make democratic decisions.
Do Not Overreact. One of the main responsibilities of the leader is to pro- vide stability to the fluctuating group process. When exercising your power as leader, look for trends rather than isolated instances. Do not let the group be ex. cessively satisfied by small accomplishments and, conversely, do not let them be. Come overly depressed at setbacks. Establish a group climate that values hard work, responsibility, and achievement. Recognize individual achievement while stressing group accountability and success. Insist that members treat each other with civility by encouraging tolerance of people and perspectives. Be critical of ideas and accepting of people (Fisher and Ury 1981). The "Applying Communica- tion Concepts" box [p, 264] looks at some of the challenges in applying effective and responsible leadership skills to civic groups.
Communication in a Changing World, 2006 Edition I 273 264 Communication in a Changing World
Applying Communication Concepts m
~ LEADING A COMMUNITY-BASED GROUP,
leading a community-based group (CBG) poses many unique challenges and opportuni- ties. CBGsare grassroots groups that operate outside the official government structure. They are usually organized around a single problem or task, such as advocates for the homeless or neighborhood watch groups. leading a CBGcan be a lonely affair. leaders must arrange the structure and support for the group and often end up doing a variety of tasks, ranging from fund-raising to custodial chores. Nonetheless, leading CBGsalso offers many opportunities. One strength is the commitment group members feel toward a cause or goal. This strong sense of commitment often makes leading a CBGa reward- ing experience.
Perhaps the most daunting challenge in leading a community group is achieving the best possible results with limited resources. Generally, there are four phases to consider when organizing and leading a CBG:engagement, prioritization, activation, and assess- ment (Ouellette, Lazear, and Chambers 1999; Bobo, Kendall, and Max 1996).
Engagement. In the engagement phase, the leader identifies and defines the problem and enlists volunteers to participate in the group. The leader's first task is to make peo- ple aware of the problem' and to recruit members who can help the group and begin to arrange resources. The core group of volunteers should stay relatively small at the be- ginning of the process as it is better to train a few people well than many people poorly. In this phase, leaders should also identify those with the power to solve the problem. These people may be elected officials, business leaders, or the media. The group should determine why these people have not solved the problem in the past and what is nec- essary to move them to action now.
Prioritization. The second phase in leading a CBGis to set priorities. There are usually more needs than resources. A leader will need to figure out what is most important to accomplish first andfocus on that. A successful CBGoften must win real improvements in people's lives or improve situations. Member enthusiasm will wane quickly if nothing changes (Bobo, Kendall, and Max 1996). The group should divide the main objective into smaller tasks and establish achievable and noticeable goals with a specific plan of action including "what will be done," "when it will be done," and "who will do it."
Activation. Having set priorities, the leader's next task is to implement the plan of ac- tion. The group can enlist the help of other groups with similar problems to increase sup- port for the project and encourage sympathetic government officials to speak out on the group's behalf. Someone in the group should plan and carry out a public relations cam- paign that includes contacts with the media. Also, the leader can encourage a grassroots movement by having group members solicit the support of their neighbors and friends. Resources and participants will increase as the group accomplishes noticeable changes. Assessment. Finally, the leader assesses the accomplishments of the group by con-
tinually revaluating plans and objectives. Many efforts require some readjustment of the group's original tactics. Accurate information is essential in this phase. Members some- times become discouraged by the lack of success. The key to many difficult problems is determination and perseverance. ASK YOURSELF: 1. What are some CBGgroups on your campus that operate outside the official structure
of the administration or student government? 2. How is the advice for leading a CBGsimilar to or different from the problem-solving
agenda discussed earlier in the chapter?
74
Chapter 9 Communi.
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nth tU ..UJllry Is organized around the questions found at the beginning of the chapter • • lr you Un Ins •• r th.m before 'tiding the summary paragraphs.
, t ,. of th different types of small groups in society?
A IIMtl f'OlJP IJ composed of 0 limited number of individuals who comm~nica~e with ,each or"'r 10«hi .. 0 COmmon gool. Ther. ore mony differ.nt typ.s of groups In society. Pnmory
"/f'U our bosIChumon n.eds of survival safety, and inclusion. They include families oM rrlol","lh,ps. Oth.. typ" of groups include social groups, help groups, CIVIC groups, _nIl)' boledg""'p~ vIrtual groupt and probl.m-solving groups.
t ,.. om f thl .dvantlges and disadvantages of making a decision in a group? Grt uwro/ Q(/wJntogcs Co group decision moking, Groups often make better decisions
iYJdcltU btcDuff thty bringQ variety of viewpoints, resources, and talents to the 'hrou It dl"'Jlon o/lobor. groups can also divide a task into parts and ask each
..... to 10 respons,blllty for 0 different .I.ment. This often allows groups to achieve lhen a SIng" IndIVIdualcould possibly accomplish. Finally, group members will be more ttld Ca0 <hIeIS"," thol they help moke, Thiscommitment helps implement the decision
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tkuJ.af MflnbfI1 Gtoup dlClSlOnmoking inevitably creates a certain amount of conflict that • CIICIM GfI.rM(y and frustratIOn /or Some members. Finally,group decisions sometimes
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11II..,•S::::n ;o;notlDns Ihol define a speCific purpose, n.ed, or capacity .... e.oIuolm" /(j""'lote the gro~p lask and include gathering and distribut- Jm9 to ~,td ,O~and su~gesti~ns, and coordinating group activities. Main- ."."" "otlOnshlps WIthin the group and inclUde members who
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275------------------- Communication in a Changing World, 2006 Edition
n in a Changing WorLd
4. How can groups organize a discussion effectively when making a decision? One way to structure a discussion in which a decision needs to be made is to use the problem-solving agenda (PSA). A PSA is a written guide to a group meeting that helps struc- ture the decision. The problem-solving agenda has five steps: (1) define and understand the problem, (2) establish explicit criteria for an effective solution, (3) generate possible solu- tions to the problem, (4) select the best possible solution to the problem, and (5) implement the solution and reevaluate the decision.
5. What is the role of a responsibLe leader? Leadership is the process oj exerting positive influence over other group members. There are three styles of leadership. Authon"tarian leadership is autocratic in nature with the leader making aLIof the decisions for the group. laissez-faire leadership is nondirective leadership with the leader providing only minimal, if any. guidance. Finally, democratic leadership is participative in nature with the leader allowing members to make important decisions.
A responsible leader should be organized but flexible. Leaders have the responsibility to facilitate and manage group communication as well as actively participate in the discussion. A good leader is usually democratic and does not overreact.
Test your understanding of these key terms by visiting the Connections CO-ROMand Online Learning Center website at www.mhhe.com/dobkinpace.
femininity 249 group charge 256 group norms 246 group synergy 244 individualism 248 laissez-faire
leadership 261 leadership 261 maintenance roles 253
masculinity 249 power distance 248 problem-solving
agenda (PSA) 256 small group 239 standing group 243 task roles 253 task-avoidance 245 uncertainty avoidance 249
ad hoc groups 243 agenda 256 authoritarian
leadership 261 cohesion 244 collectivism 248 democratic
leadership 261 disruptive roles 253
1. Make a list of the groups to which you belong. What types of groups are they? What are some explicit norms that occur in these groups? What are some implicit norms? Which ones are cohesive and which ones are not? Why? What rotes do you play in each group? What type of leadership accurs in each?
2. We said that task-avoidance often distracts a group and wastes valuable decision-making time. However, sometimes a divergence can help group morale. When and how might task avoidance help a group?
276 Principlesof Communication._----
1. Try the problem-solving agenda (PSA) on a current problem at your college or university. If you have difficulty thinking of a problem, read the campus newspaper for ideas. Define the problem and make an extended list of difficulties the problem is creating. Generate a list of specific criteria for an effective solution. Decide which of the criteria are the most important. and generate possible solutions to the problem. Finally select the best alterna- tive using the criteria. Did using the PSA help you select a good solution? Why or why not?
2. Join a campus club or group. Affiliation with a club or social group in college, as we mentioned in the "Exploring Communication Concepts" box on student involvement, can have unexpected benefits. Sometimes the relationships you form in these groups can turn into professional opportunities. Finding a job after graduation is often a matter of networking-talking to people who know people who have job opportunities. Sororities, fraternities, or other clubs can provide those networking opportunities. Communication dubs on campuses are a great place to meet others who have the same professional inter- ests as you. The National Communication Association sponsors a student honors society called lambda Pi Eta. This group provides networking opportunities for communication majorsfrom around the country. If your campus does not have a chapter of lambda Pi Eta, contact the National Communication Association about starting one.
Note: While all the URLs listed were current as of the printing of this book, these sites often change. Please check our website (www.mhhe.com/dobkinpace) for updates and hyperlinks to these exercises.
1. Brainstorming is an activity that helps you generate possible solutions to a problem. There are many good brainstorming activities on the Internet. One site is located at: www.metidistmaricopaedu/authoring/studiolgujdebook/brainhtmL.This site has a step- by-step approach to brainstorming. How does brainstorming help groups generate solu- tions to a problem? Whyis withholding criticism during brainstorming so important?
2. The Internet contains many exercises to help groups build cohesion. Two such sites are located at: http' I!www.teambuildjngproductionscomandhttp.//wwwbusjnessballs.com/ teambujldinggames htm. Analyze two or three of these activities. Will they help groups build cohesion? Why or why not?
The film Breaking Away (1979) illustrates many of the group concepts discussed in this chap- ter. The film depicts teenagers in a typical college town "coming of age" as they decide what to do with their lives after graduating from high school. Although the film is more than 20 years old, the issues it discusses are still relevant as the young men in the film try to estab- (ish an identity apart from and yet connected to the university. There are three main groups in the film: Dave Stoller's family, a group of high school friends, and a fraternity at the univer- sity. All three groups come together in annual bike race at the university in the film's finale. After viewing Breaking Away, answer these questions:
• How do group norms differ between each of the groups in the film?
• What roles do each of the four friends assume in the group? How do these roles change as the story progresses?
• How cohesive are the friends? Does the competition between the friends and the fraternity increase the cohesion?
• How are group norms influenced by the culture of the three different groups?
277
278 Pnnc.lp~ of Communication
prefaceL-- ~
..,
Three things made me realize that a new edition of Tile Dynamics of Mass Communication was in order. The first was a news article that reported that (1) Facebook had nearly 700 million members worldwide (that means about 1 in every 10 people in the world is a member) and (2) the company was valued at about $100 billion dollars. Not bad for an idea that started in a dorm room. Apps were the second thing. Apps weren't around when the 11th edition was writ-
ten and the iPad had yet to come out. These days articles with cute titles about the growing popularity of apps for mobile media are appearing everywhere. Some of the more clever examples' found were "App-lause," "Planet of the Apps," "Get Appy," "What's App-ening?" "What's App Doc?" and my personal favorite, "App, App and Away." More than 10 billion apps had been downloaded by mid-2011. It was obvious that this app stuff was catching on. The third thing had to do with the companies that now control most of the Internet's
media commerce: Netflix, Apple, Coogle, Amazon, and Yahoo. When I first started working on the first edition of DYllamics (way, way back in 1980), Apple was only three years old and thanks to its early success as a computer builder, the company had revenues of about $330 million and employed around 50 people. In 2010, Apple had $65 billion in revenue and nearly 50,000 employees. Netflix, Google, Yahoo, and Ama- zon did not exist in 1980. In short, over the past 30 years, there has been a rearranging of the guard in mass communication. Traditional media companies, such as Harper- Collins, Conde Nast, Sony Music, Paramount Pictures, NBC, and Gannett, while still influential, have been joined by the new digital powers. As you have probably deduced by now, these three developments-social media,
apps, and the new media Goliaths-are major themes in the 12th edition. The new edition also examines other events that have affected the media. The eco-
nomic downturn that caused media revenues to shrink over the past couple of years has, it is hoped, bottomed out. Nonetheless, money is still tight and it is doubtful that some media industries will ever see their incomes rise to previous levels. With the exception of YouTube and news/weather Videos, the user-generated con-
tcn~craze has cooled off. Many bloggers have turned to Twitter or Facebook to express the,~ thoughts. Most mass media are relying less on amateur content and more on pro- fesSionally produced material. Even YouTube has put more emphasis on content pro- duced by pros.
Video on the Web has exploded in the last couple of years. Internet-connected TV sets and DV~ players are in many households. New software has made it ridiculously ~asy to add Video to social media sites. Advertisers and public relations firms rely heav- II! on We~ video in structuring their campaigns. Politicians declare their candidacies v~aWe~ Video. The Online Video Guide lists numerous sites where a viewer can find v'd~ In more than two dozen categories. Finally, when I was working on the previous edition, Amazon's Kindle had been on
the market for less than a year, and there were still doubts about its ultimate success. Amazon's c-rcader sold about 400,000 units in 2008. As of this writing, experts estimate that the company has sold more than 8 million Kind les and the device has gotten a Jot of competition inclUding th if> d h N' . h. . .' e I a .t e ook, and Sony's e-reader. The book publis 1I1gIlldustry IS now feeling the di . . . h . same lsruphon that the recording industry felt when hie5 aflng and digital download· b h . . . So ( mg ecame t e preferred way of acqulflng mUSIC.
12th ~~i~~.for the general overview. Here's a more specific look at what's new in the
The Dynamics of Mass Communication, 12th Edition
Preface
New to the 12th Edition Users of previous editions of the book will quickly notice that Chapter 18 (vlnterna- tional and Comparative Media Systems") in the 11th edition has been dropped from the 12th edition. Reviewers suggested that such a topic seemed too specialized in a basic introduction to media and should be left to a more advanced course. Nonetheless, key parts of that chapter are now included in the appropriate media chapters so that students who wish to take a course in the international area will be familiar with funda- mental information on the topic. Next, the organization of the book has been slightly rearranged. Chapter 12 ("The
Internet and the World Wide Web") in the 1]th edition is now Chapter 4 (retitled "The Internet and Social Media") and leads off Part II ("Media"). Since the Internet has had such a drastic impact on all of the mass media, it seems appropriate to discuss the Internet first rather than last. Consequently, Part II starts with the newest medium (the Internet), then looks at the oldest medium (print), and finally more recent media (sound and pictures). In addition, Chapter 4 has undergone a major revision. The revised chapter has an
expanded section examining the effects, economics, political implications, and dysfunc- tions of social networking sites such as Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, and MySpace. More specifically, the new Chapter 4 discusses, among other topics, the impact of social media on traditional media, the role of social media in the unrest in North Africa and the Middle East, and the problem of cyberbullying. Here are some of the changes that you will find in individual chapters .
• Part I:Chapter 1 has been streamlined and contains additional discussion of mobile media and tablet computers. Chapter 2 has updated examples of the various media functions and Chapter 3 has an expanded discussion of the cultural impact of the social media .
• Part if: As mentioned above, the reworked Chapter 4 now leads off this section and is titled "The Internet and SocialMedia" to better reflect the increasing importance of social networks. This chapter now contains a look at the leading companies in the digital field: Apple, Amazon, Coogle, and Facebook. The newspaper industry is experimenting with new online models to generate revenue, and this development isdiscussed in Chapter 5 along with an examination of popular apps for newspa- pers. Speaking of apps, Chapter 6 looks at how magazines are using apps to bring digital versions to tablet computers and how the industry is using social media to increase readership. Chapter 7 now contains a new section on howe-readers are changing the book publishing industry. The Internet has paved the way for hun- dreds of new radio stations, and Chapter 8 examines the impact of this trend for traditional radio and looks at how radio networks and local stations are using apps to expand their listenership. The sound recording industry has been profou.ndly changed by the digital revolution. Chapter 9 now contains an expanded discus- sion of the impact of MP3 players and smartphones on the industry along with an analysis of the changing revenue streams. Chapter 10has a new discussion of the rise (and potential fall)of 3-D movies and a revised section about how Hollywood relates to the home video industry. Chapter 11describes how broadcasters have embraced social media and how apps have turned the iPad into a TVset. Chapter 12 describes the explosion of Web-based TV, including an updated analysis of its eco- nomic basis.
279
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280 Principles of Communication '"-""'"""-11-- -----
xvIII Preface
Continuity
The organization of the book has changed a bit since the 11th edition. Part I, "The Nature and History of Mass Communication," presents the intellectual context for the rest of the book and is unchanged from the 1l th edition. Chapter 1 compares and contrasts mass communication with other types of communication and notes that the distinctions are becoming fuzzier. Chapter 2 introduces two perspectives commonly
• Part ill: Chapter 13opens with a discussion of the most recent report on the news media from the Pew Research Center and looks at the newest trends in hyperlocal reporting. Chapter 14opens with an analysis of the public relations problems for BPas the result of the Gulf oil spill. The chapter also contains an expanded section that considers how PR professionals are using the Web and social media in public relations campaigns. The advertising industry has also welcomed social media, and Chapter 15 illustrates how social media have been incorporated into modern adver- tising campaigns.
• Part rv: Chapter 16contains an updated status of legal issues. Chapter 17 now includes a discussion of the ethical issues involved in the New York Times's decision to publish documents it obtained from WikiLeaks.
• Part V: Chapter 18brings up to date the latest findings from social science research, including a revised section on the impact of violent video games.
Box Score As in past editions, the boxed inserts in each chapter provide background material or extended coverage of topics mentioned in the text and raise issues for discussion and consideration. The 12th edition includes more than 80 new or revised boxes. The boxes are grouped into several categories. The Media Talk boxes refer students
to the Online Learning Center and introduce important issues in mass communication. Instructors can use these as discussion starters. The SociaJIssues boxes highlight matters of social concern that have generated some
controversy. Examples include a discussion of how media coverage confers status on fringe groups and a consideration of whether we still need newsmagazines. As the name suggests, Ethical Issues boxes raise questions about the proper way
to act in difficult circumstances. For instance, what ethical problems are involved in "negative" public relations or in posting cell phone videos on Video-sharing sites? CriticaJ/Cultural Issues boxes illustrate how this perspective can be used to further
our understanding of mass communication. Examples include the influence of depart- ment stores on the development of radio and how the Food Network maintains trad i- tional images of masculinity and femininity. The Media Probe boxes take an in-depth look at subjects that have significance for
the various media. Some examples include an examination of payola, how corporations are Supporting rock groups, and the disappearing soap opera. The Decision Makers boxes profile individuals who have made some of the impor-
tant decisions that have had an impact on the development of the media. Examples include James Cameron, Tina Brown, and Catherine Hughes. And, as before, the Soundbytes are brief boxes that highlight some of the strange,
ironic, offbeat, and extraordinary developments that OCcurin the media, such as coffins made of newsprint and George Washington's overdue library books.
The Dynamks of Mass Communkarlon, 12th Edition
Preface
used to understand and explore the operations of the media: functional analysis and the critical/cultural approach. Chapter 3 takes a macroanalytic approach and traces the general history of media from the invention of printing to the explosion of social media.
Part II, "Media," represents the coreof the book. Chapter 4, as noted earlier, is a revised and expanded version of Chapter 12 from the 11th edition, retitled "The Internet and Social Media." Chapters 5-12 then examine each of the traditional media. The organiza- tion of each chapter follows a similar pattern. First, there is a brief history from the medi- um's beginnings to how it is transforming itself in the digital age. This is followed by sections that describe how the medium is becoming more mobile, how ithas been affected by user-generated content, and how it is using social media. Next comes a discussion of the defining characteristics of each medium and a description of the industry structure. Ihave kept the emphasis on media economics. Since the major media in the United
States exist to make a profit, it is valuable for students to appreciate where the money comes from, how it is spent, and why making a profit these days is harder than ever. This is even more important today with several media industries struggling to survive as traditional revenue streams dry up and their online efforts cannot make up the shortfall.
Part Ill, "Specific Media Professions," examines three specific professions closely associated with the mass media: news reporting, public relations, and advertising. Similar to the approach in Part II, each chapter begins with a brief history, examines the structure of that particular profession, considers the changes brought about by the digital revolution, and discusses key issues in the field.
Part IV, "Regulation of the Mass Media," examines both the formal and informal controls that influence the media. These are complicated areas, and Ihave tried to make the information as user-friendly as possible.
The concluding Part V, "Impact of the Media," continues to emphasize the social effects of the mass media. As noted earlier, Chapter 18 in the 11th edition, "Interna- tional and Comparative Media Systems," has been dropped and its key sections distrib- uted to the appropriate chapters.
Once again, Ihave tried to keep the writing style informal and accessible. When- ever possible, Ihave chosen examples from popular culture that Ihope aUstudents are familiar with. Technical terms are boldfaced and defined in the glossary at the end of the book. The book also contains a number of charts. graphs, diagrams, and tables that Ihope aid understanding.
Supporting Materials Online Learning Center The Online Learning Center houses the Media Talk video clips, all of the instructor resources (Instructor's Manual, Test Bank, and PowerPoint slides), and the tradi- tional student quiz materials. Access the Online Learning Center at www.mhhe.com/ dominick12e.
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Acknowledgments
Thanks t? a~1of those instructors who used previous editions of The Dynamics of Mass COII/IIIII/Ilcatioll and were kind enough to suggest improvements. Several colleagues deserve special mention: Professor Noah Arceneaux provided a boxed insert. Profes- SOrSco~tShamp was kind enough to share his blog page, and Professor Michael Cas- tcngera s neWSletter, "Message from Michael," was a valuable resource. In addition, thanks to researcher Meaghan Dominick for her efforts with the Decision Makers boxes and to Carole Dominick for her efforts as a scrivener . . Once again Iappreciate the sedulous efforts of all the reviewers who offered sugges- tions for the 12th edition:
jane Campbell, Columbia State Community College Susan J. De Bonis, Georgia Southern University Donald C, Godfrey, Walter Cronkite School of Journalism Dee Gross, Lorain County Community College Susan Katz, University of Bridgeport Candice Larson, Moorpark College Robert M. Ogles, Purdue University jeff,South: Virginia Commonwealth University Emily Chivers Yochim, Allegheny College
And, as always a big th ks II . . another cd'r 'Y' .. an to a the people at McGraw-Hili on publishing yet
I Ion. Ice PreSident Editorial Michael Ryan, Sponsoring Editor Susan
Preface
------- The Dynamics of Mass Communkatlon. 12th Edition
Preface
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Coutjnstook, Marketing Manager Leslie Oberhuber, Julia Akpan for her comprehen- sive editorial development, Director of Development Rhona Robbin, Production Editor Holly Irish, Media Project Manager Jennifer Barrick, Photo Researcher David A. Tietz, and Designer Preston Thomas.
The Audience As most instructors will attest, the introductory course in mass communication attracts two types of students. One type is interested in following a professional career in some form of media (a career path made even more challenging by the current market con- ditions). This student wants to know the nuts and bolts of the media-how they are organized, how they work, who does what, and what career possibilities are out there. The second type of student will probably never pursue a career in the media but will become a member of the audience and consume a great deal of media content. These students are more interested in analyzing and understanding how the media operate and what impact they have on society. To use an overworked expression, they want to become "media literate."
An original goal of the first edition of Dynamics was to present an up-to-date, detailed, and comprehensive look at contemporary media that would benefit aspir- ing media professionals and at the same time provide a useful foundation for those who will end up in other careers. A second goal was to help both students and faculty understand and appreciate the fast-changing world of mass communication a little bet- ter. As has been the case 11 times before, it is hoped that this new edition still fulfills both of those goals.
Joseph R. Dominick Dacula, Georgia
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283
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284 Principles of Communication
Media In Transition: Where we were, where we are, where we're going.
Media today change in the blink of an eye, and being tuned into cur- rent and emerging media trends is crucial to becoming a savvy media consumer and-increasingly-a media producer as well.
The Dynamics of Mass Communication provides a forward-rooking approach while continuing to supply critical infer- mation about the foundation on which the current media empires were built.
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Chapter Opening
previews identify key goals for each chapter through learning objectives, while timely vignettes set the stage for what's to come.
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Media Talk
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